BPDSC-1 Mechanics - Final

KARNATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY
Mukthagangothri, Mysuru – 570 006
B.Sc. PHYSICS
(FIRST SEMESTER)
Course: BPDSC-1
MECHANICS
B.Sc. PHYSICS
FIRST SEMESTER
Course: BPDSC- 1
MECHANICS
i
Programme Name: B.Sc. Physics Year/Semester: I Semester
Course Code: BPDSC-1 Course Name: Mechanics
Credit: 4 Unit Number : 1-12
COURSE DESIGN COMMITTEE
Dr. Vidyashankar S. Chairman
Vice Chancellor
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangothri, Mysuru-570006
Prof. Ashok Kamble Member
Dean (Academic)
Mr. S. V. Niranjana Course coordinator
Assistant Professor & Chairman
DoS in Physics, KSOU, Mukthagangothri, Mysuru-06
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
1. Prof. N. K. Lokanath Chairman
DoS & R in Physics
University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru-06
2. Prof. S. Krishnaveni External Subject Expert

DoS & R in Physics
University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru-06
3. Mr. S. V. Niranjana Convener

4. Assistant Professor & Chairman
DoS in Physics
KSOU, Mukthagangothri, Mysuru-06
COURSE WRITERS
Dr. Chandra Block 1 and Block 2
Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, (Unit 1 to Unit 8)
The National Institute of Engineering,
Mananthavadi Road, Mysuru -08
Mr. Harisha Kumar. K. Block 3
(Unit 9 to Unit 12)
Assistant Professor
Department of Physics, University college of
Science, Tumkur University, Tumkur.
ii
COURSE EDITOR
Mr. Sunil Kumar. K.C.
Assistant Professor
PG Department of Physics
JSS College of Arts, Commerce and Science (Autonomous)., Ooty Road, Mysuru
COPYRIGHT
The Registrar
Developed by the Department of Studies in Physics under the guidance of Dean
(Academic), KSOU, Mysuru.
Karnataka State Open University, 2022.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Karnataka State Open University.
Further information on the Karnataka State Open University Programmes may be obtained from
the University’s Office at Mukthagangothri, Mysuru – 570 006.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No
BLOCK -A
Vectors: Scalars and vectors, vector algebra, scalar and vector products,
derivatives of a vector with respect to a parameter, vector integration: line, 4-20
Unit-1
surface and volume integrals of vector fields, Gauss-divergence theorem and
Stokes’s theorem of vectors (statement only).
Ordinary Differential Equations: 1st order homogeneous differential
Unit-2 equations, 2nd order homogeneous differential equations with constant 21-36
coefficients.
Frames of reference: frames of reference, inertial reference frames with
examples, uniform rectilinear motion in an inertial frame, Galilean
Unit-3 transformation equations, Galilean principle of relativity, motion in a non- 37-49
inertial frame of reference, qualitative discussion of centrifugal force, Coriolis
force and earth as a non-inertial frame.
Special theory of relativity: postulates of Special Theory of Relativity, length
Unit-4 50-60
contraction, time dilation, twin paradox, relativistic addition of velocities.
BLOCK –B
Motion of a point particle: point mass, the position vector of a moving

point particle and its cartesian components, velocity and acceleration as the
Unit-5 vector derivatives, derivation of planar vector of a constant magnitude, radial 61-73
and transverse components of velocity and acceleration for arbitrary planar
motion, deduction of results for uniform circular motion centripetal force.
Conservation of linear momentum: conservation of the linear
momentum for a system of two particles, rocket motion in a uniform
Unit-6 gravitational field (single stage rocket equation with and without gravity), 74-87
elastic and inelastic collisions, elastic head-on collision and elastic oblique
collision in a lab frame, reduced mass.
Conservation of angular momentum: review of angular momentum and
torque, relation between angular momentum and torque, law of
Unit-7 88-105
conservation of angular momentum, areal velocity derivation, central
force: Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, satellite in circular orbit and
iv
applications, geosynchronous orbits, weightlessness, basic idea of global
positioning system (GPS).
Conservation of energy: work and energy, conservative force and non-
conservative forces with examples, conservation of energy in a
Unit-8 conservative force field, Applications: (i) vertical oscillations of a loaded 106-119
light spiral spring and (ii) calculation of escape velocity in the
gravitational field of the earth.
BLOCK – C
Rigid body dynamics: Review of definitions, moment of inertia and

radius of gyration, review of statements of the theorems of the parallel and
Unit-9 perpendicular axes, expression for kinetic energy of a rigid body, 120-140
calculation of moment of inertia of rectangular lamina and circular lamina,
theory of compound pendulum.
Elasticity: Concepts of moduli of elasticity, Hooke’s law and Poisson’s
ratio σ, relation between the elastic constants q, k, n and σ, limiting values
Unit-10 for σ, work done in stretching, elastic potential energy, bending moment, 141-164
theory of light single cantilever, torsion- calculation of couple per unit
twist, torsional pendulum, static torsion.
Fluid Mechanics: Viscosity- basic concepts, variation of viscosity of
liquids with temperature and pressure, rate flow of liquid in a capillary
Unit-11 165-176
tube - Poiseuille’s formula - determination of coefficient of viscosity of a
liquid, Stokes’ formula.
Surface Tension: Basic concepts, pressure inside curved liquid surface,
examples, surface tension and interfacial tension by drop-weight method,
Unit-12 177-189
surface tension of mercury by Quincke’s method, variation of surface tension
with temperature.
v
PRELUDE
Mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the relationships between force, matter, and
motion among physical objects. When force is applied to objects, it results in displacements, or
changes in the object's position relative to its surroundings.
There are two main types of mechanics: Classical mechanics and Quantum mechanics.
Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of
machinery, and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies; while
quantum mechanics, which is the more modern of the two, deals with the study of the behaviour
of matter and light on the atomic and subatomic scale.
In this course a comprehensive introduction to the mechanics (classical) has been given.
The first block starts with basic mathematics required for the understanding the concepts of
mechanics. Then the fundamental concepts like frames of reference, Galilean transformation are
discussed. The block ends with introducing the students to Special Theory of Relativity.
In the second block the motion of a point particle and the basic conservation laws in mechanics
i.e., conservation of linear and angular momentum, energy are deliberated in detail.
In the first two units of third block, a detailed elucidation about the rigid body dynamics and
elasticity is given. Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of
fluids (liquids, gases) and the forces on them. It finds applications in a wide range of disciplines
like mechanical, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering etc. The last two units of the third
block of this course deal with the basic concepts of fluid mechanics namely fluid mechanics and
surface tension.
vi
Semester-I B.Sc. Physics KSOU
Contents
1 Unit 1: Vectors 4
1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Vector addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Product of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.4 Scalar product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.5 Vector product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Vector integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.1 Line integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.2 Surface integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.3 Volume integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Gauss-divergence theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Stokes theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Check your progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8 Key words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.9 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.10 Questions for self-study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.11 Answers to check your progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 Unit-2: Ordinary Differential Equations 21

2.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 1st order homogeneous differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1 Initial value problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 2nd order homogeneous differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.1 Initial value problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5 Linear equations with constant coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Key words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.8 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Unit-3: Frames of reference 37

3.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Frames of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.1 Inertial reference frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 Uniform rectilinear motion in an inertial frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4 Galilean transformation equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4.1 Galilean principle of relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.5 Non-inertial frame of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1
3.6 Centrifugal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.7 Coriolis force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.7.1 Check your progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.8 Key words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.9 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4 Unit-4: Special Theory of Relativity 50

4.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4 Length contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5 Time dialation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.6 Twin Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.7 Relativistic addition of velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.9 Key words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.10 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5 Unit-5: Motion of a point particle 61

5.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.2 Position vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.2.1 Invariance of the magnitude of a vector on rotation of the cartesian
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.3 Velocity and Acceleration as the vector derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4 Radial and transverse components of velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.4.1 Two dimensional components of velocity in cartesian coordinate system 66
5.5 Uniform circular motion centripetal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.7 Key words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.8 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6 Unit-6: Conservation of linear momentum 74

6.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3 Conservation of linear momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.4 Rocket motion in a uniform gravitational field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.5 Elastic and Inelastic collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.5.1 Elastic head-on collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.6 Elastic oblique collision in a lab frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.7 Reduced mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2
6.7.1 Motion of a reduced mass under inverse square force . . . . . . . . . 84

6.9 Key words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.10 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7 Unit-7: Conservation of angular momentum 88

7.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.2 Angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.3 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.4 Relation between angular momentum and torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.5 Law of conservation of angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.6 Areal velocity and motion of a particle under the action of a cental force . . 92
7.7 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.8 Satellite in circular orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.8.1 Time period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.9 Geosynchronous orbits or Geostationay orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.10 Weightlessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.11 Global positioning system (GPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.12 Chech your progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.13 Key words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.14 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.17 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8 Unit-8: Conservation of energy 106

8.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.3 Concepts of Work and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.3.1 Kinetic energy-Work energy principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.3.2 Potential energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.4 Conservative force and Non-conservative forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.5 Conservation of energy in a conservative force field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.5.1 Conservation theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.6 Vertical oscillations of a loaded light spiral spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.7 Escape velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.7.1 Escape velocity from the solar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.9 Key words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.10 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3
1 Unit 1: Vectors
1.1 Objectives
After studying this unit, the student shall be able to,
Distinguish between a scalar and a vector also apply dot or cross product to determine
angles between vectors
Recognise the statements of Gauss-divergence theorem and Stokes theorem to under-

stand how they are generalisation of the fundamental theorem of calculus
Describe the surface, volume and line integral of a vector field and use these integrals
to solve applied problems
1.2 Introduction
Some physical quantities such as displacement, velocity, force and acceleration are charac-
terized by both magnitude and direction. To describe such quantities, we introduce the
concept of a vector as directed line segment. Such quantities are called vectors. Also,
the quantities such as temperature, distance, speed, mass, etc have a magnitude but no
direction. Such quantities are called scalars.
Since, the scalar has no direction, the magnitude or measure of a scalar quantity is
quite independent of any coordinate system. In other words, the coordinate system is
not required at all. All such quantities are however obey the ordinary algebraical laws of
addition, multiplication, and law of commutation. According to which the result of addition
or multiplication of number of scalars is quite independent of the order in which they may
be taken. For example,
A+B =B+A
and
A×B =B×A
Law of association: According to which the sum of the product of a finite number
of scalars is quite independent of the manner in which they may be grouped or associated.
Thus,
A + B + C = (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) = (A + C) + B
similarly,
A × (B × C) = (A × B) × C = (A × C)B
This indicate that in the case of continuous sums and products the brackets are really
superfluous.
Law of distribution: Which states that in expressions involving both addition and
multiplication, the result is the same as the sum of the individual term-wise products. For
example,
4
A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C
(A + B) × C = A × C + B × C
Because vectors are characterized by both magnitude and direction, they are represented
geometrically in two or three dimensional space as directed line segments or arrows. The
length of the arrow corresponds to the magnitude of the vector while the direction of the
arrow corresponds to the direction of the vector. The tail of the arrow is called the initial
point of the vector while the tip of the arrow is called the terminal point of the vector.
If the vector ~a has the point A as its initial point and the point B as its terminal point
we will write ~a = AB. Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and direction.
Two vectors A~ and B,

~ which have the same length and same direction, are said to be
equal vectors even though they have different initial points and different terminal points.
~ and B
If A ~ are equal vectors we write A
~ = B.
~
Similarly, vector having direction opposite to that of vector A but having the same
magnitude is denoted by −A
5
1.3 Vector Algebra

Two primary operations involving vectors are vector addition and scalar multiplication.
Basically, a scalar is a real number if we want to draw attention to its differences from
vectors. Also, scalars can be positive, negative or zero and are used to scale a vector by
multiplication. We add vectors by adding the corresponding components of the vectors. We
multiply a vector by a scalar by multiplying each component by the scalar.
1.3.1 Vector addition

~ and B
If A ~ are the two vectors and C~ be the resultant vector, then sum or resultant vectors
are formed by placing the initial point of B on the terminal point of A and then joining the
initial point of A to the terminal point of B.
~+B
A ~ =C
~
1.3.2 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Let ~a be a given vector and α a scalar. Then the product of the vector by the scalar α,
denoted as α~a , is called the multiplication of vector ~a by the scalar α. Note that, α is also
a vector, collinear to the vector ~a. The vector α~a has the direction same or opposite to
that of vector ~a according as the value of α is positive or negative. Also, the magnitude of
vector α~a is |α| times the magnitude of the vector ~a , i.e.,
α~a = |α||~a|
A geometric visualisation of multiplication of a vector by a scalar is shown in figure
When α = −1, then α~a = −~a , which is a vector having magnitude equal to the
magnitude of ~a and direction opposite to that of the direction of ~a. The vector −~a is called
the negative or additive inverse of vector ~a and we can write,
6
~a + (−~a) = (−~a) + ~a = ~0
1
Also, if α = |~a| , provided ~a 6= 0 i.e, ~a is a null vector, then
1
|α~a| = |α||~a| = |~a|
|~a|
So, α~a represents the unit vector in the direction of ~a. We write it as,
1
â = ~a
|~a|
Unit vectors: The vectors having unit length are called unit vectors. Suppose A is any
A
vector with length |A| >= 0. Then |A| is a unit vector, denoted by a, which has the same
direction as A. Also, any vector A may be represented by a unit vector a in the direction
of A multiplied by the magnitude of A. That is, A = |A|a.
Suppose, |A| = 3, then a = A/3 is a unit vector in the direction of A. Also, A = 3a
1.3.3 Product of Two Vectors

Multiplication of two vectors is defined in two ways, scalar or dot product and vector or
cross product.
In scalar product the results are in a scalar, where as in vector product the results are
in vector. Based upon these two types of products for vectors, they have found various
applications in geometry, mechanics and engineering.
1.3.4 Scalar product

The dot or scalar product (also referred to as the direct product) of two vectors A and B,
denoted by A · B, is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of
their included angle θ.
A · B = |A||B| cos θ
or
~·B
A ~ = |A||
~ B|~ cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
where, θ is the angle between vectors A and B

The important observations on scalar product are,
7
1. If the two vectors A and B, have the same direction, θ = 0, then the scalar product,
A · B = |A||B|
i.e., the scalar product is equal to the product of the magnitude of the two vectors.
Also, if A = B, then A2 = |A|2 , i.e., the square of a vector is equal to the square of
its magnitude.
2. If two vectors A and B have opposite directions, θ = π, then the scalar product,
A · B = −|A||B|
i.e., the scalar product is equal to the negative product of their magnitudes.
3. The scalar product obeys the distributive law. This may be seen from the following,
In figure, the scalar product of vector A and the resultant (B + C) of B and C is
given by,
A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C
this clearly showing that the distributive law holds good.
4. The distributive law also enables us to obtain an expression for the scalar product of
two vectors in terms of their rectangular components. Suppose, A ~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
and B~ = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂, where î, ĵ and k̂ are mutually perpendicular, then
~·B
A ~ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
~ and B
i.e., the scalar product of two vectors A ~ are equal to the sum of the products
of their corresponding rectangular components.
We know that,
~·B
A ~ = |A||
~ B|~ cos θ
we have angle θ between the two vectors given by the relation,
8
Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
cos θ = q q
A2x + A2y + A2z Bx2 + By2 + Bz2
~ = B,
Further if A ~ we have
~·A
A ~ = Ax Ax + Ay Ay + Az Az = A2x + A2y + A2z
i.e., the square of a vector is equal to the sum of the squares of its rectangular com-
ponents.
5. If A and B are two vectors and m is a scalar. Then it holds good commutative law
for scalar product i. e., A · B = B · A. Also, if A · B = 0 and A and B are null vectors,
then A and B are perpendicular.
1.3.5 Vector product

The vector product also called as the outer product of two vectors A ~ and B
~ is denoted by
~ ~
A × B. It is therefore, also called the cross product of the two vectors.
The vector product may also be denoted as [A, ~ B].
~ It is definied as a vector whose
modulus or magnitude is equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors A ~ and
~ ~ ~
B and the sine of their included angle θ. This vector R is normal to the plane of A and
~ and points in the direction in which a right handed screw would advance when rotated
B
~ and B
about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors in the direction from A ~
through the smaller angle θ between them as shown in figure.
Also, we might state the rule as ”If the fingers of the right hand be curled in the direction
in which vector A ~ must be turned through the smaller included angle θ to coincide with
~ the thumb points in the direction of R,
the direction of vector B, ~ as shown in figure. These
rules are referred to as the right-handed screw rule. Thus, if n̂ be the unit vector which
~ we have
gives the direction of vector R,
~ =A
R ~×B
~ = AB
~ sin θn̂, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 1800 or π
The important observations on vector product are,
9
~ cannot be negative and clearly,

1. Since 0 ≥ θ ≥ π, sin θ and therefore |R|
~×B
A ~
sin θ =
~ B|
|A|| ~
2. A change in the order of factors A~ and B~ in the cross product obviously reverses its
sign on account of the sense of rotation of the screw as shown in figure. So that, the
cross product is,
~ ×A
B ~ = −A
~×B
~ = −R
~ = −AB sin θn̂
Above equation indicating that the vector product is not commutative.
~ and B)
3. If the two vectors (A ~ be collinear or parallel, θ = 0 or π and therefore sin θ = 0,
so that
~×B
A ~ = AB sin θn̂ = 0
It follows at once that A ~×A ~ = 0, indicating that the vector product of two parallel
or equal vectors is zero and therefore the vector product of a vector with its ownself
is zero. Similarly, in the case of orthogonal triad of unit veciors, we have
î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0
Conversely, if the vector product A~×B ~ = 0, we have AB sin θn̂ = 0 either A ~ = 0 or

~
B = 0 or sin θ = 0 and therefore θ = 0 or π i.e., either one of the vectors is a null or
zero vector or the two vectors are parallel to each other.
~ and B)
4. If the two vectors (A ~ be orthogonal or perpendicular to each other, we have
π ~×B
θ = 900 or 2 and therefore, sin θ = 1. Thus, A ~ = AB n̂
The vectors A,~ B~ and (A ~ × B)

~ thus form a right handed system of mutually perpen-
dicular vectors. It follows at once from the above that in the case of the orthogonal
triad of unit vectors, î, ĵ and k̂ (each perpendidular to the other), we have
10
î × ĵ = −ĵ × î = k̂; ĵ × k̂ = −k̂ × ĵ = î and k̂ × î = −î × k̂ = ĵ
5. If Â and Â are unit vectors, we have A = B = 1 and therefore,
Â × B̂ = AB sin θn̂ = sin θ
i.e., the magnitude of Â × B̂ is the sine of the angle of inclination of the two.
1.4 Vector integration

1.4.1 Line integrals
Suppose r(u) = x(u)i + y(u)j + z(u)k is the position vector P (x, y, z). Let r(u) defines a
curve C joining points P1 and P2 where u = u1 and u = u2 , respectively.
We assume that C is composed of a finite number of curves for each of which r(u) has a
continuous derivative. Suppose A(x, y, z) A1 i + A2 j + A3 k be a vector function of position
defined and continuous along C. Then the integral of the tangential component of A along
C from P1 to P2 , written as
ˆP2 ˆ ˆ
A · dr = A · dr = (A1 dx + A2 dy + A3 dz)
P1 C C
The above equation is an example of a line integral. Let A be the force F on a particle
moving along C, this line integral represents the work done by the force. Suppose C is a
closed curve (which we shall suppose is a simple closed curve, i.e. a curve which does not
intersect itself anywhere) the integral around C is often denoted by,
˛ ˛
A · dr = (A1 dx + A2 dy + A3 dz)
C C
In aerodynamics and fluid mechanics this integral is called the circulation of A about
C, where A represents the velocity of a fluid.
In general, any integral which is to be evaluated along a curve is called a line integral.
Such integrals can be defined in terms of limits of sums as are the integrals of elementary
calculus.
Alternate method
Let dl be an element of length at a point on a smooth curve AB drawn in a vector field
~ as shown
and F~ , a continuous vector point function or vector, inclined at an angle θ to dl,
in figure, such that it continuously varies in magnitude as well as direction as we proceed
along the curve. Then, the integral
ˆB ˆB
~ =
F~ · dl F cos θdl
A A
11
The above equation is referred to as the line integral of vector F~ along the curve AB.
In terms of the components of F~ of along the three Cartesian coordinates, we have
ˆB ˆB
~ =
F~ · dl (Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz)
A A
´B
Here, ~ represents the total work done by the force during the motion of the
F~ · dl
A
particle over its entire path from A to B and particularly, F~ represents the force acting on
a particle moving along the curve from A to B, the line integral. Also, the value of the line
integral depends only upon the location of the two points in the vector field and not upon
the actual path taken between them, the vector field is referred to as a conservative field.
1.4.2 Surface integrals

Let S be a two-sided surface, such as shown in the figure below. Let one side of S be
considered arbitrarily as the positive side (If S is a closed surface, such as a sphere, then
the outer side is considered the positive side). A unit normal n to any point of the positive
side of S is called a positive or outward drawn unit normal.
Associate with the differential of surface area dS a vector dS whose magnitude is dS
12
and whose direction is that of n. Then dS = ndS. The integral

¨ ¨
A · dS = A · ndS
S S
is an example of a surface integral called the flux of A over S. Other surface integrals
are
¨ ¨ ¨
φ · dS, φ ndS, A × dS
S S S
where φ is a scalar function. Such integrals can be defined in terms of limits of sums as
in elementary calculus.
!
The notation is sometimes used to indicate integration over the closed surface S.
S ¸
where no confusion can arise the notation may also be used.
To evaluate surface integrals, it is convenient to express them as double integrals taken
over the projected area of the surface S on one of the coordinate planes. This is possible
if any line perpendicular to the coordinate plane chosen meets the surface in no more than
one point. However, this does not pose any real problem since we can generally subdivide
S into surfaces that do satisfy this restriction.
~
˜ If F represents the electric or magnetic induction at the point P , the surface integral
F~ dS
~ represents the total normal induction over the surface. Also, if the surface S be
S
drawn over a region of a moving or a flowing˜ fluid such that its velocity ~v varies from point
~ gives the value rate of flow of the fluid
to point the surface integral of ~v , such that ~v dS
across the surface.
1.4.3 Volume integrals

Suppose we have a surface enclosing a region of volume V and that F~ is a vector
˝ point
~ of the region. Then, the integral
function at a point in a small element dV F~ dV
~,
V
covering the entire region is called the volume integral of vector over the surface. Then the
following expression indicates the volume integrals or also called space integrals.
˚ ˚
A dV and φ dV
V V
In terms of the Cartesian components, the volume integrals can be rewritten as

˚ ˚ ˚ ˚
~ ~
EdV = î V̂ Fx dxdydz + ĵ V̂ Fy dxdydz + k̂ V̂ Fz dxdydz
V
1.5 Gauss-divergence theorem

The theorem states that the normal surface integral of a function F~ over the boundary of
a closed surface S (i.e.the flux across S) is equal to the volume integral of the divergence
of the function over the volume V enclosed by the surface, i.e., flux is given by
13
¨ ˚ ˚
F~ .dS
~= V̂ div F~ .dV = ~ F~ )
V̂ (∇.
S
From the elementary calculus it is clear that the value of the definite integral of a
continuous function f (x) on a closed interval [a, b] can be obtained from the anti-derivative
of the function evaluated on the end points a and b (boundary) of the interval.
There is an analogous situation in the plane and space. That is, there is a relationship
between a double integral over certain regions R in the plane, and a line integral over the
boundary of the region R. Similarly, there is a relationship between the volume integral
over certain volumes V in space and the double integral over the surface of the boundary
of V .
Suppose V is the volume bounded by a closed surface S and A is a vector function of

position with continuous derivatives. Then
˚ ¨ "
∇ · AdV = A · ndS = A · dS
V S S
where n is the positive (outward drawn) normal to S.
1.6 Stokes theorem

Stokes theorem states that the line integral of a vector field around any closed curve is equal
to the normal surface integral of the curl of A taken over any surface S of which curve C
forms the contour or the boundary.
Stokes theorem generalizes Green’s theorem to three dimensions. The circulation curl
form of Green’s theorem relates the counter clockwise circulation of a vector field around a
simple closed curve C in the xy-plane to a double integral over the plane region R enclosed
by C. Stokes theorem relates the circulation of a vector field around the boundary C of
an oriented surface S in space (as shown in figure) to a surface integral over the surface S.
We require that the surface be piecewise smooth, which means that it is a finite union of
smooth surfaces joining along smooth curves.
Suppose S is an open, two-sided surface bounded by a closed, non intersecting curve
C (simple closed curve), and suppose A is a vector function of position with continuous
derivatives. Then
14
˛ " "
A · dr = (∇ × A) · ndS = (∇ × A) · dS
C S S
where C is traversed in the positive direction.

The direction of C is called positive if an observer walking on the boundary of S in that
direction with his head pointing in the direction of the positive normal to S has the surface
on his left.
1.7 Check your progress

1. State which of the following are scalars and which are vectors:
(a) specific heat (b) momentum (c) distance (d) magnetic field intensity
2. The value if i · i and i · k are −−− and −−−
3. Suppose A × B = 0 and A and B are not zero, then
(a) A is parallel to B (b) A is perpendicular to B (c) A is equal to B (d) A is

not equal B
4. The component of a vector is
(a) Always less than its magnitude (b) Always greater than its magnitude (c)
Always equal to its magnitude (d) None of these
5. A line integral and surface integral is related to
(a) Velocity addition theorem (b) Gauss-divergence theorem (c) Stokes theorem
(d) None of these
1.8 Key words

Scalars, vectors, vector algebra, vector integration
15
1.9 Solved Problems

1. Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors, p̄ = 3î + ĵ − 5k̂ and
q̄ = 2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂
Soln :
The sum of the given vectors is,
p̄ + q̄ = ā(Say)
ā = 5î + 3ĵ − 2k̂
p √
|ā| = 52 + 32 + 22 = 38
Thus, the required unit vector is
1
â = ~a
|~a|
1
â = √ (5î + 3ĵ − 2k̂)
38
5 3 2
â = √ î + √ ĵ − √ k̂
38 38 38
2. Show that the curl of the gradient of a scaler function φ is equal to zero.
Soln :
~ of the function along a closed loop
We know that the line integral of the gradient ∇φ
is zero, i.e.
ˆ
~
∇φ.dl =0
loop
Now in accordance with stokes theorem, this line integral of the vector ∇φ ~ along a
closed loop is equal to the surface integral of the curl of the vector over the surface S
bounded by the loop, i.e.,
˛ ¨
~
∇φ.dl = ~ × (∇φ).d
∇ ~ ~
S
S
˜
It follows that the integral ~ × (∇φ).d
Ŝ ∇ ~ S~ = 0 over any surface. And, since the
integral is zero, the integrand must-necessarily be zero. i.e.,
~ × ∇φ
∇ ~ =0
This indicates that curl of the gradient of a scaler function φ is equal to zero
16
~ = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂, Y
3. If X ~ = 2î + ĵ + k̂and Z
~ = î − 3ĵ − 2k̂ are the vectors, find the
magnitude and direction cosines of the vector X~ +Y ~ + Z.
~
Soln :
The sum of vectors are given by,
~ =X
R ~ +Y
~ +Z
~
~ = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂ + 2î + ĵ + k̂ + î − 3ĵ − 2k̂

R
~ = 4î − 3k̂
R
Therefore,
R~a = 4î, R
~b = 0 and R
~c = −3k̂
Hence magnitude,
p
~ = |R|
R ~ = 42 + 02 + 32 = 5
~ will be,
Direction cosines of R
Rx 4 Ry 0 Rz −3
p= = , q= = = 0 and r = =
R 5 R 5 R 5
4. Suppose A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k. Prove that A · B =

A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3 .
Soln :
We know that, i · i = j · j = k · k = 1 and all other dot products are zero, we have
A · B = (A1 i + A2 j + A3 k) · (B1 i + B2 j + B3 k)
A1 i · (B1 i + B2 j + B3 k) + A2 j · (B1 i + B2 j + B3 k) + A3 k · (B1 i + B2 j + B3 k)
A1 B1 i·i+A1 B2 i·j+A1 B3 i·k+A2 B1 j·i+A2 B2 j·j+A2 B3 j·k+A3 B1 k·i+A3 B2 k·j+A3 B3 k·k
A · B = A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3
17
~ = 2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂ and B

5. If A ~ = 6î − 3ĵ + 2k̂ are the two vectors, find the angle between
the vectors.
Soln :
Let θ be the angle between the two vectors, then
~·B
A ~ = AB cos θ
or
~·B
A ~
cos θ =
AB
Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
cos θ = q q
A2x + A2y + A2z Bx2 + By2 + Bz2
12 12
cos θ = √ √ = √
17 49 7 17
θ = 65.450
6. Verify Stokes theorem F~ = x(îx + îy) for the functions integrated round the square
in the plane z = 0, whose sides are along the lines x = 0, y = 0, x = a, y = a.
Soln :
From the figure we have,

˛ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
F~ .dI~ + F~ .dI~ + F~ .dI~ + F~ .dI~ + F~ .dI~
O OA AB BC CO
where,
18
ˆ â â
1
F~ .dI~ = x(îx + îy).îdx = x2 dx = a3
3
OA 0 0
ˆ â â
1
F~ .dI~ = x(îx + îy).ĵdy = aydy = a3
2
AB 0 0
ˆ â â
1
F~ .dI~ = x(îx + ĵy).îdx = − x2 dx = − a3
3
BC 0 0
and
ˆ â
F~ .dI~ = x(îx + ĵy).ĵdy = 0
CO 0
So that,
˛
1 1 1 1
F~ .dI~ = a3 + a3 − a3 + 0 = a3
3 2 3 2
C
Now, in accordance with Stokes theorem,

˛ ¨
F~ .dI~ = curlF~ .dS
~
C S
Since, curl x(îx + ĵy) = k̂y we have
¨ ¨ â â
curl F~ .dS
~= curl x(îx + ĵy)dS = k̂y.k̂d xdy
S S 0 0
â â
1
= ydxdy = a3
2
0 0
Thus, Stokes theorem verified.
1.10 Questions for self-study

1. Define scalar and vector products of two vectors. If î, ĵ, k̂ are unit vectors along x, y
and z axes respectively, show that î · î = 1 and î · ĵ = 0
2. Show that vectors A = 2î + 3ĵ4k̂ and B = 5î + 2ĵ + 4k̂ are perpendicular to each
other.
19
~ B
3. Deduce the condition for the coplanarity of three vectors A, ~ and C.
~
4. Find the angle between A = 2i + 2j − k and B = 7i + 24k.
5. Suppose A = −i + j + k, B = i − j + k and C = i + j − k. Find: (a) (A × B) × C and

(b) A × (B × C).
6. What is meant by the scalar product of two vectors? Show that it is commutative as
well as distributive.
7. What is meant by line and surface integrals? State Gausss theorm.Stokes theorem.
8. State Gauss divergence theorm and Stokes theorem.
9. Verify Stokes theorem F~ = x(îx + îy) for the functions integrated round the square
in the plane z = 0, whose sides are along the lines x = 0, y = 0, x = a, y = a.
10. Show that the curl of the gradient of a scaler function φ is equal to zero.
1.11 Answers to check your progress

1. (a), (c) scalar product and (b), (d) vector product
2. 1 and 0
3. A is parallel to B
4. (d) None of these
5. (c) Stokes theorem
1.12 References
1. Seymour Lipschutz, Dennis Spellman and Murray R. Spiegel, 2nd Edn., Vector Anal-
ysis, Mc Graw Hill. (2009).
2. Mathur D S, Elements of Properties of Matter, S Chand and Company (2007).
3. Shankara Narayana S R, Mechanics and Properties of Matter, 2nd Revised Edn.,

Sultan Chand and Sons (1998).
20
2 Unit-2: Ordinary Differential Equations

2.1 Objectives
Recognise and solve 1st order linear homogeneous differential equations and some
initial conditions
Apply the fundamental concepts to solve 1st order and 2nd order homogeneous dif-
ferential equations
Analyze mathematical models using first order differential equations to solve applica-
tion problems.
2.2 Introduction
A large variety of scientific problems arise in which one tries to determine something from its
rate of change. For example, we could try to compute the position of a moving particle from
a knowledge of its velocity or acceleration or a radioactive substance may be disintegrating
at a known rate and we may be required to determine the amount of material present after
a given time. These type of examples we are trying to determine an unknown function from
prescribed information expressed in the form of an equation involving at least one of the
derivatives of the unknown function. These equations are called diffrential equations and
their study forms one of the most challenging branches of mathematics.
Differential equations are classified under two main headings: ordinary and partial equa-
tions depending on whether the unknown is a function of just one variable or of two or more
variables. A simple example of an ordinary differential equation is given by
f 0 (x) = f (x)
which is satisfied in particular by the exponential function f (x) = ex . We shall see
presently that every solution of the above equation must be of the form f (x) = Cex , where
C may be any constant.
A diffential equation is an equation which involves differential co-efficient. An ordi-
nary differential equation which involves only the independent variable and differential
co-efficients with respect to it. Also, the order of differential equation is the degree of the
highest differential co-efficient which appears in it. For example, a diffential equation,
dy
+ kx = 0
dx
The above diffential equation is of first order. Similarly,
d2 y
+ 2y = ex
dx2
The above differential equation is of second order. The solution of a differential equation
in which the number arbitrary constants is equal to the order differential equalion is called
the general solution.
21
An ordinary differential equation is that which involves only one independent variable
and differential co-efficients with respect to it. For example, the second order differential
equation is given by,
d2 y dy
2
+ +y =0
dx dx
Similarly, the degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest differential
coefficients which appears in it, when the differential coefficients are free from radicals and
fractional powers
d2 y dy
2
+5 + 6y = 0
dx dx
For the above differential equation order is 2 and degree is 1. Let us consider an example
to find order and degree of a differential equation
s 2
dy dy
y=x +a 1+
dx dx
or
s 2
dy dy
y−x =a 1+
dx dx
Squaring on both side, we get
2 " 2 #
dy 2 dy
y−x =a 1+
dx dx
dy
Which is of the first order and second degree. Therefore, higest degree of dx is 2
2.3 1st order homogeneous differential equations

A differential equation of the form,
y 0 = P (x)y = Q(x)
where P and Q are given functions, is called a first order linear differential equation. The
terms involving the unknown function y and its derivative y appear as a linear combination
of y and y 0 . The functions P and Q are assumed to be continuous on some open interval I.
First we consider the special case in which the right hand side quantity Q(x) is identically
zero, the equation becomes
y 0 = P (x)y = 0
is called the homogeneous or reduced equation.
Let us consider a differential equation of order 1 and degree 1
M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0

Therefore,
22
dy M (x, y)
=−
dx N (x, y)
This equation is called homogeneous equation only if M (x, y) and N (x, y) are homoge-
neous functions of same order. So, first let us check powers of each term. If the powers of
each term of the diiferential equations are same, then the differential equation is homoge-
neous. Let us consider,
f (x, y) = 2xy + x2
f (tx, ty) = 2t2 xy + t2 x2
f (tx, ty) = t2 (2xy + x2 )

or
f (tx, ty) = t2 f (x, y)

Variable separable: Bring all the terms of x and dx on one side, all the terms of y
and dy on other side and integrate both sides and add arbitrary constant on one side,
If M (x, y) = f (x) and N (x, y) = g(y), then
M dx + N dy = 0
f (x)dx + g(y)dy = 0
or
g(y)dy = −f (x)dx
Method of solving: Let us consider,
dy y
=−
dx x
Integrate on both side, we get
ˆ ˆ
1 1
dy = − dx
y x
ln y = −ln x + ln C
C
ln y = ln
x
or
C
y=
x
23
Similarly, let us consider the homogeneous equation,
dy f1 (x, y)
=
dx f2 (x, y)
where, f1 (x, y) and f2 (x, y) are homogeneous functions of the same degree in x and y.
Let, y = vx, so that,
dy dv
=v+x
dx dx
dy
Substitutes the values of y and dx in the given equation. Separate the variables v and
x, integrate both sides and add an arbitrary constant on one side, then substitute back the
value of v = xy
2.3.1 Initial value problems

Let us consider some initial value problems
xy
1. Solve the first order homogeneous equation y 0 = x2 −y 2
Let y = vx, then
dv
y0 = v + x
dx
dv x(vx)
v+x = 2
dx x − v 2 x2
dv v
v+x =
dx 1 − v2

dv 1
x =v −1
dx 1 − v2
3
dv v
x =v
dx 1 − v2
integrate on both sides, we get

ˆ ˆ
1 − v2 1
dv = dx + C
v3 x
ˆ ˆ ˆ
1 1 1
dv − dv = dx + C
v3 v x
1
− − ln v = ln x + C
2v 2
x2

x
− 2 − ln = ln x + C
2y y
24
x2

x
− 2 − ln =C
2y yx
or
x2
ln y = +C
2y 2
dy
2. Find the particular solution of a differential equation dx = xy , given that y(0) = 1
let,
dy x
=
dx y
ydy = xdx

ˆ ˆ
ydy = xdx
y2 x2
= + C − − − (1)
2 2
But, y(0) = 1 i.e., at x = 0 and y = 1. Therefore
1
=0+C
2
1
C=
2
Then equation (1) becomes,
y2 x2 1
= +
2 2 2
or
p
y= x2 + 1
dy
3. Find the particular solution of a differential equation dx = xy , given that y(1) = 2
let,
dy y
=
dx x
1 1
dy = dx
y x
25

ˆ ˆ
1 1
dy = dx
y x
ln y = ln x + ln C
y = xC
But, y(1) = 2, then the above equation becomes,
2=C
or
y = 2x
2.3.2 Applications
Schrodinger wave equation: We have the expression for schrodinger wave equation,
∂ψ
i~ = Ĥψ = Eψ
∂t
∂ψ
i~ = Eψ
∂t
or
ˆ
1 E
∂ψ = ∂t
ψ i~
iE
ln ψ = − t + ln C
~

ψ iE
ln = e− ~ t
C
iE
ψ = Ce− ~
t
We have the initial condition, ψ(0) = ψ0 , therefore
ψ0 = C
iEn
ψn (t) = ψn (0)e− ~
t
For one dimensional potential box of infinite height, the wave function
r
2 πx
ψGS = sin
L L
26
at T = 0. where, L is width of the one dimensional potential box. Therefore,

iEn
ψn (t) = ψn (0)e− ~
t
r
2 πx − iE1 t
ψ(t) = sin e ~
L L
π 2 ~2
where, E1 = 2mL2
Newton’s law of cooling: Rate of cooling is directly proportional to the temperature

difference between the body and surroundings. Therefore,
dT
− ∝ (T − T0 )
dt
dT
− k(T − T0 )
dt
Integrate on both side, we get
ˆTf ˆ0
dT
= −k dt
(T − T0 )
Ti t
Tf

ln(T − T0 ) = −kt
Ti
ln(Tf − T0 ) − ln(Ti − T0 ) = −kt

Therefore,

Tf − T0
ln = −kt
Ti − T0
The above equation is called the Newton’s law of cooling
2.4 2nd order homogeneous differential equations

The homogeneous linear equation with constant coefficients was the first differential equa-
tion of a general type to be completely solved. A solution was first published by Euler in
1743. A general form of the second order differential equation can be taken as
f (D)y = R(x)
If R(x) = 0, we call the differential equation as homogeneous whose solution will have
only complementary functions. If R(x) 6= 0, we call the differential equation as non-
homogeneous whose solution will have both complementary functions and particular in-
tegral, wherein
f (D) = aD2 + bD + c
then the roots of the auxillary equations will be
27
√
b2 − 4ac
−b ±
λ=
2a
Case 1: If roots are real and distinct λ1 and λ2 ,
y = c1 eλ1 x + c2 eλ2 x
Case 2: If roots are real and equal to λ, then
y = (c1 + c2 )eλx
Case 3: If roots are complex, i.e, α ± iβ, then
y = eαx [c1 cos βx + c2 sin βx]
2.4.1 Initial value problems

Let us consider some examples
1. Solve y 00 + 11y 0 + 24y = 0 given that y(0) = 0 and y 0 (0) = −7
The roots are,

√
−11 ± 121 − 96 −11 ± 5
= = −3, −8
2 2
Therefore,
y = c1 e−3x + c2 e−8x
y 0 = −3c1 e−3x − 8c2 e−8x
For y(0) = 0,
c1 + c2 = 0
c− c1
Similarly, for y 0 (0) = −7
−3c1 − 8c2 = 7
−3c1 + 8c1 = 7
7 7
c1 = and c2 = −
5 5
28
Therefore,
7 7
y = e−3x − e−8x
5 5
2. Solve 3y 00 + 2y 0 − 8y = 0 given that y(0) = −6 and y 0 (0) = −18
The roots are,

p
−2 ± 4 + (4 · 8 · 3) 4
= −2,
6 3
Therefore,
y = c1 e−27 + c2 e4/3x
4
y 0 = −2c1 e27 + c2 e4/3x
3
For y(0) = −6,
c1 + c2 = −6
Similarly, for y 0 (0) = −18
4
−2c1 + c2 = −18
3
Then
2c1 + 2c2 = −12
4
−2c1 + c2 = −18
3
Subtacting, we get
10
c2 = −30
3
c2 = −9
c1 = 3
Therefore,
y = 3e−2x − 9e4/3x
29
If R(x) = e±ax :
In this case, f (D)y = e±ax ,

1 ±ax
y(P I) = e
f (D)
Method of solving: Put D = ±a, where D 6= 0 in the denomonator and secondly if

denominator is zero, multiply numerator with x and differentiate the denominator with
respect to D.
Examples:
1. (D2 − 4D + 4)y = e2x
Therefore,
1
y(P I) = e2x
(D2 − 4D + 4)
Where, denominator = 22 − 4(2) + 4 = 0, also
x
y(P I) = e2x
(2D − 4)
Where, denominator = 22 − 4 = 0, similarly,
x2 2x
y(P I) = e
2
Where, denominator 2 6= 0
2. (D3 − 1)y = 1
Therefore,
(D3 − 1)y = e0(x)
1
y(P I) = e0(x)
(D3 − 1)
1
y(P I) = e5x
6
Where, denominator = 52 − 5(5) + 6 = 6 6= 0
30
If R(x) = sin ax or cos ax :
In this case, f (D)y = sin ax

or
1
y(P I) = sin ax
f (D)
Method of solving: Put D2 = −a2 , where denominator 6= 0 and denominator must con-
tain D2 term, secondly if denominator is zero, multiply numerator with x and differentiate
the denominator with respect to D.
Examples:
1. (D2 + 9)y = sin 3x
Therefore,
1
y(P I) = sin 3x
(D2 + 9)
x
y(P I) = (sin 3x)
2D
Where, D2 = −32 , so that D2 + 9 = −32 + 9 = 0
Also,
xD
y(P I) = (sin 3x)
2D2
Where, D2 = −32 = −9 6= 0, hence
xD
y(P I) = (sin 3x)
2(−9)
1
y(P I) = − (3 cos 3x)
18
1
y(P I) = − (cos 3x)
6
2. (D2 + 4)y = cos 3x

Therefore,
1
y(P I) = cos 3x
(D2 + 4)
Where, D2 = −32 = −9, so that −9 + 4 6= 0
1
y(P I) = cos 3x
(−9 + 4)
1
y(P I) = − cos 3x
5
31
2.5 Linear equations with constant coefficients

A linear differential equations with constant coefficients is that in which the dependent
variable and its differential coefficients occur only in the first degree and are not multiplied
together and the coefficients are all constants. Thus the equation,
dn y dn−1 y dn−2 y
a0 + a1 + a2 + .... + an y = X
dxn dxn−1 dxn−2
where a0 , a1 , a2 , .... an are constants and X is any function of x is a linear differential
equation of nth order.
For first-order linear equations, we proved an existence-uniqueness theorem and de-
termined all solutions by an explicit formula. Although there is a corresponding existence
uniqueness theorem for the general second-order linear equation, there is no explicit formula
which gives all solutions, except in some special cases. The homogeneous linear equation
with constant coefficients was the first differential equation of a general type to be com-
pletely solved. A solution was first published by Euler in 1743.
Consider a homogeneous linear equation with constant coefficients as follows,
y 00 + ay 0 + by = 0
One solution is the constant function is y = 0. This is called the trivial solution but
non trivial solutions can be found by inspection. In all these cases, the coefficient of y 0 is
zero, and the equation has the form y 00 + by = 0.
Existence of solutions of the equation y 00 + by = 0
Example: The equation y 00 = 0. Here both coefficients a and b are zero, and we can
easily determine all solutions. Assume y is any function satisfying y 00 = 0 on (−∞, +∞).
Then its derivative y 0 is constant, say y 0 = c1 . Integrating this relation, we find that y
necessarily has the form,
y = c1 x + c2
where c1 and c2 are constants. Conversely, for any choice of constants c1 and c2 , the
linear polynomial y = c1 x + c2 satisfies y 00 = 0, So we have found all solutions in this case.
Reduction of the general equation to the special case y 00 + by = 0
The problem of solving a second-order linear equation with constant coefficients can be
reduced to that of solving the special cases. There is a method for doing this that also
applies to more general equations. The idea is to consider three functions y, u, and v such
that y = uv. Differentiation gives us y 0 = uv 0 + u0 v and y 00 = uv 00 + 2u0 v 0 + u00 v. Now we
express the combination y 00 + ay 0 + by in terms of u and v. We have,
y 00 + ay 0 + by = uv 00 + 2u0 v 0 + u00 v + a(uv 0 + u0 v) + buv − − − (1)
y 00 + ay 0 + by = (v 00 + av 0 + bv)u + (2v 0 + av)u0 + vu00

Next we choose v to make the coefficient of u0 zero. This requires that v 0 = −av/2, So
we may choose v = e−ax/2 . For this v, we have v 00 = −av/2 = a2 v/4, and the co-efficient of
u in equation (1) becomes,
32
a2 v a2 v 4b − a2
v 00 + av 0 + bv = − + bv = v
4 2 4
Thus, equation (1) reduces to,
4b − a2

00 0 00
y + ay + by = u + u v
4
Since v = e−ax/2 , the function v is never zero, So y satisfies the differential equation
y 00 + ay 0 + by = 0 if and only if u satisfies u00 + 41 (4b − a2 )u = 0.

1. The differential equation 2ydx − (3y − 2x)dy = 0 is −−−
d2 y dy
2. The order of the differential equation dx2
+ dx + y = 0 is
(a) 3 (b) 1 (3) 0 (4) 2
3. If the degree of all the terms in the equation is same the the equation is called −−−
d2 y dy
4. The degree of the differential equation dx2
+ dx + y = 0 is
(a) 3 (b) 1 (3) 0 (4) 2

d2 y dy
5. The solution of a second order linear differential equation dx2
− dx − 12y = 0 is −−−
2.7 Key words

1st order homogeneous differential equations, 2nd order homogeneous differential equations
2.8 Worked Examples

dy
1. Solve differential equation dx = 3x2 e−y given that y(0) = 1
Soln :
ˆ ˆ
y
e dy = 3x2 dx
3x3
ey = +C
3
At, x = 0 and y = 1, e = C. Therefore
e y = x3 + e
Take ln on both sides
y = ln(x3 + e)
33
dy y+1
2. Solve differential equation dx = x−1 given that y = 1 and x = 0
Soln :
ˆ ˆ
1 1
dy = dx
y+1 x−1
ln(y + 1) = ln(x − 1) + lnC
(y + 1) = C(x − 1)
At, x = 0 and y = 1, C = −2. Therefore
(y + 1) = −2(x − 1)
dy
3. Solve differential equation dx = xyex given that y(0) = 1
Soln :
ˆ ˆ
1
dy = xex dx
y
lny = xex − ex + C
At, x = 0 and y = 1,
ln(1) = 0 − 1 + C
C=1
Therefore the condition is satisfied for C = 1
4. Show that y = −(1+x) is solution of the diffrential equation (y−x)dy−(y 2 −x2 )dx = 0
Soln :
The given diffrential equation is,
(y − x)dy − (y 2 − x2 )dx = 0 − − − (1)
The given function is
y = −(1 + x)
so that, dy = −dx
Sunstituting the values of y and dy in equation (1), we have
34
(−1 − x − x)(−dx) − [(1 + x)2 − x2 ]dx = 0
or
(1 + 2x)(dx) − (1 + 2x)(dx) = 0
Which is identically true. Since the given function satisfies (1), it is a solution of (1)
5. What is the order of the differential equation whose solution is the circle (x−α)2 +y 2 =
α2 , where, α is an arbitrary constant.
Soln :
The given solution is,
(x − α)2 + y 2 = α2
or
x2 + y 2 − 2αx = 0 − − − (1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to x,
dy
2x + 2y − 2α = 0
dx
or
dy
α=x+y
dx
Substituting this value of α in equation (1), we get

dy
x2 + y 2 − 2x x + y =0
dx
dy
y 2 − x2 − 2xy =0
dx
or
dy
2xy + x2 − y 2 = 0
dx
Which is the differential equation of the family of circles (1) and it is of first order
35

1. Solve the following differential equation: (1) (x2 − yx2 )dy + (y 2 + xy 2 )dx = 0 and (2)
(x − y 2 x)dx − (y − x2 y)dy = 0

dy
2. Find the particular solution of a differential equation log dx = 3x + 4y, given that
y = 0 and x = 0
3. Find the differential equation corresponding to the family of curves y = c(x − c)2 ,
where c is an arbitrary constant.
4. Find the differential equation corresponding to y = aex + be2x + ce−3x , where a, b and
c are arbitrary constant.
5. Solve the differential equation (1 + y 2 )dx + (1 + x2 )dy = 0, given that y = −1 and

x=0
6. Find the general solution ty 00 − (t + 1)y 0 + y = t2 , y1 (t) = et and y2 (t) = t + 1 form

fundamental solutions of the homogeneous equation

1. Linear and Homogeneous equation
2. 2
3. Homogeneous equation
4. 1
5. y = Ae4x + Be−3x
2.11 References
1. Halliday D, Resnick R, and Walker J, Principles of Physics, 9th Edn., Wiley India
Pvt. Ltd. (2013).
2. Balaji N P, Differential Equationbs, 10th Edn., Fire Wall Media (2007).
3. Charles Kittel, and Walter Knight, Berkeley Physics Course, Mechanics Vol. 1, 2nd
Edn., Tata McGraw Hill (2011).
36
3 Unit-3: Frames of reference

3.1 Objectives
Differentiate the motion of a particle in inertial and non-inertial frame of reference

with examples
Explain Galilean transformation equation using the concept of frames of reference
Analyze the plane motion of a particle relative to a rotating frame to calculate Coriolis
force and acceleration
3.2 Frames of reference

Space cannot be thought of without physical bodies. To locate a body in space, normally
the cartesian coordinate system is used. The body may be a fixed used for reference or it
may be a body which is in motion. A cartesian coordinate system attached to the reference
fixed body is called a frame of reference or a coordinate system. It is impossible to attach
a set of coordinate axes to empty space.
The choice of an frame of reference is determined by our own convenience. For describing
the motion of bodies on the earth, we choose a frame of reference rigidly connected to the
earth, which is regarded as a fixed body. However, in reality the earth is in circular motion.
In investigation of the earth’s motion, we attach the coordinate system to the sun. In
studying the sun’s motion, we choose a reference frame connected to the stars. Sometimes,
we choose the floor or walls of a room as the rfernce frame which may be at rest with respect
to the earth or which may be in motion if it is on a train or in a spacecraft.
The choice of a frame of reference is orbitrary. Therefore, a passenger in a moving train
may claim to be at rest and declare that the electric poles and tress are moving backward
while a person standing on the ground claims that the train is moving forward. Both
are equally right. On the basis of our daily experience, we intuitively choose a frame of
reference attached to the earth and describe the motion in various bodies. Thus, in the
reference system attached to the earth, it is the train that moves forward.
37
3.2.1 Inertial reference frame

The frames of references in which laws of mechanics have same form are known as Inertial
frames. Any frame of reference moving with uniform velocity with respect to inertial frame
is also inertial frame. Special theory of relativity deals with the events by observers in
inertial reference frames. The objects may be accelerated with respect to frames but frames
themselves are moving with relative uniform velocity. Thus in an inertial frame, a body
not experiencing any force (F = 0) appears unaccelerated (a = 0), because from Newton’s
second law,
F = ma = 0
or
d2 r
a= =0
dt2
Hence, all frame which are moving with constant velocity relative to an inertial frame
are also inertial. In order to prove this statement, let us consider an inertial frame S and
another frame S 0 , which is moving with constant velocity v relative to S. Initially at t = 0,
if the positions of the origins of the two frames coincide, then in the two frames, the position
vectors of any particle P at any instant t (as shown in figure) can be related as,
r = r0 + vt
or
r0 = r − vt − − − (1)
In Newtonian mechanics, it is assumed that the time is universal. This implies that
the time of an event is the same relative to various observers in different states of motion.
Differentiation above equation with respect to t and writing dr
dt = u, we obtain
u0 = u − v − − − (2)
where u is the velocity of the particle in frame S and u0 is the velocity of the particle
in frame S 0 . Equations (1) and (2) relate the position vectors and velocity vectors of the
38
particle P in S and S 0 frames. Differentiating equation (2) with respect to t (since v is

constant), we get
du0 du
=
dt dt
or
d2 r0 d2 r
2
= 2
dt dt
or
a0 = a
Thus, a particle experiences the same acceleration in two frames out of which one is
inertial and the other is moving with constant velocity relative to the inertial. If the
acceleration of the particle in S frame is zero, its acceleration in S 0 frame is also zero. But
S is an inertial frame, hence S 0 must also be an inertial frame. Hence, we conclude that if
a frame is inertial, then any frame moving with constant velocity relative to it is also an
inertial frame.
3.3 Uniform rectilinear motion in an inertial frame

Basically, there are infinite nimber of reference frames available and any of them can be
used. But the laws of mechanics may take different forms in different reference frames. For
instance, let us consider acceleration of a body relative to an arbitrary frame of reference.
The acceleration of the body may be due to its interaction with other bodies or it may be
due to the properties if the reference frames itself. If the acceleration of the body arises
solely due to its interaction with other bodies, then the frame of reference is said to be an
inertial reference frame. In an inertial frame of reference, a free body moves rectilinearly
and uniformly without exhibiting acceleration.
Newton’s first law states that every body continues in its states of rest or of uniform
rectilinear motion, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it.
This is known as law of inertia. This law in effect, defines an inertial frame of refernce.
An inertila frame of reference is one in which a bodyn not subjected to a force, move with
uniform velocity. A reference frame that moves with constant velocity relative to the distant
stars is the best approximation of an inertial frames. In reality, the earth is not an inertial
frame because of its orbital motion about the sun and rotational motion about its own axis.
Any other reference frame moving rectilinearly and uniformly relative to an inertial
frame is also an inertial frame. Thus, there is a vast number of inertial reference frames
moving relative to one another uniformly and rectilinearly.
3.4 Galilean transformation equation

The transformation from one inertial frame of reference to another frame of reference is
called Galilean transformation. Knowing the laws of motion of a body in a reference system
S, one can derive the laws of motion of the same body in another inertial system S 0 .
Let an event occur in an inertial frame of reference S. Consider an inertial frame S and
another inertial frame S 0 which moves at constant velocity v with respect to S as shown in
39
the diagram. Let the two sets of axes be parallel, and their relative motion be along the
common x−x0 axis. Let an event occur at point P . Let the space-time coordinates of the
event with respect to an S frame be x, y, z and t respectively. Similarly, the space-time
coordinates of the event with respect to an S 0 frame be x0 , y 0 , z 0 and t0 respectively.
At t = 0 the origins of S and S 0 frames coincide. After a time t the S 0 frame has moved
through a distance vt. The transformation equations are given by,
x0 = x − vt
y0 = y
z0 = z
By assuming universal nature of time,
t0 = t
Galilean transformation expresses the space-time relation of an event in different inertial
frames. It is seen from the above equations, the coordinates of an event are relative and
have different values in different reference frames.
Galilean acceleration transformation equation: Let us consider the case where
the body moves along x-axis of reference frame S with acceleration. At some moment of
time, say
u = u0 + v
After a time interval ∆t, the velocities in both systems increase and new velocities are
given by
(u + ∆u) = (u0 + ∆u0 ) + v

Subtracting the above equations we get,
∆u = ∆u0
40
Dividing both sides of the above equation with ∆t, we obtain
∆u ∆u0
=
∆t ∆t0
a = a0
This equation is called Galilean acceleration transformation equation. Multiplying above
equation by mass of the body we get,
ma = ma0 − − − (1)
F = F 0 − − − (2)
From equations (1) and (2) it is clear that the accelerations and forces donot change from
one inertial frame to another inertial frame. Such quantities, which remain invariable under
the transformations, are termed invariants. Also, the measured components of acceleration
are same with respect to the two frames of references. Since, mass is also independent of
motion of frames of reference F = ma = ma0 . Therefore, Newtons law has same form in
both frames of reference. According to velocity transformation equations, different velocities
are assigned to a particle by different observers.
Galilean transformation equations agree with our daily experience. For example, a
person in a moving railcar throws a ball with a speed u in the direction of motion of the
railcar, where u is measured by the person in the railcar. If v is the velocity of the moving
railcar, the speed of the ball relative to a stationary observer on the ground will be u + v.
3.4.1 Galilean principle of relativity

A frame of reference for which Newton’s laws of dynamics hold is an inertial frame. If a
body is uniform motion (v is constant) an observer in inertial frame, which is at rest with
respect to the body, will find that the acceleration and the resultant force on the body are
zero. An observer in another frame of reference moving with uniform velocity in a straight
line with respect to the first frame will also find that acceleration and the resultant force on
the body are zero. Consequently, the second reference frame is inertial to the same degree
41
as the first. It follows that any reference frame moving with uniform velocity with respect
to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame.
Thus, reference frames fixed in a railway ship that travels with a uniform velocity in a
straight line, are inertial frames. Experiences shows that in a railway car or a ship travelling
with uniform velocity, it is equally easy to move in any direction as it is on the earth. A
body released at a height falls vertically downward. Thus, the results of an experiment
performed in a uniform moving vechicle will be same as those from the same experiment
performed in the stationary laboratory. Therefore, it is not possible for us to tell try by
any experiment whether we are at rest or moving with uniform velocity.
It follows that the laws of mechanics have the same form in all inertial frames and none
of the reference frames have the advantange one or the others. It implies that there is no
exclusive of preferred frame of reference and every inertial frame is as good as the other.
Absolute rest or absolute motion of bodies has no sense. This basic law was recognized by
Galileo and is summed up in the form of principle of relativity. Finally, Galilean principle of
relativity states that the laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.
3.5 Non-inertial frame of reference

Accelerated frame of references are known as non-inertial frames. Pseudo forces exist in
non-inertial frame. i.e., a frame of reference, which is in motion with respect to an inertial
frame of reference is known as non-inertial frame of reference. The law of inertia is valid in
an inertial frame, whereas it is not valid in an accelerated reference frame.
A ball placed on the floor of a train will move to the rear if the train accelerates forward
even though no forces act on it. Similarly, a coin placed on a rotating turn table will slide
to the periphery through no visible force pushes it away from the centre.
Since, the earth is rotating uniformly about its own axis from west to east, a reference
frame fixed on it is clearly a rotating frame of reference. As a result, the two fictitious
forces, viz., the Centrifugal force and the Coriolis force must act on a particle at rest and
in motion respectively, relative to the rotating frame or reference.
3.6 Centrifugal force

Let us consider a particle P at rest on the surface of the earth, in latitude φ as shown
in figure. Then, because the particle is at rest in the rotating frame of reference of the
earth, there is no Coriolis force acting on it. The only fictitious force effective then, the
centrifugal force is mω × (ω × Rn ), where Rn is the component of the radius R of the earth,
perpendicular to its axis. Hence, if the observed or apparent acceleration of the particle in
latitude φ be directed towards C and its true acceleration g towards the centre (o) of the
earth, we have
gφ = g − ω 0 × (ω × Rn )
Now, if we take the axes, OY and OX, along and perpendicular to ω respectively, with
î and ĵ as the unit vectors along OX and OY as usual, we have
→
− −
→
g = −g(cos φî + sin φĵ), →
−
w = ω ĵ and Rn = R cos φî
42
Substituting in the expression for gφ in the above equation, we have
→
−
g = −g(cos φî + sin φĵ) − ω ĵ × (ω ĵ × R cos φî)
→
−
g = −g(cos φî + sin φĵ) + ω 2 R cos φî
That is the magnitude of the apparent acceleration is,
q
gφ = (g cos φ − ω 2 R cos φ)2 + g 2 sin2 φ
Since ω is small, we may neglect terms involving ω 4 , we have

q p
gφ = g 2 cos2 φ − 2gω 2 R cos2 φ + g 2 sin2 φ = g 2 − 2gω 2 R cos2 φ
or
1/2
2ω 2 R cos2 φ ω 2 R cos2 φ

gφ = g 1 − =g 1−
g g
gφ = g − ω 2 R cos2 φ
This acceleration, as mentioned above, is directed towards C instead of O, the centre
of the earth. So that, if the angle that this apparent direction P C makes with the true
direction P O be θ, we have,
g cos φ − ω 2 R cos φ
θ = tan−1
g sin φ
ω2R

−1
θ = tan 1− cotφ
g
Thus, the effect of centrifugal force due to rotation of the earth is to reduce the effective
value of g on its surface as also to slightly change its direction from the truly vertical towards
the north and the south respectively in the two hemispheres.
43
3.7 Coriolis force

In case a body is in motion relative to the rotating frame of reference of the earth, the
fictitious Coriolis force played an important role. Two cases of effect of Coriolis force
are, (a) When the body is just dropped from rest so as to fall freely under the action of
the gravitational force and (b) When it is given a large horizontal velocity (In case of a
projectile).
In the first case, the horizontal component of the Coriolis force acting on the freely falling
body deflects it a little from its truly vertical path. The vertical component, obviously,
produces no south deflection but only affects the value of g.
To calculate this deflection or displacement of the falling body, let us take the axes of
x, y and z along the east, north and vertically upwards respectively and î, ĵ and k̂ as the
unit vectors along these axes. Then, if → −
v be the velocity acquired by the body in time t
taken by it to fall through a height h, we have
→
− →
−
v = −v k
Negative sign indicates the velocity is directed downwards. Also,
ω = ω cos φĵ + ω sin φk̂

where φ is the latitude at the place. Therefore, the Coriolis acceleration (→
−
ac ) is given
by,
→
−
ac = −2→
−
ω ×→
−
v
→
−
= −2→
−
ω (cos φĵ + sin φk̂) × (−v k )
= −2→
−
ω v(cos φî − 0) = 2ωv cos φî
That is the Coriolis acceleration on the body in latitude φ is 2ωv cos φ along the positive
direction of the axis of x or is directed towards the east. The equation of motion of the
body may be rewritten as,
d2 x
= 2ωv cos φ
dt2
Since v is the velocity acquired by the body in time t, we have v = 0 + gt = gt, since its
initial velocity is zero and the acceleration due to gravity, g. So that,
d2 x
= 2ωgt cos φ
dt2
Therefore, x-component of the velocity of the body, say
ˆ
dx
vx = = 2ωgt cos φdt
dt
or
2ωg cos φt2

vx = +C
2
44
where C is the constant of integration. Since vx is zero at the very start, when t = 0,
we have C = 0, therefore
vx = ωg cos φt2
Integrating once again, we have, displacement along the axis of x, i.e.,
ˆ
x = ωg cos φt2 dt
t3

= ωg cos φ + C0
3
where C 0 is another constant of integration. Again, since at t = 0, there is no displace-
ment, i.e., x = 0, we have C = 0. Hence,
1
x = ωg cos φt3
3
Now, t is the time taken by the body to fall
p through a height h. So that, its initial
velocity being zero, we have h = 12 gt2 and t = 2h/g. Substituting this value of t in the
above expression, we get
3/2 1/2
1 2h 8
x = ωg cos φ = h3/2 ω cos φ
3 g 9g
Thus, the horizontal displacement of the body due to Coriolis force (i) in latitude φ is
equal to (8/9g)1/2 h3/2 ω cos φ and at the equator, since φ = 0, or cos φ = 1, it is equal to
(8/9g)1/2 h3/2 ω (i.e., the maximum). And it is always directed along the positive direction
of the x-axis or towards the east.
In the second case, if the horizontal velocity of the body be sufficiently large, so that
it covers fairly large horizontal distances, the small Coriolis force gets sufficient time to
act upon it making the position vector turn at a constant rate of −ω sin φ. Since in the
Northern hemisphere, φ is positive this rotation as viewed from above is clockwise (and
hence the projectile gets deflected towards the right) and in the Southern hemisphere it is
anticlockwise (and the projectile thus gets deflected towards the left). This is known as
Ferels law.
3.7.1 Check your progress

1. The laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial frame of reference. This statements
is holds good for −−−
2. Accelerated frame of reference is called
(a) Inertial frame of reference (b) Non-inertial frame of reference
3. Frames of reference having zero acceleration is called −−−
4. The coriolis component of acceleration is taken into account for −−−
5. The centrifugal force appear in the equations of motion in a −−−
45
3.8 Key words

Frame of reference, Galilean transformation equation, Centrifugal force, Centripetal force
3.9 Worked Examples

1. Show that Lorentz transformations are superior to Galilean transformations.
Soln :
We know that, the Lorentz transformation equations are,
x − vt
x0 = q = β(x − vt)
v2
1 − c2
y0 = y
z0 = z
t − ( v2 )x v
t0 = q c = γ t − 2x
1 − vc2
2 c
Where,
1
γ=q
v2
1− c2
If v is very small, than (v/c) → 0 and so (β → 1). This implies,
x0 = (x − vt)
y0 = y
z0 = z
t0 = t
These are Galilean transformations. These facts prove that Lorentz transformations
are superior to Galilean transformations.
2. Show that the force acting on a particle, as observed by two observers in two inertial
frames to reference in the same. (Given V < C)
Soln :
The force acting on a particle as observed by the observer O in frame S is given by
46
d
F = mv
dt
dv
F =m = ma
dt
The force acting on a particle as observed by the observer O0 in the frame S 0 is given
by
d
F0 = mv 0
dt
dv 0
F0 = m = ma0
dt
Since both are inertial frames of reference, a = a0 , F = F 0 .
It means, the same force will be observed by the two observers O and O0 in two inertial
forms of reference S and S 0 . This means force is invariant to Galilean transformations.
It further means, Newtons second law of motion F = ma is valid in all inertial frames
of reference, i.e. the basic laws of physics are invariant in two inertial frames of
reference.
3. Calculate the total force acting on a freely falling body of mass 5kg with reference to
a frame moving with a downward acceleration of 2ms−2
Soln :
−
→ → − − →
The force F 0 acting on a body in a non-inertial frame is given by F 0 = Fi − F0 where
→
− −
→
Fi is the force on the same body in an inertial frame and F0 is the fictitious force
due to the accelerated motion of the non-inertial frame. As the body is falling freely,
→
−
downward force on it in the inertial frame of the earth Fi = 0. Therefore,
−
→ −
→
F 0 = −F0
or
→
−
F = −m→
−
a0
where →−
a0 is the acceleration of the non-inertial frame and m the mass of the body.
As the reference frame is moving downward with acceleration of 2ms−2 , →
−
a = −2ms−2 .
0
Therefore,
−
→
F 0 = −m→
−
a0 = −(−2 × 5) = +10N
where the positive sign indicates that the fictitious force is acting upward.
47
4. Calculate the effective weight of an astronaut ordinarily weighing 60kg when his rocket
moves vertically upward with 5g acceleration
Soln :
As the rocket moves vertically upward with an acceleration 5g, it is a non-inertial
frame and therefore the total force on the astronaut is given by,
−
→ → − − →
F 0 = Fi − F0
−
→
F0 = −m→
−
a0 = −60 × 5.gN = −300.gN
Therefore, the effective weight of the astronaut is given by,
−
→ → − − →
F 0 = Fi − F0 = 60g − (−300.g)
= 360gN = 360kg
Questions for self-study

1. What is meant by a frame of reference? Give examples to show that the state of
motion of a body would appear to be different when viewed from different frames of
reference.?
2. What is an inertial frame of reference? Show that all other frames of reference, with
constant velocity relative to it, are also inertial frames.
3. Distinguish between inertial and non-inertial frame of reference.
4. Discuss the Galilean transformation for position and acceleration.
5. Write a note on Galileo’s principle of relativity.
6. Show that the force acting on a particle, as observed by two observers in two inertial
frames to reference in the same
7. What is Coriolis force? Under what conditions does it come into play? Discuss in
general terms the effect of the Coriolis force produced as a result of the earths rotation
8. What will be the effective weight of a person carried vertically up in a rocket with an
acceleration of 6g, if his actual weight on the earth is 60kg
48

1. Galileo’s principle of relativity
2. (b) Non-inertial frame of reference
3. Inertial frame of reference
4. Quick return motion mechanism
5. Non-inertial frame
3.11 References
Pvt. Ltd. (2013).

49
4 Unit-4: Special Theory of Relativity

4.1 Objectives
Discuss the events and how it will be reported by different observers in different frames
of reference
Explain the meaning and significance of the postulates of special theory relativity
Apply the knowledge of special theory relativity to solve problems
4.2 Introduction
The theories developed during the three centuries from 1600 had been very successful in
explaining most of the phenomenon in physical science. Relativity represents the greatest
intellectual achievement of twentieth century physics. Just as quantum theory showed that
the classical concepts are to be revised in case of microscopic world, the relativity theory
established that the classical notations are not applicable to bodies moving with velocities
approximately nearer to that of speed of light. Classical mechanics regarded space and time
to be absolute and separate entities. It assumed that the flow of time to be uniform in all
situations. As such the moments of time and time intervals are supposed to be identical in
all frame of reference. Similarly, lengths are assumed to be identical in all frame of reference.
Constancy of speed of light: One of the basic postulates of special relativity is
the velocity of light in free space is same in all directions and in all inertial frames. The
concept of space, time, length and mechanical motion appear to be self evident and obvious.
Classical mechanics presumes the space to be homogeneous in all its parts and also isotropic.
It means that the properties of space are identical at all points and in all directions at each
point. Also, according to classical mechanics, time is understood as a measure of absolute
duration, which exist irrespective of physical bodies.
4.3 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity

Einstein in his theory dropped the concept of ether and the accompanying assumption of an
absolute frame of reference at rest. Also, Einstein revised the classical ideas regarding space
and time by asserting that absolute motion is meaningless. Einstein ideas are emboided
in two postulates. The first one is an extension of the Newtonian principle of relativity to
include not only the laws of mechanics but also rest of physics. The following two postulates
form the foundation of Einstein special theory of relativity.
Postulate 1: The principle of equivalence: The laws of physics have the same form
in all inertial frame of reference
Postulate 1: Constancy of speed of light: The speed of light in free free space
(vacuum) in always constant c and is independent of speed of the source or observer or
relative motion of the inertial systems.
The first postulats is in effect a generalization of Galilean principle of relativity to
cover all physical processes. All physical phenomena proceed identically in all reference
frames. Also, all physical laws are absolutely identical in all inertial systems. Basically, no
50
experiment can distinguish one of the frames as preferable. Thus, Einstein’s principle of
relativity establishes the complete equality of all inertial frames and rejects the Newton’s
ideas of absolute space and obsolute motion.
The second postulate states that the velocity of light in a vacuum has the same value
for all observers and is independent of their motion or of the light source. In contrast to
all other velocities, which change on transition from one reference frame to another, the
velocity of light in a vacuum is invariant.
4.4 Length contraction

One of the peculiar aspects of Einstein’s theory of relativity is that the length of objects
moving at relativistic speeds, undergoes a contraction along the dimension of motion. The
length of any object in a moving frame will appear foreshortened in the direction of motion,
or contracted. The amount of contraction can be calculated from the Lorentz Transforma-
tions. The length is maximum in the frame in which the object is at rest.
Consider two intertial frames S and S 0 such that S 0 moves with uniform velocity v along
x−x0 axes with respect to S. Let a rod be placed along x0 axis of a moving frame. The
coordinates of the ends of the rod with respect to an observer in this frame be x01 and x02 .
Similarly, the coordinates of the ends of rod for an observer in the S frame be x1 and x2 .
Let L0 = x02 − x01 be the length of the rod with respect to the frame S 0 , where, L0 is called
proper lenght of the rod. The proper length of a body is defined as the length of the body
measured in the reference frame in which the body is at rest. Similarly, let L = x2 − x1
be the length of the rod with respect to the frame S. According to Lorentz transformation
equation,
x1 − vt
x01 = q
2
1 − vc2
x2 − vt
x02 = q
2
1 − vc2
x2 − x1
L0 = x02 − x01 = q
2
1 − vc2
51
L
L0 = x02 − x01 = q
v2
1− c2
r
v2
L = L0 1 − 2
c
q
2
The above equation is known as Length contraction. Since, 1 − vc2 is always less than
1, L is less than L0 . It means that, if an observer at rest with respect to a body measures
its length to be L, an observer moving with a relativeqspeed v with respect to the body
2
will find it shorter than its proper length by a factor 1 − vc2 . Hence, as measured from
the earth, the rod in the spaceship is contracted. This effect is symmetric; a rod at rest on
earth will undergo length contraction when measured from spaceship. This effect is known
as the length contraction. The length contraction occurs only along the direction of motion.
Thus, in the above case rod contracts only along its length.
Also, from the above equation it is clear that the degree of contraction depends on the
velocity v. Therefore, in different inertial reference frames the length of the same rod turns
out to be different. In otherwords, length is a relative notation. Fitzerald and Lorentz
proposed independently the idea of contraction before Einstein’s special theory of relativity
was proposed, to explain the negative results of Michelson-Morely experiment. Hence, the
length contraction is also known as Lorentz-Fitzerald length contraction.
4.5 Time dialation

Let us consider a railcar S moving to the right with a speed as shown in figure. An observer
at rest in the car sends off a light pulse at some instant towards the mirror. The light pulse
travels (upwards) at a speed c gets reflected at the mirror at the top and comes back to the
observer. Let us say the observer measures the time interval ∆t0 for the round trip of the
pulse with the help of a clock. As ∆t0 is the time measured by a stationary observer in the
S 0 frame and it is the proper time i.e., time ∆t. From the point of view of an observer on
the ground or stationary frame (S), the mirror and the light source are moving to the right
with a speed v. By the time the light pulse hits the mirror, the mirror will have moved a
distance equal to v(∆t/2) where, ∆t is the time taken by the light pulse for its round trip
as measured in S frame.
It follows that a stationary clock measures along time interval between events occuring
in a moving frame of reference than does a clock in the moving frame. Therefore, from the
52
point of view of the observer in the stationary frame, events will be found to be happening
at a slower rate in the moving frame.qThus, a moving clock runs slower compared to an
v2
identical stationary clock by a factor 1− c2
. This relative showing of time is known as
time dilation.
If an observer on the platform watches the events taking place in the moving railcar,
gets the impression that the clock in the car runs slower than his own. His clock measures a
longer time between two events taking place in the car than the clock in the car. Conversely,
if an observer is in a moving railcar and watches the events on the platform he gets the
impression that the clock on the platform runs slower than clock in the railcar. From the
point of view of each observer, the moving clocks slow down as compared to his clock. Thus,
we can observe that all physical processes slows down relative to a stationary clock when
they are in moving frame.
Consider two intertial frames S and S 0 such that S 0 moves with uniforni velocity v along
x−x0 axes with respect to S. If ∆t is the time interval measured in the stationary frame
S and if ∆t0 is the time interval measured with respect to moving frame, then ∆t > ∆t0 .
This is known as time dialation. Consider a clock at a point in the moving frame S 0 . Let
t01 be the time measured with respect to S 0 and t1 be the time measured with respect to S.
According to Inverse Lorentz transformation,
t0 + ( v2 )x0
t1 = 1q c
2
1 − vc2
After a time interval, the time measured in S 0 frame be t02 and the time measured in S
frame be t2 such that,
t02 + ( cv2 )x0

t2 = q
2
1 − vc2
The time interval with respect to S frame is given by,
t0 − t01
t2 − t1 = q2
2
1 − vc2
53
∆t0
∆t = q
2
1 − vc2
If v c, then ∆t = ∆t0 .
v 2 − 12
If v ≈ c, then ∆t increases by a factor of (1 − c2
) .
4.6 Twin Paradox

The time dilation effect leads to the Twin paradox of special theory of relativity. Let us
consider a hypothetical experiment involving two twin brothers Raju and Ranga. After
celebrating their 18th birthday, the adventurous twin Ranga sets out on a space voyage
leaving behind his brother Rama on earth. His space ship travels at a speed close to the
speed of light. After an year he returns back to the earth to celebrate his 21st birthday. On
return he is shocked to find his brother Rama to be a 58 years old feeble gentleman while
he himself is only 19 year old. It mean Ranga has aged only one year, his brother has aged
about 40 years. This is paradox, which challenges our common sense.
As reckoned in the reference frame of earth, the clocks and all the physical and biological
processes on the spaceship slow down due to time dilation. Hence, Ranga ages at a slower
rate and at the end of his trip, when he joins his twin on earth, he will be younger than Rama.
But this explanation appears to contradict the postulate of special theory of relativity, which
asserts that all inertial frames are equivalent. The aging effect seems to provide a way of
distinguishing among the frames. Further, from the point of view of the spaceship, the earth
is in motion and hence the clocks and bilogical processes on the earth are slowed down due
to time dilation. This leads us to the conflicting conclusion that Rama ages slower rate
than Ranga and when the twins are united, Rama will be youner than Ranga.
All these contradictions disappear when we take into account of the fact that Ranga the
space traveller, was not in an inertial frame most of the time. He experienced a series of
accelerations when leaving the earth and deaccelerations when coming back to the earth.
Thus, he was in an accelerated frame for a greater part of his trip. Hence, the predictions
based on special thory of relativity are not valid in his reference frame. On the other hand,
Rama is in an inertial frame all the time and therefore his predictions are reliable. Hence,
Ranga will indeed be younger than Rama on returning to earth.
4.7 Relativistic addition of velocities

Consider an object moving with velocity u with respect to a stationary frame S. After an
interval t, the position of the object with respect to S is given by,
x = ut − − − − − − − −(1)
Let the velocity of the object with respect to an inertial frame S 0 moving with velcity v
along x−x0 axes be u0 . The position of the object with respect to S 0 is given by,
x0 = u0 t0 − − − − − − − −(2)
The Lorentz transformation equation for position and time are,
54
x − vt
x0 = q
2
1 − vc2
t − ( v2 )x
t0 = q c
2
1 − vc2
Substituting above equations in (2), we get,
   
v
x − vt t − ( )x
q  = u0  q c2 
v2 2
1 − c2 1 − vc2
u0 v

x 1 + 2 = (u0 + v)t
c
!
u0 + v
x= 0 t − − − − − − − −(3)
1 + uc2v
Comparing (3) and (1), we get,
!
u0 + v
u= 0
1 + uc2v
If u0 and v are small then u = u0 + v which is a classical result.
If u0 = c, then u = c, irrespective of v.

1. Two basic postulates of special theory of relativity are −−− and −−−
2. Length of a object in the direction of motion in a moving system as compared to the

stationary length is appears to be −−−
3. A clock in a moving reference frame, compared to identical clock in a stationary

reference frame, appear to be −−−
4. What does this expression represent: E 2 = P 2 C 2 + m20 c4
(a) Time dilation (b) Length contraction (c) Energy-momentum relation (d) Mass
energy relation
5. Twin paradox is associated with −−−
4.9 Key words

Length contraction, Time dilation, Twin paradox, Velocity addition theorem
55
4.10 Worked Examples

1. Prove that x2 + y 2 + z 2 − c2 t2 is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
Soln :
We have,
x0 + vt0
x= q
2
1 − vc2
y = y0
z = z0
and
t0 + ( v2 )x0
t= q c
2
1 − vc2
Substituing these values in the equation given, we obtain

0 2
2 2 2 2 2 (x0 + vt0 )2 0 2 0 2 2 t + ( cv2 )x0
x +y +z −c t = v2
+ (y ) + (z ) − c v2
1− c2
1− c2
c2 (t0 )2 + v 2 (x0 )2

0 2 0 2 1
= (y ) + (z ) − v2
− (x0 )2 − v 2 (t0 )2
1− c2
c2
v2

0 2 0 2 1 2 02 02

= (y ) + (z ) − v2
c t −x 1− 2
1− c
c2
= (y 0 )2 + (z 0 )2 − c2 t02 − x02

= (x0 )2 + (y 0 )2 + (z 0 )2 − c2 t02
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − c2 t2 = (x0 )2 + (y 0 )2 + (z 0 )2 − c2 t02
That is, x2 + y 2 + z 2 − c2 t2 is invariant under Lorentz transformation
2. A certain process requires 10−6 sec to occur in an atom at rest in laboratory. How
much time will this process require to an observer in the laboratory, when the atom
is moving with a speed of 5 × 107 m/s.
Soln :
56
∆t0 = 10−6 Sec, v = 5 × 107 m/s, ∆t =?
We have,
∆t0
∆t = q
2
1 − vc2
∆t = 1.01 × 10−6 Sec
3. A rod has length 100 cm. When the rod is in a satellite moving with a velocity that
is one half of the velocity of light relative to laboratory. What is the length of the rod
as determined by an observer in the laboratory.
Soln :
l0 = 100cm, v = 0.5c, l =?
We have, r
0 v2
l=l 1−
c2
l = 86.6cm
4. A beam of particles travels at a speed of 0.9C. At this speed, the mean life time as
measured in the laboratory frame is 5 × 10−6 sec. What is the proper life time of the
particle?
Soln :
∆t = 5 × 10−6 Sec, v = 0.9c, ∆t0 =?
We have,
∆t0
∆t = q
2
1 − vc2
r
0 v2
∆t = ∆t 1 −
c2
∆t0 = 2.18 × 10−6 Sec
57
5. How fast must an unstable particle move to travel 20m before it decays. The mean
life time at rest is 2.6 × 10−8 sec.
Soln :
∆t0 = 2.6 × 10−8 Sec, x = 20m, v =?
We have,
∆t0 2.6 × 10−8

∆t = q = q − − − (1)
2 2
1 − vc2 1 − vc2
and
x = v∆t
or
x 20
∆t = = − − − (2)
v v
Compare equation (1) and (2),
20 2.6 × 10−8
= q
v 2
1 − vc2
Squaring and simplifying,
v = 2.8 × 108 m/s
6. What is the velocity of π-mesons, its proper mean life is 2.5 × 10−8 sec. The measured
life time of π-mesons is 2.5 × 10−7 sec.
Soln :
∆t0 = 2.5 × 10−8 Sec, ∆t = 2.5 × 10−7 Sec, v =?
We have,
∆t0
∆t = q
2
1 − vc2
2.5 × 10−8
2.5 × 10−7 = q
2
1 − vc2
58
2.5 × 10−7 1
−8
=q
2.5 × 10 1− v2
c2
1
10 = q
v2
1− c2
v = 0.99c
7. Two particles came towards each other with speed 0.8C with respect to laboratory.
What is their relative speed?
Soln :
u0 = v = 0.8c, u =?
We have,
u0 + v
u= 0
1 + uc2v
u = 0.975c
8. The rest mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10−31 Kg. What will be its mass, if it moving
with (4/5)th the speed of light.
Soln :
m0 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg, v = (4/5)th c, m =?
We have,
m0
m= q
v2
1− c2
m = 15.16 × 10−31 kg
9. At what speed the mass of an object will be double of its value at rest?
Soln :
m = 2m0 , v =?
59
We have,
m0
m= q
v2
1− c2
v = 2.6 × 108 m/s

1. State the fundamental postulates of special theory of relativity?
2. What is time dilation? Obtain an expression for time dilation.
3. What is length contraction? Deduce an expression for length contraction.
4. State and explain relativistic law of addition of velocities.
5. Prove that x2 + y 2 + z 2 − c2 t2 is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
6. Write a note on Twin paradox

1. The principle of relativity and Constancy of velocity of light
2. Shortening of length
3. Slower
4. (c) Energy-momentum relation
5. Theory of ralativity
4.13 References
Pvt. Ltd. (2013).

60
5 Unit-5: Motion of a point particle

5.1 Objectives
Distinguish between the velocity and acceleration of a particle in rectilinear motion

under general conditions
Describe the physical interpretation of position, velocity and acceleration of a particle
Apply the knowledge of motion of a point particle to solve the magnitude and the
direction of the angular momentum vector of a point particle about a specified point
5.2 Position vector

The position of a point P from any assigned point such as the origin O of the cartesian
~ = ~r as shown in figure, called the
coordinate system is uniquely specified by the vector OP
position vector of point P relative to O.
The coordinates of point P being (x, y and z) we have
~r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂
where,
p
|~r| = x2 + y 2 + z 2
The direction cosines of ~r obviously xr , yr and zr . Such a point with a position vector r
is often spoken of as the point r. It follows from the above that if there be two points P1
−−→
and P2 , with (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) (as their respective coordinates (OP1 = r~1 and
−−→
OP2 = r~2 as their respective position vectors, as shown in figure). Hence, we have
|r~1 | = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂
Similarly,
|r~2 | = x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂
Therefore,
61
−−−→ −−→ −−→

P1 P2 = P1 O + OP2 = −r~1 + r~2 = r~2 − r~1
= (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂
5.2.1 Invariance of the magnitude of a vector on rotation of the cartesian system

~ in a reference frame of a cartesian coordinate system
From the figure, consider a vector A
with the orthogonal triad of unit vectors î, ĵ and k̂. Then, if Ax , Ay and Az are the
components of A~ along the three coordinate axes, we have
~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
A
Now, keeping the direction of unchanged, i.e., keeping it fixed in its position, imagine
the reference frame to be rigidly rotated about the origin in the anti-clockwise direction
with the coordinate axes now taking up the positions OX 0 , OY 0 and OZ 0 . Then, if the new
orthogonal triad of unit vectors be formed by iˆ0 , jˆ0 and k̂ 0 and the components of A
~ along
0 0 0
the new coordinate axes be Ax , Ay and Az , we have
~ = A0 iˆ0 + A0 jˆ0 + A0 k̂ 0
A x y z
Since, the length of vector A~ must obviously be quite independent of the orientation of
the co-ordinate system or its form of reference, we have
A2 = A2x + A2y + A2z = A02 02 02

x + Ay + Az
or
62
q q
A= A2x + A2y + A2z = A02 02 02
x + Ay + Az
In other words rigid rotation of the cartesian system (or the frame of reference) of a
vector brings about no change in its form of magnitude
5.3 Velocity and Acceleration as the vector derivatives

Let ~r be a single-valued function of a scalar variable t such that for every value of t there
exists only one value of ~r. Then, as t varies continuously, ~r also does so.
Let t represents the time variable and ~r stands for the position vector of a moving
particle with respect to a fixed origin O as shown in figure. Then, as t varies continuously
the point moves along a continuous curve in space. So that, if ~r and ~r + δ~r be the position
vectors of the point in positions P and P 0 relative to origin O for the values t and t + δt of
the scalar variable, we have change in the value of ~r = δ~r.
From the figure, the quotient δ~r 0

δt is also a vector. As δt → 0, point P approaches P and
the chord P P 0 tends to coincide with the tangent to the curve at P .
The limiting value of δ~ r δ~
r
δt as δt → 0 is δt and is a vector whose direction is that of the
tangent at P in the sense in which t increases. It is called the time derivative of ~r or the
differential coefficient of ~r with respect to t. Thus, we have
d~r δ~r
= lim
dt δt→0 δt
When this limit exists, the function ~r is said to be differentiable. Similarly, the second
2 3
and third derivatives of ~r are respectively, ddt2~r and ddt3~r .
Particularly, δ~r represents the displacement of the particle in time inverval δt and there-
fore δ~
r
δt gives its average velocity during interval δt. The limiting value of this average
velocity, as δt → 0, is the instantaneous velocity ~v of the particle. Thus, along the tangent
of the path of the particle we have
δ~r
~v =
δt
Similarly, δ~v be the increase in the velocity ~v of the particle during the time-interval
δt, the rate of change of velocity or the average acceleration during the interval is equal to
63
δ~v d~v δ~v

δt .Therefore, instantaneous acceleration ~a of the particle is the limiting value dt of δt as
δt → 0. Thus, we have
d~v d2~r
~a = = 2
dt dt
Since, ~r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, where x, y and z are funtions of time, we have
d~r dx dy dz
~v = = î + ĵ + k̂
dt dt dt dt
and
d2~r d2 x d2 y d2 z
~a = = î + ĵ + k̂
dt2 dt2 dt2 dt2
5.4 Radial and transverse components of velocity

Motion of a particle in a straight line is known as linear motion. However, it is possible
to treat motion in a curved path by considering the tangential velocity or by resolving the
motion into two linear components. For example, as the earth rotates around the sun in
its nearly circular orbits, its speed is approximately constant but its direction is constantly
changing. Yet at any particular instant, its velocity has a definite direction.
In the figure, E represents the earth, it traces a curved path along the arc EA but the
instantaneous value of its velocity a curved path along the arc EA but the instantaneous
value of its velocity is along the straight line EB, tangent to the path. Thus, at any
particular instant, its instantaneous velocity is along tangent to the path, and we refer it
as tangential velocity.
Consider a particle moving along a curve in a plane. The position of a point P in a
co-ordinate system can be specified by a single i.e., the displacement of the particle relative
to the origin O of the co-ordinate system. This vector is called the position vector of the
−−→
point and denoted by OP = ~r. It gives the magnitude as well as the direction of the
displacement. If r̂ is a unit vector along OP i.e., along the direction of ~r, then
~r = rr̂
When a particle is moving along a curve in a plane it has a velocity and an acceleration.
The velocity is the derivative of displacement ~r with respect to time t. Therefore,
64
d d
~v = (~r) = (rr̂)
dt dt
dr dr̂
= r̂ + r
dt dt
dr dr̂ dθ
= r̂ + r
dt dθ dt
But,
dr̂
= θ̂
dt
Therefore, velocity
d~r
~v = = ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂
dt
where,
dr dθ
ṙ = and θ̇ =
dt dt
or
~v = v~r + v~θ
Here, the term ~v = rr̂ is known as the radial velocity and is due to the change in
magnitude of r, θ remaining constant and v~θ = rθ̇θ̂ is known as transverse velocity and is
due to the change in θ, r remaining constant.
Then, the magnitude of radial velocity and the magnitude of transverse velocity are
|v~r | = ṙ and |v~θ | = rθ̇, respectively. If θ = a constant and ω is the angular velocity, then
|v~θ | = rω. Therefore, the magnitude of velocity ~v is given by,
1
|~r| = |v~r |2 + |v~θ |2 2
h i1
2
= ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2
65
Radial and transverse components of acceleration

We know that, acceleration is the derivative of velocity ~v with respect to time t. Therefore,
d~v d
~a = = (ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂)
dt dt
!
dr̂ dθ̂
= r̈r̂ + ṙ + ṙθ̇θ̂ + rθ̈θ̂ + rθ̇
dt dt
!
dr̂ dθ̂ dθ
= r̈r̂ + ṙ + ṙθ̇θ̂ + rθ̈θ̂ + rθ̇ ·
dt dθ dt
But,
dr̂ dθ̂
= θ̂ and = −r̂
dθ dθ
Therefore,
~a = r̈r̂ + ṙθ̇θ̂ + ṙθ̈θ̂ − rθ̇2 r̂
~a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )r̂ + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)θ̂
~a = a~r + a~θ = ar r̂ + aθ θ̂
The term a~r is known as radial acceleration. It’s magnitude |a~r | = r̈ − rθ̇2 and its
direction is along r̂. It consists of two parts, the term r̈ gives the acceleration due to change
in magnitude of ṙ. It has a positive sign as it is directed away from the centre and secondly,
the term rθ̇2 gives the centripetal acceleration due to change in θ. It has a negative sign as
it is directed towards the centre.
The term a~r is known as transverse acceleration. It’s magnitude |aθ | = rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ and
its direction is along θ. This also consists of two parts, the term rθ̈ gives the angular
acceleration due to change in θ̇ and secondly, the term 2ṙθ̇ arises due to the interaction
of linear and angular velocities due to changes in r and θ respectively. This is similar to
coriolis acceleration. Therefore, a~r and a~θ are perpendicular to each other. The magnitude
of |~a| is given by,
1
|~a| = |a~r |2 + |a~θ |2 2
5.4.1 Two dimensional components of velocity in cartesian coordinate system

If x and y are cartesian co-ordinates of the point P having polar co-ordinates (r, θ) in a
two dimensional system, then we have
x = r cos θ
and
y = r sin θ
66
x y 1
cos θ = , sin θ = and r = (x2 + y 2 ) 2
y r
Differentiating x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ with respect to t we get,
ẋ = ṙ cos θ − r sin θθ̇ − − − (1)

where,
dx
ẋ =
dt
and
ẏ = ṙ sin θ − r cos θθ̇ − − − (2)

where,
dy
ẏ =
dt
Multiplying (1) by cos θ and (2) by sin θ and adding both we get,
ẋ cos θ + ẏ sin θ = ṙ(cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = ṙ

Therefore,
xẋ + y ẏ
ṙ = ẋ cos θ + ẏ sin θ = 1
(x2 + y 2 ) 2
or
xẋ + y ẏ
|→
−
vr | = 1
(x2 + y 2 ) 2
Also, multiplying (1) by sin θ and (2) by cos θ and subtracting (1) from (2) we get,
ẏ cos θ − ẋ sin θ = r(cos2 θ + sin2 θ)θ̇

Therefore,
ẏ cos θ − ẋ sin θ
θ̇ =
r
67
ẏx − ẋy ẏx − ẋy

= = 2
r2 x + y2
ẏx − ẋy ẏx − ẋy
|→
−
vθ | = rθ̇ = 1 =
2 2
(x + y ) 2 r
5.5 Uniform circular motion centripetal force

To derive an expression for the velocity and acceleration of a particle P moving at a constant
speed along a circular path in the x − y plane at constant radius r, the position vector ~r, a
function of the scalar variable t moving with constant angular velocity or angular frequency
of magnitude ω at any given instant t be expressed in terms of its components along the
axes of x and y (as shown in figure). Thus, if î and ĵ are the unit vectors along the two
axes respectively, we have
~r = xî + y ĵ
that is,
~r = r cos ωtî + r sin ωtĵ
~r = r(cos ωtî + sin ωtĵ)

Thus, the velocity ~v of particle P is given by
d~r d~r dr
~v = = r + î
dt dt dt
where, r̂ is the unit vector along the direction of ~r.
Let r being constant for the circular path, drdt = 0. So that, we have

d~r d d
~v = r =r cos ωtî + sin ωtĵ
dt dt dt
or
~v = r(−ω sin ωtî + ω cos ωtĵ
68
~v = ωr(− sin ωtî + cos ωtĵ

Therefore, with v as the magnitude of the velocity of P , we have
v 2 = ~v · ~v = ωr(− sin ωtî + cos ωtĵ · ωr(− sin ωtî + cos ωtĵ)
We know that, î · ĵ = 0, we have
v 2 = ω 2 r2 (sin2 ωt + cos2 ωt) = ω 2 r2

where, v = ωr
Since acceleration ~a is the rate of change of velocity, we have
d~v
~a = = ω 2 r(− cos ωtî − sin ωtĵ)
dt
= −ω 2 r(cos ωtî + sin ωtĵ

Also, we know that r(cos ωtî + sin ωtĵ = ~r, we have
~a = −ω 2~r
The magnitude of the acceleration of particle P , i.e., a = ω 2 r, its direction being −~r or
towards the centre of the circle, hence the name centripetal acceleration given to it.
2 2
Also, ωr = v, so that a = r vr = vr
Hence, the centripetal force acting on the particle is given by
mv 2
mass × acceleration =
r
It is directed towards the centre of its circular path.
Further, the angle swept out by the radius vector in one complete revolution = 2π
radians. The time period of the particle given by T = 2π 1 ω
ω and its frequency by n = T = 2π
or ω = 2πn

1. The center of mass of a system of particles does not depend upon
(a) Masses of particles (b) Force acting on particle (c) Position of particles (d)
Relative distance between particles
2. When a point at the end of a link moves with constant angular velocity, its acceleration
will have −−−
3. For a particle in a non-uniform accelerated circular motion
(a) Veloctity and acceleration are transverse component only (b) Veloctity and ac-
celeration are radial component only (c) Veloctity is transverse and acceleration
69
has both transverse and radial component (d) Veloctity and acceleration has both
transverse and radial component
4. The force that keeps the body moving in circular motion is
(a) Centrifugal force (b) Centripetal force (c) Coriolis force (d) Gravitational
force
5. The mathematical expression for centripetal force is −−−
5.7 Key words

Position vector, Velocity and acceleration, Centripetal force
5.8 Solved Problems

~ = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂, Y
1. If X ~ = 2î + ĵ + k̂and Z
~ = î − 3ĵ − 2k̂ are the vectors, find the
magnitude and direction cosines of the vector X~ +Y ~ + Z.
~
Soln :
The sum of vectors are given by,
~ =X
R ~ +Y
~ +Z
~
~ = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂ + 2î + ĵ + k̂ + î − 3ĵ − 2k̂

R
~ = 4î − 3k̂
R
Therefore,
R~a = 4î, R
~b = 0 and R
~c = −3k̂
Hence magnitude,
p
~ = |R|
R ~ = 42 + 02 + 32 = 5
~ will be,
Direction cosines of R
Rx 4 Ry 0 Rz −3
p= = , q= = = 0 and r = =
R 5 R 5 R 5
2. A particle moves from a point (3, −4, −2)m to a point (−2, 3, 5)m under the influence
of a force F~ = (−2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂)N. Calculate the work done by the force
Soln :
We know that, displacement of the particle is
70
~r = (−2 − 3)î + (3 + 4)ĵ + (5 + 2)k̂
~r = (−5î + 7ĵ + 7k̂)
Also,
F~ = (−2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂)m
Therefore, work done is
W = F~ · ~r
W = (−2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) · (−5î + 7ĵ + 7k̂)
W = 59J
3. A rigid body is spinning with an angular velocity of 4 radians/about an axis parallel

to (3ĵ − k̂) passing through the point (î + 3ĵ − k̂). Find the velocity of the particle at
the point (4î − 2ĵ + k̂)
Soln :
Let n̂ be the unit vector in the direction of (3ĵ − k̂). Then,
3ĵ − k̂ 1
n̂ = √ = √ (3ĵ − k̂)
0+9+1 10
Therefore, Angular velocity of the particle P is
4
~ = ωn̂ = √ (3ĵ − k̂)
ω
10
The position vector of P with reference to point (î + 3ĵ − k̂),
~r = (4î − 2ĵ + k̂) − (î + 3ĵ − k̂) = (3î − 5ĵ + 2k̂)
Hence velocity of particle,
4
~ = (3î − 5ĵ + 2k̂) × √ (3ĵ − k̂)
P = ~r × ω
10
4
= √ (î + 3ĵ + 9k̂)
10
and its magnitude is,
71
r
4 √ 91
=√ 1 + 9 + 81 = 4 = 12
10 10
4. A point moving in a plane has co-ordinates x = 3, y = 4 and has components of speed

ẋ = 5 m/sec, ẏ = 8 m/sec at some instant of time. Find the components of speed in
polar co-ordinates r, θ along directions r̂ and θ̂
Soln :
Component of speed along r̂
xẋ + y ẏ
|→
−
vr | = 1
(x2 + y 2 ) 2
|→
−
vr | = 9.4m/s
Similarly, component of speed along θ̂
xẏ − y ẋ
|→
−
vθ | = 1
(x2 + y 2 ) 2
|→
−
vθ | = 0.8m/s
5. The position vectors of two particles ejected simultaneously from the same source are
r~1 = (3î + 4ĵ + 5k̂) and r~2 = (2î + 6ĵ + 8k̂). Obtain (i) the displacement ~r of particle
two with respect to particle one and (ii) the magnitudes of r~1 , r~2 and ~r.
Soln :
The displacement of particles two with respect to particle one is
~r = r~2 − r~1
= −î + 2ĵ + 3k̂
Magnitudes of r~1 is
√
r~1 = |r~1 | = 9 + 16 + 25 = 7.07
Magnitudes of r~2 is
√
r~2 = |r~2 | = 4 + 36 + 64 = 10.20
Similarly, magnitudes of ~r is
√
~r = |~r| = 1 + 4 + 9 = 3.74
72

1. What is meant by the position vector of a point?
2. Deduce an expression for radial and transverse components of velocity for arbitrary
planar motion
3. Deduce an expression for radial and transverse components of acceleration for arbi-
trary planar motion
4. Obtain the scalar product of vectors (6î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) and (2î − 9ĵ + 6k̂) and also the
cosine of the angle between them.
5. Derive an expression for the velocity and acceleration of a particle moving at a constant
speed along a circular path.

1. (b) Force acting on particle
2. Radial component
3. (c) Veloctity is transverse and acceleration has both transverse and radial component
4. (b) Centripetal force
mv 2
5. r
5.11 References
1. Upadhyaya J C, Classical Mechanics, 2nd Edn., Himalaya Publishing House (2017).
2. Arora C L, and Hemne P S, Physics for Degree Students, Revised Edn., S Chand and
Company (2012).
3. Charles Kittel, and Walter Knight, Berkeley Physics Course, Mechanics Vol. 1, 2nd
Edn., Tata McGraw Hill (2011).
73
6 Unit-6: Conservation of linear momentum

6.1 Objectives
Recognize and identify the mathematical quantities which effect the conservation of
momentum
Apply the conservation of linear momentum into two-dimensional collisions and to
solve to problems
6.2 Introduction
The linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and linear velocity.
If m is the mass of the body and →
−
v its velocity, then
→
−
p = m→
−
v
The momentum of an N particle system is the sum of the momenta of the N particles
is,
→
− →
− mi →
−
X X
P = pi = vi
i i
But,
d X → d →− →
−
mi →
− mi −
X
vi = ri = M R CM = M V CM
dt dt
i i
Thus,
→
− →
−
P = M V CM
If the external forces acting on the system add up to zero, the centre of mass moves
→
−
with constant velocity, which means P = constant. Thus, the linear momentum of a system
remains constant, if the external forces acting on the system add up to zero. This is known
as the principle of linear momentum.
Suppose, when a bullet is fired from a gun, the bullet of mass m moves forward with a
→
−
velocity →
−
v and the gun of mass M kicks backward (i.e. recoils) with a velocity V , then
the momentum of the bullet in the forward direction is given by
→
−
p1 = m→
−
v
Similarly, the momentum of the gun in the backward direction is given by,
→
− →
−
p2 = −M V
Thus, the total linear momentum, after the bullet is fired,
→
−
m→
−
v −MV = 0
Also, the linear momentum before the bullet is fired is zero. Thus, the total linear
momentum of the bullet and the gun which was zero before the bullet was fired remains
the same (i.e. zero) even after firing the bullet, i.e. the linear momentum is conserved.
74
6.3 Conservation of linear momentum

The law of conservation of linear momentum may be easily extended to any number of
particles, either in fixed relative positions so as to form a rigid body or in the form of a
loose conglomeration and thus being free to move into all sorts of different positions.
Let m1 , m2 ,...mn be the masses of the different particles and in addition to their own
interaction with each other, let there also be external forces acting on them, so that they
acquire velocities →−
v1 , →
−
v2 ,...−
v→ →
−
n respectively. Then, their total momentum p is the vector
sum of their individual momenta → −
p1 , →
−
p2 , →
−
p3 .... i.e.,
→
−
P =→
−
p1 + →
−
p2 + →
−
p3 + ...−
p→ →
− →
− →
− −
→
n = m1 v1 + m2 v2 + m3 v3 + ...mn vn
Differentiating with respect to t, we have

→
−
dP d→
−
p1 d→
−
p2 d−
p→ d − →
= (→p1 + −
p2 + →
−
p3 + ...−
p→
n
= + + ... n)
dt dt dt dt dt
That is,
→
− −
→ − → −
→
F = F1 + F2 + ...Fn
−
→ − → −
→
Where, F1 + F2 + ...Fn are the forces acting on the particles of masses m1 , m2 , m3 ...mn
respectively.
Now, the internal forces alone cannot bring about any changes in the momentum of the
body since, forming pairs of equal and opposite forces, they give rise to equal and opposite
−
→ − → −→
changes of momentum which cancel out. The above forces F1 + F2 + ...Fn thus actually
→
−
represent only the external forces acting on the particles and F their resultant. So that if
→
− −
→
F = 0, we have ddtp = 0 and therefore, → −p1 + →
−
p2 + ...−
p→
n a constant, implying that even though
the individual values of p1 , p2 , p3 etc may change, their total sum →
→
− →
− →
− −
p remains unaltered.
This is the law of conservation of linear momentum and it can be stated as ”when the vector
sum of the external forces acting upon a system of particles equals zero, the total linear
momentum of the system remains constant”.
The conservation of linear momentum of a system is a direct consequence of the trans-
lational invariance of the potential energy of the system which is one of the results of
Galilean invariance. Let us consider the case of two particles in one dimension, such that
their coordinates are x1 and x2 , and their potential energy U (x1 , x2 ) depending upon their
positions.
Now, Galilean invariance demands that this potential energy should remain constant
even if each particle is deplaced through the same distance d, i.e., the potential energy
U [(x1 +d), (x2 +d)] fter the displacement must be the same as before the displacement, viz.,
U (x1 , x2 ). This means that if U (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 −x2 )2 we should also have U [(x1 +d), (x2 +d)]
equal to (x1 − x2 )2 . We know that,
U [(x1 + d), (x2 + d)] = [(x1 + d) − (x2 + d)]2 = (x1 − x2 )2 = U (x1 , x2 )

This, clearly indicates that the potential energy is independent of the displacement d
suffered by each particle
75
In general, if the potential energy U (→

−
r1 , →
−
r2 ) is a function of only (→−r1 − →
−
r2 ) it is transla-
∂u
tionally invariant. Since the force on a particle is the negative of ∂x 1
, we have
∂u
F1 = −
∂x1
and
∂u
F2 = −
∂x2
But U being a function of (x1 − x2 ) only, we have
∂U dU dx dU
= =
∂x1 dx dx1 dx
and
∂U dU dx dU
= =−
∂x2 dx dx2 dx
Therefore,
∂U ∂U
=−
∂x1 ∂x2
or
F1 = −F2
→
−
So that, the total force acting on the particles which interact with each other is F =
−
→ − →
F1 + F2 = 0. The total force acting on the system of the two particles thus being zero, we
have, by Newtons second law, in vector form,
d
(m1 →
−
v1 + m2 →
−
v2 ) = 0
dt
or
(m1 →
−
v1 + m2 →
−
v2 ) = constant
Thus the total momentum of the two particles remains conserved.
6.4 Rocket motion in a uniform gravitational field

Rocket propulsion is based on the principle of conservation of linear momentum. A rocket
may use either a liquid or a solid fuel. In the former case the fuel (like liquid hydrogen or
liquid paraffin) and a suitable oxidiser (like oxygen, hydrogen peroxide or nitric acid), stored
up in separate chambers, are injected into a combustion chamber where the fuel is burnt. In
the latter case, the fuel itself carries its own oxidiser and hence a separate chamber for it is
not necessary. In either case, the large quantity of the heat of combustion produced greatly
raises the pressure inside the chamber, resulting in the burnt up gases (like CO, steam etc.)
at the back or the tail end of the rocket in the form of a high velocity stream, called the jet.
In consequence, the rocket is propelled forwards (i.e., opposite to the direction of the jet),
since the momentum lost by the jet of fuel gases must be equal to the momentum gained
by the rocket.
76
In a rocket fuel burns and produces gases at high temperatures. These gases are ejected
out of the rocket from a nozle at the backside of the rocket. The ejecting gas exerts a
forward force on the rocket which helps it in accelerating. Suppose a rocket together with
its fuel has a mass M0 at t = 0. Let the gas be ejected at a constant rate r = − dM
dt . Also,
suppose the gas be ejected at a constant velocity u with respect to the rocket.
At time t, the mass of the rocket together with the remaining fuel is,
M = M0 − rt
If the velocity of the rocket at time t is v, the linear momentum of this mass M is
P = M v = (M0 − rt)v − − − (1)

Consider a small time interval ∆t. A mass ∆M = r∆t of the gas is ejected in this time
and the velocity of the rocket becomes v + ∆v. The velocity of the gas with respect to
ground is,
→
−
v gas,ground = →
−
v gas,rocket + →
−
v rocket,ground
= −u + v
in the forward direction.
The linear momentum of the mass M at t + ∆t is given by
(M − ∆M )(v + ∆v) + ∆M (v − u) − − − (2)

Assuming no external forces acting on the rocket-fuel system, from equation (1) and
(2),
(M − ∆M )(v + ∆v) + ∆M (v − u) = M v
(M − ∆M )(∆v) = (∆M )u
or
(∆M )u
∆v =
M − ∆M
∆v ∆M u ru
= =
∆t ∆t M − ∆M M − r∆t
Taking the limit as ∆t → 0,
∆v ru ru
= =
∆t M M0 − rt
This gives the acceleration of the rocket. We see that the acceleration keeps on increasing
as time passes. If the rocket starts at t = 0 and we neglect any external forces such as gravity,
ˆ v ˆ t
dt
dv = ru
0 0 M0 − rt
77

1 M0 − rt
v = ru − ln
r M0
or
M0
v = u ln
M0 − rt
6.5 Elastic and Inelastic collisions

When two bodies are approaching each other, a force comes into play between them for a
finite time and brings about a measurable change in their velocities, momenta and energy
according to the respective laws of conservation, a collision is said to have taken place.
The essence of a collision is, in fact, a redistribution of the total momentum of the par-
ticles. This is the reason why the law of conservation of momentum is simply indispensable
in dealing with the phenomenon of collision between particles.
The collision is termed scattering if the nature of particles does not change after collision.
Familiar examples of collision or scattering are the deflection of a comet as it passes near
the solar system and the deflection of an α-particle by an atomic nucleus. The study of
collision is of particular importance in atomic and nuclear physics. The bodies involved
may be atoms, nuclei or various elementary particles such as electrons, protons, etc.
Elastic collisions: A collision is said to be an elastic collision if the final particles after
collision are the same as the initial particles before collision and secondly the sum of the
kinetic energies of the particles after collision is the same as the sum of the kinetic energies
of the particle before collision.
Inelastic collisions: A collision is said to be an inelastic collision if, the final particles
after collision are the same as the initial particles before collision and secondly, the sum
of the kinetic energies of the particles after collision is either more or less than the sum
of the kinetic energies of the particles before collision. A perfectly inelastic collision, in
which the particles stick permanently together on impact and the loss of kinetic energy is
the maximum consistent with the requirements of conservation of momentum. A bullet
remaining embedded in a target is one such example.
In either case, however, since the interacting forces after the collision become effectively
zero, the potential energy of the system remains the same both before and after the collision.
Let us consider two blocks of masses m1 and m2 are moving on the same straight line
on a frictionless horizintal table as shown in figure. The block m2 , which is ahead of m1 , is
going with a speed v1 of m1 . A spring is attached to the rear end of m2 . Since v1 > v2 , the
block m1 will touch the rear of the spring at some instant (t1 ). Then onwards, the velocity
of the left end of the spring will be equal to the velocity of m1 . The velocity of the right
end of the spring will be same as that of m2 . Since m1 moves faster than m2 , the length of
the spring will decrease and spring will be compressed.
As it is compressed, it pushes backboth the blocks with force kx, where x is the com-
pression and k is the spring constant. This force is in the direction of the velocity of m2 ,
hence m2 will accelerate. However, this is opposite to the velocity of m1 and so m1 will
deaccelerate. The velocity of the front block A will gradually increase and the velocity of
78
the rear block B will gradually decrease. The spring will continue to become more and
more compressed as long as rear block B is faster than the front block A. Thus, there will
be an instant t1 + ∆t1 , when the two blocks will have equal velocities. At this instant, both
the ends of the spring will move with the same velocity and no further compression will
take place. This corresponds to the maximum compression of the spring. Thus, the spring
compression is maximum when the two blocks attain equal velocities.
Now, the spring is already compressed, it continues to push back the two blocks. Thus,
the front block A will still be accelerated and the rear block B will still be deaccelerated.
At time t1 + ∆t1 , the velocities were equal and hence, after t1 + ∆t1 the front block will
move faster than the rear block. Thus, the ends of the spring as they are in contact with
the blocks. The spring will thus increase its length. This process will continue till the
spring acquires its natural length at a time t1 + ∆t1 + ∆t2 . Once the spring regains its
natural length, it stops exerting any force on the blocks. As the two blocks are moving with
different velocities by this time, the rear one slower, the rear block will leave contact with
the spring and the blocks will move with constant velocities. Thus, their separation will go
on increasing.
During the whole process, the momentum of the two blocks system remains constant.
The momentum before the instant t1 was P = m1 v1 + m2 v2 . At time t1 + ∆t1 , the two
blocks have equal velocities V and we have P = m1 V1 + m2 V2 . After the contact is brocken,
the blocks is finally attain constant velocities v10 and v20 . Hence, the momentum will be
P = m1 v10 + m2 v20 .
Now, let us consider the energy of the system. As there is no friction anywhere, the sum
of the kinetic energy and the elastic potential energy remains constant. The gravitational
potential energy does not come into the account, as the motion is horizontal. The elastic
potential energy is 21 kx2 , when the spring is compresses by x. If u1 and u2 are the speeds
of this time, we have,
1 1 1
E = m1 u21 + m2 u22 + kx2
2 2 2
where E is the total energy of the system. At and before t = t1 , the spring is at its
natural length, so that
1 1
E = m1 v12 + m2 v22 − − − 1
2 2
At time t = t1 + ∆t1 , u1 = u2 = V and the compression of the spring is maximun. Thus,
1 1
E = (m1 + m2 )V 2 + kx2max
2 2
79
At and after t = t1 + ∆t1 + ∆t2 , the spring acquires its natural length, so that
1 2 1 2
E = m1 v 0 1 + m2 v 0 2 − − − 2
2 2
From equation (1) and (2), we have
1 1 1 2 1 2
m1 v12 + m2 v22 = m1 v 0 1 + m2 v 0 2
2 2 2 2
Thus, the kinetic energy before the collision is the same as the kinetic energy after the
collision.
6.5.1 Elastic head-on collisions

If m1 and m2 be the masses of two particles, →
−u 1, →
−
u 2 and →
−v 1, →
−
v 2 their respective velocities
before and after a head-on collision along the line joining their centres, we have,
m1 →
−
u 1 + m2 →
−
u 2 = m1 →
−
v 1 + m2 →
−
v2
and the kinetic energy equation is given by,
1 → 1 −2 1 → 1 −2
m1 −
u 21 + m2 →
u 2 = m1 −
v 21 + m2 →
v2
2 2 2 2
rewriting these two equations as
m1 (u1 − v1 ) = m2 (u2 − v2 ) − − − (1)

and
m1 (u21 − v12 ) = m2 (u22 − v22 )

and dividing the latter by the former, we have
u1 + v1 = u2 + v2
or
u1 − u2 = v2 − v1
The above equation showing that in an elastic one-dimensional collision, the relative
velocity with which the two particles approach each other before collision is equal to the
relative velocity with which they recede from each other after collision.
As for the values of the velocities v1 and v2 of the particles after collision, we have from
relation (v) above,
v2 = v1 + u1 − u2
and
v1 = v2 − u1 + u2
Substituting this value of v2 in relation (1) above and solving for v1 and similarly,
substituting the value of v1 in (1) above and solving for v2 , we have
80

m1 − m2 2m2
v1 = u1 + u2 − − − (2)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
and

2m1 m2 − m1
v2 = u1 + u2 − − − (3)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
When the colliding particles have the same mass, in this case, m1 = m2 . So that, from
relations (2) and (3) we have v1 = u2 and v2 = u1 , i.e., in one-dimensional elastic collision
of two particles of equal mass, the particles simply interchange their velocities on collision.
Similarly, if one of the particles be also initially at rest. Let the second particle be at
rest. Then, u2 = 0 and, therefore, from relations (2) and (3), we clearly have

m1 − m2
v1 = u1 − − − (4)
m1 + m2
and

2m1
v2 = u1 − − − (5)
m1 + m2
and since m1 = m2 we have v1 = 0 and v2 = u1 , i.e., the first particle comes to rest on
collision and the second particle acquires the initial velocity of the first.
Also, if the particle at rest be very much more massive than the other. Let the second
particle at rest be much more massive than the first, so that m1 is negligible compared with
m2 . Then, we have, from relations (4) and (5),
v1 ≈ −u1
and
v2 ≈ 0
This indicating that when a lighter particle collides against a much more massive particle
at rest the latter continues to remain at rest and the velocity gets reversed.
6.6 Elastic oblique collision in a lab frame

A reference frame is the space determined by a rigid body regarded as the base. The rigid
body is supposed to extend in all directions as far as necessary. A point in space is located
by the three coordinates taken with respect to the origin of the reference system. If the
origin of the reference system is a point rigidly fixed to the laboratory it is known as the
laboratory frame.
Let a particle of mass m1 , moving with velocity u1 collide with a particle of mass m2
initially at rest (i.e., u2 = 0) in the laboratory frame of reference as shown in figure. Let it
be deflected or scattered at an angle θ1 with its initial direction after collision with velocity
v1 , where u1 and v1 lie in the X − Y plane. Then, the velocity v2 of m2 , after collision,
making an angle θ2 with the original direction, will have no component in the z-direction
81
for the simple reason that m1 u1 and m1 v1 have no components. Now, from the law of
conservation of momentum, we have for the x-component of the motion,
m1 u1 = m1 v1 cos θ1 + m2 v2 cos θ2
Similarly, for the y-component of the motion
m1 v1 sin θ1 − m2 v2 sin θ2 = 0
From the law of conservation of energy, we have
1 1 1
m1 u21 = m1 v12 + m2 v22 − − − (1)
2 2 2
If we know the initial conditions, viz., m1 , m2 and u1 , we have to determine four unknown
quantities, i.e., v1 , v2 , θ1 and θ2 and have only three equations connecting them. We must
therefore, be given the value of one more quantity such as θ1 to be able to determine the
motion after collision.
Solving these equations then for v1 , v2 and θ2 in the particular case when m1 = m2 , i.e.,
when the two masses are equal we obtain v1 = u1 cos θ1 and from equation (1) therefore,
v 2 = u21 − v12 hence v2 can be obtained and finally,
v1
sin θ2 = sin θ1
v2
By knowing v1 , v2 and θ1 , we can also determine θ2 , where the sum of θ1 and θ2 is always
90◦ , showing that the two equal masses move after collision in directions perpendicular to
each other.
6.7 Reduced mass

In case of two body problem reduced to one body problem, the equation mm11+m m2
2
is referred
to as the reduced mass µ of the two particles or bodies of masses m1 and m2 . In case of
two body problem reduced to one body problem, let us write µ1 in place of m1 +m
1
2
. Also, we
know that reduced mass of two particles is always less than the mass of either particle, i.e.,
µ < m1 or m2 . This may be easily seen from the fact that if m1 = m2 = m, their reduced
82
m
mass µ = m × (m+m) = m2 , i.e., equal to half the mass of either particle. If the mass m1 ,
be very much smaller than the other (m2 ), we have

m1 m2 1
µ= = m1
m1 + m2 (m1 /m2 ) + 1
m1 −1

m1
= m1 1 + = m1 1 −
m2 m2
Since m
m2 ≈ 0 (m1 << m2 ), we have µ ≈ m1 , showing that the value of the reduced
1
mass tends to be nearest to the value of the smaller mass.

If we calculate the reduced mass of a hydrogen atom which consists as we know of a
single proton in the nucleus with a single electron going round it where a proton is 1836
times heavier than an electron. If, me be the mass of the electron and m2 that of the proton,
reduced mass of the hydrogen atom is,

me 1
µH ≈ me 1 − ≈ me 1 − ≈ me
mp 1836
i.e., nearly same as that of the electron.
On the other hand, the reduced mass of the positron a short-lived combination of a
positron (having the same mass as an electron but a positive charge) and an electron is
given by,
me me 1
µp = = me
me + me 2
i.e., equal to half the mass of an electron and therefore, nearly half the reduced mass of
a hydrogen atom. Thus, in calculating the time-period of an electron or its energy state etc.
as it moves in its orbit around the nucleus we must in the case of hydrogen, imagine a mass
µH revolving round the fixed proton and, in the case of positronium, a mass µv revolving
round the fixed positron, rather than a mass me .
Since, µH ≈ me , the error involved in the case of hydrogen in taking the revolving mass
to be m e (the actual mass of the electron) instead of µH will only be a marginal one. But,
since up is only half the actual mass of the electron, i.e., me , the error involved in the case of
positronium, in taking the revolving mass to be me instead of µp will be quite considerable.
Incidentally, the fact of the reduced mass of positronium being half that of hydrogen is
amply borne out by examining their respective spectra. For the frequency (v) of a spectral
line in a hydrogen spectrum is in accordance with Bohrs theory, given by the relation,
2π 2 e2 µ 1

1
v= −
h3 n2 m2
where h is the Plancks constant, µ is the reduced mass of hydrogen, n and m are integers.
Hence,
v ∝ µH ∝ me
We know that, positronium also hydrogen-like in structure, gives a pattern of spectral
lines similar to that of hydrogen with the frequencies of its spectral lines also given by the
above relation, where µ is now equal to µp the reduced mass of positronium. Therefore,
83
v ∝ µp ∝ me /2
where, µp = me /2. From the above equation it is clear that the frequencies of the
spectral lines of positronium are half those of hydrogen. Also, since wavelength is inversely
proportional to frequency (λ = vc ), it follows that the wavelengths of the spectral lines
by positronium are twice those of the spectral lines given by hydrogen. This being an
experimental fact, in stands fully confirmed that µp = 12 µH , i.e., the reduced mass of
positronium is half the reduced mass of hydrogen.
6.7.1 Motion of a reduced mass under inverse square force

The most familiar example of inverse square force is the gravitational force. For forces of
gravitational attraction between the two point masses m1 and m2 .
→
− Gm1 m2
F (r) = − r̂
r2
or
d2 →
−r →
−
µ 2
= µ r̈ =
dt
Gm1 m2
=− r̂
r2
m1 m2 →− Gm1 m2
r̈ = − r̂
m1 + m2 r2
Therefore,
→
− GM
r̈ = − 2 r̂
r
Where, M = m1 + m2 . This is clearly the equation of motion of a particle of unit mass
at a vector distance →
−r (equal to the distance between the two particles) from a fixed mass
M = (m1 + m2 ) exerting a force of attraction on it. Further, the acceleration of one mass
with respect to the other mass will appear to be the same but in opposite direction whether
the observer is at mass m1 or m2 .

1. If the velocity of a body doubled, its momentum is −−−
2. If the force applied to a system of particle is zero, then the total momentum of the
system of particles −−−
3. Newton’s second law of motion can be used to prove
(a) Law of conservation of angular momentum (b) Law of conservation of energy

(c) Law of conservation of torque (d) Law of conservation of linear momentum
4. A system of two particles is undergoing perfectly elastic collision, then the quantity
−−− is not constant during the collision
84
5. The gravitational force between two masses is
(a) Zero (b) ∞ (c) Attractive (d) Repulsive
6.9 Key words

Linear momentum, Rocket motion, Elastic and Inelastic collision, Reduced mass

1. Two masses constrained to move in a horizontal plane collide. Given initially m1 =
85gms, m2 = 200gms; u1 = 6.48cms/sec and u2 = 6.78cms/sec, find the velocity of
centre of mass.
Soln :
The velocity of centre of mass is given by,
→
− m1 −
→+m −
u1
→
2 u2
V CM =
m1 + m2
Therefore,
→
−
V CM = 2.82cm/sec
This is in the direction of motion of m2

M0
2. Show that the rocket speed is twice the exhaust speed when, M = e2 .
Soln :
If V0 is the speed of the rocket and Ve the exhaust speed, then
V0 M0
= loge
Ve M
Now,
M0
= e2
M
Therefore,
V0
= loge e2 = 2
Ve
Thus, the rocket speed is twice the exhaust speed.
3. A rocket of mass 20kg has 180kg of fuel. The exhaust velocity of fuel is 1.60km/s. Cal-
culate the ultimate vertical speed gained by the rocket when the rate of consumption
of fuel is 2kg/s
85
Soln :
If Vf is the final velocity of the rocket when the entire fuel has been exhausted, Ve
the exhaust velocity, and rocket starts from rest, then
M0
Vf = −Ve loge
Mf
where M0 is the initial mass of rocket and fuel and Mf the mass of the empty rocket.
Now,
M0 = 20 + 180 = 200Kg
Consumption of fuel = 2kg/s

180
Time to consume whole of fuel = 2 = 90s
Exhaust velocity Ve is given by,
Ve = −1.6km/s = −1.6 × 103 m/s
Therefore,
200
Vf = 1.6 × 103 × 2.303log10 = 3.68 × 103 m/s
20

1. Discuss the motion of reduced mass under the influence of inverse square force
2. What is linear momentum? State and explain the principle of conservation of linear
momentum with examples.
3. Derive the law of conservation of linear momentum from Newtons laws of motion
4. State and explain principle of conservation of linear momentum. Show that in the
absence of any external force acting on it, the linear momentum of a system of particles
remains constant
5. Show that when the vector sum of the external forces acting upon a system of particles
equals zero, the total linear momentum of the system remains constant.
6. What is collision? Explain elastic and inelastic collision
7. Explain laboratory and centre of mass systems (or frames of reference). What is the
advantage of studying a collision process in centre of mass system?
8. Show that in a head-on elastic collision between two particles, the transference of
energy is the maximum when their mass ratio is unity.
86

1. Double
2. Will remain conserved
3. (d) Law of conservation of linear momentum
4. Linear momentum of each particles
5. (c) Attractive
6.13 References
Pvt. Ltd. (2013).
3. Arora C L, Refresher Course in B.Sc. Physics Vol. 1, Revised Edn., S Chand and
Company (2008).
87
7 Unit-7: Conservation of angular momentum

7.1 Objectives
Explain the concept of basic idea of global positioning system and laws of planetary
motion
Distinguish between the torque and angular momentum
Apply the knowledge of conservation of angular momentum to solve problems
7.2 Angular momentum

The angular momentum L of a particle with respect to a point fixed to an inertial frame
plays an important role in particle dynamics and is defined as,
→
−
L =→
−
r ×→
−
p
→
−
Where →−r is the position vector of the particle and →
−p is its linear momentum. L is
perpendicular to the plane containg →
−
r and →−p . Therefore,
→
−
| L | = rp sin φ
→
−
| L | = rp sin(180 − β)
→
−
| L | = rp sin β
→
−
| L | = p.r sin β
→
−
| L | = p.ON
Where, ON is the perpendicular from O to the momentum vector p. Hence, angular
momentum of a particle is the moment of linear momentum about that point. Hence,
angular momentum
88
L = mvr
L = mrωr
L = mr2 ω
L = Iω
where, I = mr2 is the moment of inertia of the particle about the axis of rotation.
Let us consider,
→
−
L =→
−
r ×→
−
p =→
−
r × m→
−
v
→
d−

→
− r
L = m→
−
r ×
dt
→
− d
L = m→−r × (rr̂)
dt

→
− →
− dr̂ dr
L = m r × r + r̂
dt dt
→
− dr̂ dr
L = m→
−
r × r + m→
−
r × r̂
dt dt
→
− dr̂
L = mr2 r̂ ×
dt
Since, →
−
r × r̂ = 0.
→
− dθ
L = mr2 r̂ × r̂⊥
dt
→
− dθ
L = mr2 .r̂ × r̂⊥
dt
→
−
L = Iωn̂
Angular momentum of a rotatary motion is similar to linear momentum in translatory
motion. It is a vector quantity and its dimension is [M L2 T −1 ].
Again,
L = rp sin φ
L = rp⊥
Where, p⊥ is the component of → −
p perpendicular to the radius vector →
−
r . This clearly
indicates that, it is the perpendicular component of momentum that contributes towards
the angular momentum and not the parallel component.
89
7.3 Torque
→
− →
− →
−
The moment of force about a fixed point is defined as, N = →
−
r × F . Where, F is the force
→
−
acting on the particle and N is called torque.
The torque or time rate of change of anular momentum of the system about the fixed or
the reference point is the sum of the torques of all the external forces acting on the system.
That is why we explicitly say external forces is that the internal forces all form collinear
action and reaction pairs of equal and opposite forces, having equal and opposite moments
about the given point and their sum is zero that is they produce no effect.
As we know that angular momentum is the rotational analogue of linear momentum,
just as the rate of change of linear momentum of a particle gives the force acting upon it.
so also the rate of change of angular momentum of the particle gives the torque acting up
on it.
7.4 Relation between angular momentum and torque

The angular momentum L of a particle with respect to a point fixed to an inertial frame
plays an important role in particle dynamics and is defined as,
→
−
L =→
−
r ×→
−
p
→
−
Where → −
r is the position vector of the particle and →
−
p is its linear momentum. L is
perpendicular to the plane containg →
−r and →
−p.
Differentiating the above equation we get,
→
−
dL d − →
= (→r ×−
p)
dt dt
→
−
dL d→
−r d→
−p
= ×→
−
p +→
−
r ×
dt dt dt
→
−
dL
=→
−
v × m→
−
v +→
−
r ×F
dt
→
−
dL →
−
=→
−
r ×F
dt
Since, →
−
v ×→
−
v =0
→
−
dL →
−
=N
dt
or
→
−
→
− dL
N =
dt
Thus, the torque is the rate of change of angular momentum and is similar to the force
being equal to the rate of change of linear momentum. Further,
90
→
−
→
− dL d
N = = (Iω)
dt dt
dω
=I = Iα
dt
The above equation similar to the force being equal to the product of mass and accel-
eration.
7.5 Law of conservation of angular momentum

We know that the external torque applied to a system of particles is given by the relation
→
−
→
− dL →
−
N = =→−r ×F
dt
Therefore, the external torque be zero, we have,
→
−
dL
=0
dt
→
−
That is, L = constant. This is the principle or the law of conservation of angular
momentum and it can be defined as when the external torque (or the sum of the external
torques) applied to a system of particles is zero then the total angular momentum of the
system is remains conserved.
Law of conservation of angular momentum is not restricted to only closed orbits but
−
→ − → −
→
applies equally well to open orbits as well as collisions. Thus, if L1 , L2 and L3 , etc be the
→
− −→ − → − →
angular momenta of the different particles of a system, their sum, L = L1 + L2 + L3 + ...
remains constant in the absence of any external torque applied to the system, though the
particles may exchange momenta among themselves.
Example: Consider a pendulum bob tied to a string and whose free end passes through
a narrow tube. The tube is held by hand and the bob is set in rotation in a horizontal plane
describing a circle of radius r (Fig. a). If the free end is pulled downward, the bob begins
to rotate in a circle of smaller radius but with higher angular velocity (Fig. b).
91
7.6 Areal velocity and motion of a particle under the action of a cental force
Consider a particle moving under the action of a cental force such that the force is always
directed towards a fixed point. In such a case F = f (r)r̂, where, r is the distance of a
particle from the fixed point and r̂ is a unit vector along r. Therefore, the torque acting on
a particle is given by,
→
− →
−
N =→
−
r ×F
→
−
N =→
−
r × f (r)r̂
→
−
N = f (r)→
−
r × r̂ = 0
→
−
That is, dL
dt = 0 or L is constant. This indicates that the angular momentum of a
particle moving under the action of a central force is constant both in magnitude and in
direction.
We know that, the planets revolving round the sun in elliptic orbits under the action
of the cental force (gravitational force) and secondly, the motion of the electrons round the
nucleus under the action of the central force (electrostatic force).
→
−
Since the direction of L is a constant, r̂ which is perpendicular to L lies always in a
→
−
plane perpendicular to L . That is, the motion is confined to a plane.
If the radius vector moves from A to B, the area of ∆OAB is dS = 21 →

−
r × d→
−
r
Then the areal velocity is given by,
→
d− d→
−

s 1 →
− r
h= = r ×
dt 2 dt
1− →
h = |→ r ×−
v|
2

1 → →
−
p
−
h= r ×
2 m
1 →
h= |−
r ×→
−
p|
2m
→
−
Since, L = →
−
r ×→
−
p , then the above expression is rewritten as,
92
→
−
L
h= = constant
2m
That is, the angular momentum of a particle moving under the influence of a central
force always remains constant. Since, the electrostatic forces are central forces, the angular
momentum of the electron moving in its orbit around the proton in a hydrogen atom remains
conserved. Again, since gravitational forces too are central forces, the angular momenta of
planets orbiting around the sun remains conserved. Hence, for motion in central field, the
areal velocity and angular momentum are constant and also the motion is confined to a
plane.
7.7 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

Summarising the whole observational data, collected by the ancient astranomers, Kepler
formulated three laws, which could describe the whole planetary motion with sun as centre
of the system. These laws have an historical importance in that they provided the original
experimental evidence on the validity of Newton’s laws of mechanics as also his theory of
gravitational attraction. The three important Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are,
I Law: Law of orbits: Every planet moves in an elliptical orbit with the sun being at
one of its foci.
Circular path is a special case of an ellipse when the major and minor axes are equal.
For a circular path, the planet should have velocity perpendicular
q to the line joining it with
GM
the sun and the magnitude should satisfy the equation v = a . If these conditions are
not satisfied, the planet moves in an ellipse.
II Law: Law of areas: The radius vector drawn from the sun to the planet, sweeps
equal areas in equal intervals of time., that is the areal velocity is constant.
For a circular orbit, this is obvious because the speed of the particle remains constant.
III Law: Law of periods: The square of the time period of revolution of a planet
around the sun is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.
For a circular orbit semimajor axis is same as the radius. As we know that the equation
4π 2 3 4π 2
for law for circular orbits, T 2 = GM a , as M indicates mass of the sun, GM is fixed for all
planets.
Kepler’s laws support Copernican heliocentric theory. These laws exhibit great inherent
simplicity in describing the planetary motion. However, Kepler’s laws were empirical in
nature and he had no idea about the gravitational force as being the regulating agent for
planetary motion. Newton’s laws of motion and Newton’s laws of gravitation were highly
successful, since they could actually lead to Kepler’s laws as demostrated by Newton.
7.8 Satellite in circular orbit

Satellites are launched from the earth so as to move round it. A number of rockets are fired
from the satellite at proper time to establish the satellite in the desired orbit. Once the
satellite is placed in the desired orbit with the correct speed for that orbit, it will continue
to move in that orbit under gravitational attraction of the earth. All the equations derived
93
above for planets are also true for satellites with mass of the earth M and mass of the
satellite m.
A satellite in general, a smaller body revolving around a much larger body. Until
recently, we had only natural satellites, like the earth revolving around the sun and the
moon revolving around the earth in their respective orbits. The earth is thus a satellite of
the sun and the moon, a satellite of the earth. Nowadays man-made or artificial satellites,
placed in orbit around the earth, with the help of powerful rockets. The principle underlying
is the same in either case, viz., that the gravitational attraction on the satellite due to the
larger body (or the primary) pulling it inwards, supplies the centripetal force and this is
just balanced by the (fictitious) centrifugal force on it, pulling it outwards, as shown in
figure.
Thus, if M be the mass of the earth, m be the mass of the satellite and r be the distance
between the earth and the satellite, we have gravitational pull of the earth on the satellite
(i.e., the centripetal force), inwards = Mr2m G, where, G is the gravitational constant and
centrifugal force on the satellite, outwards = mv 2 /r, where v is uniform speed of the satellite
around the earth.
If ω be the angular velocity of the satellite, so that v = rω, we have
M mG mv 2 m(rω)2
= = = mrω 2
r2 r r
hence,
MG
ω2 =
r3
or r
MG
ω=
r3
Since r = (R + h), where R is the radius of the earth and h is the distance of the satellite
from the surface of the earth, we have
s
MG
ω=
(R + h)3
94
If g be the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth, we have
MG
g=
R2
or
M G = gR2
Substituting this value of M G in the expression for ω, we have
s
gR2
ω=
(R + h)3
Also, the orbital speed of a satellite, if the satellite being close to the earth, i.e., r =
(R + h) = R, we have
r
gR2
r = rω = Rω = R
R3
s r
g gR2 p
=R = = gR
R R
So, by considering R = 6.4 × 108 cm and g = 980cm/sec, we have
r = 7.92km/s
Thus, the orbital speed of an earth satellite revolving close to the earth’s surface is
nearly 8km/s.
7.8.1 Time period

The time taken by a planet in completing one revolution is its time period T . In one
revolution it covers a linear distance of 2π at a speed v. Therefore, time-period of the
satellite,
2π
T =
ω
s
(R + h)3
T = 2π
gR2
In case the orbit of the satellite lies close to the earth, i.e., if h << R, we have r =
(R + h) = R. So that,
s s
R3 R
T = 2π 2
= 2π
gR g
95
7.9 Geosynchronous orbits or Geostationay orbits

Geosynchronous or Geostationay orbits appears to be fixed at a position above a certain
place on the earth. For a satellite to appear always in a fixed position above the earth, it
should co-rotate with the earth. That is the orbital period of the satellite around the earth
must be exactly equal to the ratational period of the earth. Then the satellite appears to
be stationary to the observer on the earth.
In recent time a large number of artificial communication satellite have been launched
and are placed at different positions in geostationary orbits, above a specific height from
the earth. The orbits of these satellites must be coplanar with the equator of the earth.
These satellites are called Geosynchronous or Geostationay satellites, provide relay facilities
for international communications, television and radiosignals etc.
We know that, the angular velocity of the satellite is,

2π
ω=
T
where, T is the time period of the geostationary satellite or earth’s rotation. Therefore,
2π
ω= = 7.3 × 10−5 radians/sec
86, 400
where T = 24hrs = 86, 400sec. We know that the orbital velocity,
r
GM
Vc =
r
Also, Vc = rω, then the above equation becomes
r
GM
rω =
r
r
GM
ω=
r3
Since, GM = gR2 , then we have
r
gR2
ω=
r3
or
96
r !1
3
GM
r=
ω2
Substituting G = 6.67×10−11 N m2 kg 2 , M = 5.98×1024 kg and ω = 7.3×10−5 radians/sec,

we get
r = 4.2 × 104 km
Then the height of the satellite above the surface of the earth is given by
h=r−R
where radius of the earth R = 6.37 × 106 m, therefore
h = 35.3 × 103 km
Just as the motion of planets round the stars such as sun, is goverened by the Kepler’s
laws, Newton’s law of motion and Newton’s laws of gravitation, the motion of satellite (both
natural and artificial) is also goverened by these laws.
7.10 Weightlessness
A satellite moves round the earth in a circular orbit under the action of gravity. The
acceleration of the satellite is GM
R2
towards the center of the earth, where M is the mass
of the earth and R is the radius of the orbit of the satellite. Consider a body of mass m
placed on a surface inside a satellite moving round the earth. The force on the body are
the gravitational pull of the earh is GM
R2
m
and secondly, the contact force (N ) is zero. By
Newton’s law we have,

GM m GM
−N =m
R2 R2
or
N =0
Thus, the surface does not exert any force on the body and hence its apparent weight
is zero.
The principle of equivalence thus demands the equality of inertial and gravitational
mass. Indeed, this equality of inertial and gravitational mass is itself sometimes referred to
as the principle of equivalence. It thus follows from this principle that in a reference frame
accelerating towards the inertial frame of the earth, with an acceleration g (e.g. a falling
lift), all particles, originally subject to its gravitational field, will become free because of
the gravitational effect getting cancelled by the effect due to acceleration. This explains the
weightlessness of a person inside an earth satellite.
Consider a satellite of mass m moving round the earth with a velocity v in a fixed
circular orbit of raiud r. Then the satellite experiences an acceleration along the radial
direction and the transverse acceleration is zero. Therefore, a frame of reference fixed in
the satellite, in a non-inerial frame of reference of accelerated frame of reference. Any object
97
placed in this frame

2of reference (satellite) experiences a frame dependent force called the
centifugal force mv r . The centrifugal force on the object must be equal and opposite
to the centripetal force acting on the object. But the centripetal force is provided by the
gravitation force of attraction on the object inside the satellite due to the earth. Then the
resultant force acting on the object is zero. Therefore, an astronaut in the satellite does not
experiences any resultant force and hence feels weightlessness. Any body released from rest
by any astronaut remains stationary or rest in mid-air, without falling towards the earth.
This implies that the body also experiences weightlessness.
7.11 Global positioning system (GPS)

The Global positioning system (GPS) is a satellite based navigation system. Initially GPS
was developed as military system to fulfill military needs. However it was later made
available to civilians and is now a dual use system that can be accessed by both military
and civilians users. GPS provides continuous positioning and timing information anywhere
in the world under any whether conditions. Because it serves an unlimited number of users
as well being used for security reasons, GPS is one way ranging system, i.e., the users can
only receive the satellite signals.
The Global Positioning System consists of 24 satellites, that circle the globe once every
12 hours, to provide worldwide position, time and velocity information. GPS makes it
possible to precisely identify locations on the earth by measuring distance from the satellites.
GPS allows you to record or create locations from places on the earth and help you navigate
to and from those places.
GPS consists of three segments: the space segment, the control segment and the user
segment. The space segment consists of 24 satellites circling the earth at 12,000 miles in
altitude. This high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater area. Each GPS satellite
transmits signals which have number of components, i.e., sign waves, digital codes and nav-
igation message. Each satellite transmits low radio signals with a unique code on different
frequencies, allowing the GPS receiver to identify the signals. The main purpose of these
coded signals is to allow for calculating travel time from the satellite to the GPS receiver.
The control segment of the GPS system consists of a worldwide network of tracking stations
also control segment tracks the satellites and then provides them with corrected orbital and
time information.
The user segment includes all military and civilians users. With a GPS receiver con-
nected to a GPS antenna, a user can receive the GPS signals, which can be used to determine
the person position anywhere in the world. When a GPS receiver is turned on, it first down-
loads orbit information of all the satellites. Even though the GPS receiver knows the precise
location of the satellites in space, it still needs to know the distance from each satellite it is
receiving a signal from. Also, the distance is calculated by the receiver, by multiplying the
velocity of the transmitted signal by the time it takes the signal to reach the receiver.
GPS has been widely used to prepare map from satellite images especially topographic
surveys and thematic mapping, to find and rescue any crashes ship and airplanes, GPS plays
an very important role also GPS location determines what content to display, for instance
information about an approaching point of interest. In addition to this the global positioning
system provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around the world.
98
7.12 Chech your progress

1. The areal velocity of the particle in a central force field is
(a) Conserved (b) Not conserved (c) 0 (d) ∞
2. A particle is kept at rest at a distance R (earth’s radius) above the earth’s surface.
The minimum speed with which it should be projected so that it should not return is
−−−−−
3. Which of the following quantities remains constant in a planetory motion (for elliptical
orbits) as seen from the sun?
(a) Kinetic energy (b) Angular momentum (c) Angular speed (d) Speed
4. The time period of an earth-satellite in circular orbit is independent of −−−−−
5. The angular momentum is −−−−− in a central force field
7.13 Key words

Angular momentum, Torque, Areal velocity, Keplers law, GPS

1. A circular disc of mass M and radius R is set rolling on a table. If ω is the angular
velocity. show that the total energy E is given by 43 M R2 ω 2
Soln :
Kinetic energy due to translation = 12 M v 2
Similarly,
Kinetic energy due to rotation = 21 Iω 2
1
= M K 2ω2
2
Therefore,
Total energy = Kinetic energy due to translation + Kinetic energy due to rotation
1 1
= M v2 + M K 2ω2
2 2
1 1
= M R2 ω 2 + M K 2 ω 2
2 2
1
= M ω 2 [R2 + K 2 ]
2
99
R2

1 2 2
= Mω R +
2 2
3
= M R2 ω 2
4
2. A grinder is in the form of a circular disc of mass 10kg and diameter 0.2m. Calculate
the constant torque that has to be applied so that the disc acquires an angular velocity
of 300 revolutions per minute in 10 sec. Also, calculate the rate at which work is done
by the torque at the end of 5 sec.
Soln :
ω2 − ω1 = 2π × 5 rads−1
ω2 − ω1 = 10π rads−1
ω2 − ω1 10π
α= = = π rads−1
t 10
M R2 10 × 0.12
I= = = 0.05 kgm2
2 2
Torque = Iα
= 0.05π = 0.157 N m
Rate at which work is done = Torque × Angular velocity
= 0.157 × 10π = 4.929 J
3. Calculate the angular momentum of an electron moving in a circular orbit round a

nucleus with a velocity of 4 × 106 ms−1 . The radius of the orbit is 0.52 Å and mass
of the electron is 9.1 × 10−31 kg.
Soln :
We know that,
L = Iω
v
L = mr2 .
r
L = mvr
L = 18.93 × 10−35 Js
100
4. A torque of 1N m is applied to a wheel of mass 10kg and radius of gyration 50cm.

What is the resulting acceleration?
Soln :
Here mass of the wheel, M = 10kg
Radius of gyration, K = 50cm = 0.5m
Moment of inertia of the wheel,
I = M K2
= 10 × 0.5 × 0.5 = 2.5kgm2
Torque,
τ = 1N m
Now,
τ = Iα
where α is the angular acceleration. Therefore,
τ
α= = 0.4rads−2
I
5. A satellite revolving round the earth at a height of 600km. Find (a) Speed of the
satellite and (b) Time period of the satellite. Radius of the earth is 6400km and mass
of the earth is 6 × 1024 kg.
Soln :
The distance of the satellite from the venter of the earth is 6400km+600km = 7000km
The speed of the satellite is,
r
GM
v=
a
r
6.67 × 10−11 × 6 × 1024
v=
7000 × 103
= 7.6 × 103 m/s
or
= 7.6km/s
The time period is
101
2πa
T =
v
2 × 3.14 × 7000 × 103

T =
7.6 × 103
T = 5.8 × 103 s
6. Calculate the escape velocity from the moon. The mass of the moon is 7.4 × 1022 kg
and radius of the moon is 1740km
Soln :
The escape velocity is,
r
2GM
v=
R
r
2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 7.4 × 1022
v=
1740 × 103
v = 2.4km/s
7. Two particle of masses 1kg and 2kg are placed at a separation of 50cm. Assuming
that the only forces acting on the particles are their mutual gravitation, find the initial
accelerations of the two particles.
Soln :
The force of gravitation exerted by one particle on another is,
Gm1 m2
F =
r2
F = 5.3 × 10−10 N
The acceleration of 1kg particle is,
F
a1 = = 5.3 × 10−10 m/s2
m1
This acceleration is towards the 2kg particle. The acceleration of the 2kg particle is,
F
a2 = = 2.65 × 10−10 m/s2
m2
This acceleration is towards the 1kg particle.
102
8. Find the mass of sun from the following data: Radius of earth orbit r = 1.5 × 108 km,
G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg −2 .
Soln :
The earth revolves round the sun in more or less circular orbit of radius r. The
gravitational force of attraction between the sun of mass M and earth of mass m is
balanced by the centripetal force mrω 2 , where ω is the angular velocity of earth,
2π
ω=
365 × 24 × 3600
ω = 1.99 × 10−7 rad/s
Radius of earth orbit,
r = 1.5 × 108 km = 1.5 × 1011 m
We know that,
GM m
= mrω 2
r2
r3 ω2
M= = 2 × 1030 kg
G
9. A satellite revolves in a circular orbit at a height of 200km from the surface of earth.
If the period of revolution of satellite is 90mts, G = 6.66 × 10−11 N m2 kg −2 and mean
radius of earth is 6 × 106 m, calculate the average density of earth.
Soln :
Distance of satellite from the centre of earth,
R1 = 6 × 106 + 0.2 × 106 = 6.2 × 106 m
If M is the mass of earth and m that of satellite, then
GM m
= mR1 ω 2
R12
or
R13 ω 2 4
M= = πR3 ρ
G 3
3R13 ω 2
ρ=
4πR3 G
ρ = 5.35 × 106 kgm−3
103
10. A satellite moves in a circular orbit around the earth at a height Re /2 from the earths
surface, where Re is the radius of the earth. Calculate its period of revolution.
Soln :
Given, Re = 6.38 × 106 m and g = 9.8m/s
We know that the time-period of a satellite revolving the earth at a height h from its
surface is given by
s
(R + h)3
T = 2π
gR2
where R is the radius of the earth.

Re
Here, R = Re and h = 2 . So that, time-period of revolution of the satellite,
s 3
Re + R2e
T = 2π
g(Re )2
p
T = 2π 27Re /8g
Substituting the given values of Re and g, therefore, we have time period of the
satellite,
T = 9.3 × 103 s

1. State and explain law of conservation of angular momentum with an example
2. Define the term torque and angular momentum
3. Show that the areal velocity of a planet under central field of force is a constant
4. circular disc of mass M and radius R is set rolling on a table. If ω is the angular
velocity. show that the total energy E is given by 34 M R2 ω 2
5. State and explain Kepler’s laws of palnetary motion.
6. Explain the concept of weightlessness.
7. What is geostationary satellite? Calculate the height of a stationary satellite, coplanar

with the earth’s equator
104

1. (a) Conserved
q
GM
2. R
3. Angular momentum
4. Mass of the satellite
5. Conserved
7.17 References

105
8 Unit-8: Conservation of energy

8.1 Objectives
Distinguish between conservative force and non-conservative forces and explain the
significance of the these forces
Apply the principle of conservation of energy to problems involving a single body or

connected bodies
8.2 Introduction
In general, a conservation law states that a particular measurable property of an isolated
physical system does not change as the system evolves. For example, the conservation of
energy follows from the time-invariance of physical systems. At one time, scientists thought
that the law of conservation of mass and the law of conservation of energy were two distinct
laws. In the early part of the twentieth century, Albert Einstein demonstrated that matter
and energy are two forms of the same thing. Einstein showed that matter can change into
energy and that energy can change into matter. In some instances, a tiny bit of matter
can be created or destroyed in a change. But the total amount of matter and energy
before and after a change still remains constant. This statement is now accepted as the
law of conservation of mass and energy. The most important consequence of the law of
conservation of energy is that perpetual motion machines can only work perpetually if they
deliver no energy to their surroundings.
8.3 Concepts of Work and Energy

The energy of a particle is its capacity to do work and is measured by the amount of work
it is capable of doing in virtue of its motion or position. We know that a moving particle
is said to have more energy than an identical particle at rest. The energy of the moving
particle is given by,
1
K.E = mv 2
2
The above equation is called kinetic energy of the particle. The kinetic energy of a
system of particles is the sum of the kinetic energies of all its constitutient particles i.e.,
X1
K.E = mv 2
2
i
The kinetic energy of a particle or a system of particles can increase or decrease or

remains constant as time passes. If there are no forces applied on the particle, its velocity
remains constant and hence the kinetic energy remains the same. A force is necessary
to change the kinetic energy of a particle. If the resultant force is acting on a particle
is perpendicular to its velocity, the speed of the particle does not change and hence the
kinetic energy does not change. Kinetic energy changes only when the speed changes and
that happens only when the resultant force has a tangential component. When a particle
falls near the earth’s surface, the force of gravity is parallel to its velocity. Hence, its kinetic
106
energy increases as times passes. On the other hand, a particle projected upward has the
force opposite to the velocity and its kinetic energy decreases. From the definition of kinetic
energy, we have

dK d 1 2
= mv
dt dt 2

dv 1 2
= mv mv = Ft v
dt 2
→
−
where, Ft is the resultant tangential force. If the resultant force F makes an angle θ
with the velocity,
Ft = F cos θ
and
dK →
− − − d→
→ −r
= F v cos θ = F · →
v =F ·
dt dt
or
→
− −
dK = F · d→
r
Examples of the law of conservation of mass and energy are common in every day life.
The manufacturer of an electric heater can tell consumers how much heat will be produced
by a given model of heater. The amount of heat produced is determined by the amount of
electrical current that goes into the heater. Similarly the amount of gasoline that can be
formed in the breakdown of petroleum can be calculated by the amount of petroleum used
in the process. And the amount of nuclear energy produced by a nuclear power plant can be
calculated by the amount of Uranium-235 used in the plant. Thus, the energy is conserved.
It may take various forms, such as electrical energy, heat, light, kinetic energy (due to its
motion), sound, etc., but the relationship is always the same. The amount of energy used to
initiate a change in the same as the amount of energy detected at the end of the change. In
other words, energy can not be created or destroyed in a physical or chemical change, only
changes the form of its manifestation. This statement summarizes the law of conservation
of energy.
The workdone by a force on a particle during a displacement has been defined as,
ˆ
→
− →
W = F · d−r
Suppose the force is force is constant during the displacement, then

ˆ ˆ
→
− → →
− →
− −
W = F · d r = F · d→
− −r = F ·→r
where →−
r is the total displacement of the particle during which the work is calculated.
→
−
If θ be the angle between the constant force F and the displacement → −
r , then the work is
W = F r cos θ
107
Particularly, if the displacement is along the force, as in case freely and vertically falling
particle, θ = 0 and W = F r.
The force of gravity (mg) is constant in magnitude and direction if the particle moves
near the surface of earth. Suppose a particle moves from A to B along some curve and that
−−→
AB makes an angle θ with the vertical as shown in figure. The workdone by the foce of
gravity during the transit from A to B is
W = mg(AB) cos θ = mgh

where h is the height descended by the particle. If a particle ascends a height h, the
workdone by the force of gravity is −mgh. If a particle goes from A to the point B along
some other curve, the work done by the force of gravity is again mgh. We see that the work
done by a constant force in going from A to B depends only on the positions of A to B and
not on the actual path taken.
Energy: The energy of a particle is its capacity to do work and is measured by the
amount of work it is capable of doing in virtue of its motion or position.
8.3.1 Kinetic energy-Work energy principle

Kinetic energy of a particle is due to its motion, let us derive an expression for a particle
moving with velocity v. Let a force F~ be applied to the particle in a direction opposite to
that of its motion. Then, the work done by the particle against the applied force, i.e.,
ˆ
W = − F~ d~r
In accordance with Newton’s second law of motion,
d~v
F~ = m
dt
Where m is mass of the particle, we have
ˆ
d~v
W = −m · d~r
dt
ˆ
dr
W = −m dv
dt
108
ˆ0
1
W = −m f · dv = mv 2
2
v
Since, the energy of the particle is its capacity to do work, then the kinetic energy (K.E)
of the particle is,
1
K.E = mv 2
2
Also, it may be denoted that,
d 21 mv 2

d(K.E)
=
dt dt

dv
= mv =F ·v =P
dt
i.e., the rate of change of energy is equal to the power or activity of the force. Again,
invoking Newton’s second law of motion, we have
dv
m =F
dt
Multiplying both sides by v or dr
dt and integrating with respect to t between the limits
A and B (as shown in figure), we have
ˆB ˆB
d~v d~r
m · ~v dt = F~ · dt
dt dt
A A
or
B ˆB
1
m~v · ~v = F~ · d~r
2 A
A
109
Since ~v · ~v = v 2 and vA and vB are the values of the initial and final velocities of the
particle at points A and B respectively, we have
ˆB
1 1
mv 2 − mv 2 = F~ · d~r = W
2 B 2 A
A
where, W is the work done by the force in displacing the particle from point A to point
B.
Since 12 mvB
2 is the kinetic energy of the particle at point B and 1 mv 2 , its kinetic energy
2 A
at point A, we have, work done in displacing the particle from A to B is equal to its K.E
at B-its K.E at A, i.e., change in energy in proceeding from A to B. Therefore, Work done
by a force on a particle is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the particle.
8.3.2 Potential energy

Potential energy of a particle or a body as its capacity to do work in virtue of its position.
It is measured by the amount of work done by the force to restore the particle or the body
from its present position to a standard position and is denoted by the symbol U or V .
Thus, if the present or the existing position of the particle be specified by a vector ~r and
its standard position by a vector r0 , we have
ˆr0
U= F~ · d~r
r
This relationship exists only in the case of a conservative force field, for the work done
by a conservative force alone depends on the position of the particle, irrespective of the path
taken. In the case of a non-conservative force, the work done cannot be expressed in the
form of potential energy since it depends on the directions of motion as also on the shape
of the path taken and even, at times, on the magnitude of the velocity.
The standard position chosen is the one in which the force acting on the particle or the
body is zero, so that its potential energy in this position may also be taken to be zero. The
difference of potential energy in this position and in the existing position of the particle
then gives its a potential energy in the latter position.
In the standard condition case of a spring is taken to be its normal, unstretched or
uncompressed state. Although for convenience we take the electrostatic and gravitational
potential energies to be zero on the surface of the earth, the electrostatic and gravitational
forces involved are actually governed by the inverse square law, so that the electrostatic
force due to a charge or the gravitational force due to a material body is zero only at
an infinite distance from it and the standard or the zero potential energy position is thus
infinity. In such cases r0 = ∞ and we have
ˆ∞
U= F~ · d~r
r
or
110
ˆr
U =− F~ · d~r
∞
i.e., the potential energy of a particle at a point ~r is given by the amount of work done
in moving it from ∞ to that point.
8.4 Conservative force and Non-conservative forces

In general the forces are devided in to two categories: (a) Conservative force and (b) Non-
conservative forces. If the workdone by a force during a round trip of a system is always
zero, the force is said to be conservative force. Otherwise it is called non-conservative force.
The conservative force can also be defined as if the workdone by a force depends only on
the initial and final states and not on the path taken, it is called a conservative force. Thus,
the force of spring are conservative forces as the work done by these forces are zero in a
round trip. The force of friction is non conservative force because the work done by the
friction is not zero in a round trip.
In conservative force, the mechanical energy of a particle or a system of particles remains
conserved i.e., the sum of its kinetic energy (T ) and potential energy (U ) gives its total
energy E which remains constant or that the charge in its total energy (∆E) is zero i.e.,
T + U = E, a constant
or
∆T + ∆U = ∆E = 0
Similarly, in the case of other non-conservative forces, the work done by them appears
in some other forms of energy, like sound, light etc., but in all cases without exception the
total energy is conserved. The general law of conservation of energy thus holds good in the
case of both conservative and non-conservative forces.
The work done by a conservative force in displacing a particle from one point to another
depends only on the position of the two given points and is quite independent of the actual
path taken between them. On the other hand, the work done by a non-conservative force
does depend upon the actual path taken. A region of space in which a particle experiences a
conservative force at every point is referred to as a conservative force field or a conservative
field of force. In case the conservative force in the field happens to be a central force, it
may be specified as a central force field. Let us consider the following two examples,
Suppose a block of mass m rests on a rough horizontal table as shown in figure. It is
dragged horizontally towards right through a distance l and then back to its initial position.
Let µ be the friction coefficient between the block and the table. Let us caculate the work
done by friction during the round trip.
The normal force between the table and the block is N = mg and hence, the force of
friction is µmg. When the block moves towards right, friction on it is left and the work by
friction is −µmgl. When the block moves towards left, friction on it is towards right and
the work is again −µmgl. Hence, the total work done by the force of friction in the round
trip is (−2µmgl)
111
Suppose the block connected by a spring is kept on a rough table as shown in figure,
the block is pulled aside and then released. It moves towards the centre A and has some
velocity v0 as it passes through the centre. It goes to the other side of A and then comes
back. This time it passes through the centre with some smaller velocity v1 . Compare these
two cases in which the block is at A, once going towards right. In both cases the system
(table+block+spring) has the same configuration. The spring has the same length. The
block is at same point on the table and the table of course is fixed to the ground. The
kinetic energy in the second case is less than the kinetic energy in the first case. This loss
of kinetic energy is a real loss. Every time the block passes through the mean position A,
the kinetic energy of the system is smaller and in due course, the block stops on the table.
8.5 Conservation of energy in a conservative force field

If the work done W12 is the force moving a particle from 1 to point 2 is same for any possible
path between the points, then the force is said to be conservative (as shown in figure). The
region in which the particle is experiencing a conservative force is called a conservative force
field. Thus, the conservative force is given by,
112
ˆ2 ˆ2
P F · dr = Q F · dr
1 1
or
ˆ2 ˆ1
P F · dr + Q F · dr = 0
1 2
i.e.,
˛
F · dr = 0
Thus, if the force is conservative, the workdone on the particle around a closed path in
the force field is zero. In case of non conservative force like friction, the amount of work
done around different closed paths are different and not zero.
According to Stokes’s theorem in vector analysis, we can transform the work-energy
theorem as
˛ ˆ ˆ
F · dr = curlF · ds
Since the work done is zero around any closed path in the conservative force field and
does not depend on the length of the path, we may carry out the integration over the
perimeter of the area ds. This gives,
˛
F · dr = curlF · ds = 0
But, ds 6= 0 and hence, in general
curlF = 0
or
∇×F =0
Therefore, the force can be expressed as

∂V ∂V ∂V
F = −∇v = − î + ĵ + k̂ − − − (1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2V ∂2V ∂2V ∂2V ∂2V ∂2V

∇ × ∇V = î − + ĵ − + k̂ − =0
∂y∂z ∂z∂y ∂z∂x ∂x∂z ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
This scalar function V is called the potential or potential energy and depends on position.
In case, if we add any constant quantity to V , the equation (1) does not change and hence
the zero or reference level of the potential function V is arbitrary and can be chosen at
convenience.
113
If we take scalar product of dr with equation (1) and integrate from postion 1 to position
2, we obtain
ˆ2 ˆ2 ˆ2
F · dr = − ∇V · dr = − dV = V1 − V2 − − − (2)
1 1 1
If we assume the position 1 as ∞ and the potential energy to be zero, then the potential
energy at a point r (position 2) is given by,
ˆr
V (r) = − F · dr
∞
From equation (2), we see that the work done by the conservative force is
ˆ2
W12 = F · dr = V1 − V2 − − − (3)
1
which is the change in potential energy when the particle moves from postion 1 to
position 2.
8.5.1 Conservation theorem

According to the expression for work energy theorem, the amount of work done by a force
in moving a particle from postion 1 to position 2 is given by the change in kinetic energy
i.e.,
ˆ2
W12 = F · dr = T2 − T1 − − − (4)
1
Therefore, from equation (3) and (4), we obtain
V1 − V2 = T2 − T1
or
T1 + V1 = T2 + V2 = Constant
Thus, the sum of kinetic and potential energies of a particle remains constant in a
conservative force field. This is known as law of conservation of energy.
dr dv
If we multiply v = dt to both sides of F = m · dt and integrate with respect to t, we
obtain
ˆ ˆ
dv dr
m · vdt = F· dt + Constant(E)
dt dt
or
ˆ
d 1
mv · v dt = F · dr + E
dt 2
114
ˆ
1 2
d mv − F · dr = E
2
ˆr
1
mv 2 − F · dr = E
2
∞
i.e.,
T + V = E − − − (5)
where the constant E is the total energy of the particle. The equation (5) represents
the conservation energy theorem.
8.6 Vertical oscillations of a loaded light spiral spring

The spiral spring is arranged vertically with either its lower end fixed and the mass m place
on its upper end or with its upper end fixed and the mass suspended from its lower end
(particularly if the wire of the spring be thin), as shown in figure.
In figure (b), if the spring be extended through a distance l, say, due to the weight mg
of the mass, as linear restoring force Cl at once comes into play in the opposite direction,
so that the equilibrium position is attained when the two forces just balance each other,
i.e., when mg = Cl, hence, C = mg l . If the mass be now pulled down through a distance x
from this equilibrium position, the linear restoring force,
F = mg − C(l + x)
mg
= mg − (l + x)
l
mg
= mg − mg − x
l
mg
=− x = −Cx
l
115
2
i.e., we have m ddt2x = −Cx, as before, clearly showing that there is no effect of gravity
on the force constant C. The mass m thus executes a simple harmonic motion and its
time-period is given by
r
1
T = 2π
µ
s
1
T = 2π
C/m
C
Where, µ = m. Therefore, period of oscillation of the mass, given
r
m
T = 2π
C
8.7 Escape velocity

The escape velocity ve is defined as the minimum velocity with which an object has to be
projected from the surface of the planet so that it escapes the planet’s gravitational force
of attraction.
Consider an object of mass m projected from the surface of earth, with a velocity v. If
M is the mass and R is the radius of the earth, then just after projection kinetic energy of
the object is,
1
K.E = mv 2
2
Similarly, the potential energy of the object is,
GM m
P.E = −
R
Then the total energy of the object at the surface of the earth is,
T.E = (K.E + P.E)r=R
1 GM m
= mv 2 −
2 R
The kinetic energy 21 mv 2 at the surface of the earth is considered to be just enough to
take the object to infinity. Then the velocity of projection v is called the escape velocity
and is denoted as ve (v = ve ). But at infinity, both kinetic and potenial energies are zero.
Therefore,
(K.E + P.E)r=∞ = 0
Then, the law of conservation of energy leads to,
(K.E + P.E)r=R = (K.E + P.E)r=∞

or
116
1 GM m
mv 2 − =0
2 e R
1 GM m
mv 2 =
2 e R
2GM
ve2 =
R
r
2GM
ve =
R
This critical initial velocity is called escape velocity. Substituting the values of M , G
and R in the above equation, we get ve = 11.2kms−1 . In this we have neglected the effect
of other planets, stars and other objects in space. In fact, even if the initial velocity is some
what less than the escape velocity, the particle may get attracted by some other celestial
object and land up there. The above equation is valid for any celestial object. For example,
if something is thrown up from theqsurface of the moon, it will never return to the moon if
the initial velocity is greater than 2GMR , where M is the mass and R is the radius. Also,
if the object has to escape the solar system, them M must be replaced by the mass of the
sun and R by the separation between earth and sun.
8.7.1 Escape velocity from the solar system

If a body of mass m be situated on the earth in the gravitational field of the sun, its potential
energy is,
Ms m
U= G
Rs
where Ms is the mass of the sun = 1.33 × 1033 gm and Rs , the distance between the sun
and the earth = 1.49 × 1013 cm. In order that the body may escape from the solar system,
it should be projected with a velocity v (i.e., its escape velocity should be v) such that its
kinetic energy 12 mv 2 = U = GM
Rs
sm
hence, its escape velocity is,
r
2Ms
v= G = 42km/sec
Rs
However, we take into account the rotation of the earth around the sun, i.e. the fact
that the earth has a relative velocity of 3 × 106 cm or 30 km/sec with respect to the sun,
the escape velocity v = 42 − 30 = 12km/sec.

1. The escape velocity on earth is −−−
2. The negative of the work done by the conservative internal force on a system equals
the change in −−−
117
3. A block of mass m slide down a smooth vertical circular track. During the motion,
the block is in
(a) Vertical equilibrium (b) Horizontal equilibrium (c) Radial equilibrium (d) None
of these
4. The workdone by all the forces (external and internal) on a system equals the change
in
(a) Total energy (b) Kinetic energy (c) Potential energy (d) None of these
5. The escape velocity of a body on a planet depends on
(a) Mass of the planet (b) Radius of the planet (3) None of these (d) All of these
8.9 Key words

Work and energy, Conservative and Non-conservative forces, Vertical oscillations, Escape
velocity

1. Calculate the velocity with which a planet has to be launched from the surface of the
earth so that it escape from the gravitational influence of the earth. Radius of the
earth is 6400 km.
Soln :
Escape velocity of a satellite is,
r
2GM
ve = G
RE
But,
2
GM = gRE
Therefore,
s
2
2gRE
ve =
RE
ve = 11.2km/sec
2. A force F = (10 + 0.5x) acts on a particle in the x direction, where F is in newton

and x in meter. Find the work done by this force during a displacement from x = 0
to x = 2m m
118
Soln :
As the force is variable, we shall find the work done in a small displacement x to x+dx
and then integrate it to find the total work. The work done in this small displacement
is,
→
− −
dW = F · d→
x = (10 + 0.5x)dx
Thus,
ˆ 2
W = (10 + 0.5x)dx
0
2
x2

10x + 0.5 = 21J
2 0

1. What is meant by a conservative force? Show that if the force between two bodies is
of a central kind, it is also conservative.
2. Show that in the case of a conservative force, the work done around a closed path is
zero.
3. State and explain the work-energy principle and in general write a short note on the
utility of conservation laws.
4. Define escape velocity and obtain an expression for escape velocity.

1. 11.2 km/s
2. Potential energy
3. (d) None of these
4. (b) Kinetic energy
5. (d) All of these
8.13 References
Pvt. Ltd. (2013).
119
Unit 9: Rigid body dynamics

9.1 Objectives
9.2 Introduction
9.3.1 Review of definitions
9.3.2 Moment of inertia
9.3.3 Theorems of moment of inertia
9.3.4 Moment of inertia of rectangular lamina and circular lamina
9.3.5 Circular lamina
9.3.6 Kinetic energy of rotation
9.3.7 Compound pendulum
9.5 Keywords
9.6 Worked examples
9.9 References
120
9.1 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to,
 Discuss the basic definitions of rotation motion, moment of inertia and radius of
gyration.
 Explain and prove parallel and perpendicular axes theorems and apply these theorems
to obtain the moment of inertia of rectangular lamina and circular lamina.
 Elucidate the theory of compound pendulum.
9.2 Introduction
In physical sciences dynamics is the study of movement of systems or bodies under the
influence of external forces. There are two types of movements or motion. In translation
motion an object moves along a straight or curved line. In rotation motion object turns about
an axis. In rigid body dynamics we neglect the deformation of the object. The variables of
rotation are analogues to that for translation. We will review the basic definitions of variables
of rotation.
9.3.1 Review of definitions

The motion of a body is a combination of translational and rotational motion. In rotational
motion body rotates about a fixed axis called the axis of rotation.
Examples: Earth’s rotation, rotation of a top, electric fan, wheel, etc.,
We will discuss the basic terminologies associated with the rotational motion.
Angular displacement: when a rigid body rotates about a given axis, it describes a circular
path as shown in the diagram. The body is made up of many particles. Imagine one such
particle of the body and let the position of the particle be P at some instant of time. The line
joining between P to center of rotation O is called the radius r. After a time interval of t the
particle moves to a new position Q. During this interval the radius OP rotates through an
angle θ. This angle will represent angular displacement of the particle. Hence, the angle
through which the radius vector rotates in a given time is called angular displacement.
If s is the arc length and r is the radius vector then the angular displacement is given by,
. The SI unit of angular displacement is radian.
121
Fig.1 Rotating rigid body
Angular velocity: the angular displacement can change with respect to time. This change is
called angular velocity. Thus, the angular velocity is the rate of change of angular
displacement. If θ is the angular displacement in a time interval of t seconds then the angular
velocity is given by,
(1)
The SI unit of angular velocity is rad/s.
For one complete rotation, the angular displacement will be 2π and the time interval t =T,
where T is called time period. The time period is the time taken to complete one rotation.
Then the angular velocity is given by,
(2)
Where is called the frequency of rotation. The number of complete rotations performed
by a rigid body in one second is called frequency and its unit is rpm (rotations per minute)
and SI unit is hertz (Hz). If a body is making n rotations in t seconds, then the total angular
displacement will be 2πn. Then, the angular velocity will be,
(3)
Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity:
Consider a particle undergoing a uniform rotational motion (angular velocity remains

constant). Let r be the radius of rotation, ω be the uniform angular velocity and v be the linear
velocity. Then from the definition of angular displacement,
122
by definition, the linear velocity is given by,
(4)
Angular acceleration:
The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration. If ω1 and ω2 are the
angular velocities at time intervals t1 and t2 respectively, then the angular acceleration α is
given by,
(5)
The SI unit of angular acceleration is rad/s2.
9.3.2 Moment of inertia

We know that every object opposes to change in its state of rest or linear motion. And this
property is called as inertia. This property is also applicable to rotational motion. Hence, a
body opposes to change in its state of rest or uniform rotational motion. This property is
known as moment of inertia. The moment of inertia is equal to the product of mass and
square of the distance from the axis of rotation.
Consider a rigid body of total mass M rotating about an axis as shown in the fig. 2. The rigid
body is made up of huge number of particles of masses m1, m2, m3, etc., the distances of these
particles from the axis of rotation be r1, r2, r3, etc., Then the moment of inertia of the particle
with mass m1 and radius vector r1 is given by,
(6)
The total moment of inertia of the rigid body is given by,
123
∑ (7)
The moment of inertia is the sum of products of mass and square of the distance of different
particles of the body from the axis of rotation.
(8)
Where ∑ is the mass of the body and R is the effective distance of all the particles
from the axis of rotation.
Fig 2: Moment of inertia
Radius of gyration:
The moment of inertia can also be defined by imagining the entire mass of the body is
concentrated at a single point. The distance of this point from the axis of rotation is called
radius of gyration. If M is the mass and K is the radius of gyration then the moment of inertia
is given by,
(9)
2
The SI unit of moment of inertia is kgm . The unit of radius of gyration is metre.
Angular momentum:
If a mass m moves along a straight line with velocity v has linear momentum mv. Analogues
to this if a body undergoes rotational motion, it has angular momentum. It is a measure of the
rotational property of motion. Angular momentum is the moment of momentum about an axis
or point.
Consider a particle of mass m moving with linear velocity v in a circular path of radius r as
shown in the fig. 3. The linear momentum of the particle . The moment of the
momentum is called angular momentum (L) and is given by,
124
We know, , thus,
Where , moment of inertia.
Fig. 3 Angular momentum
If ⃗ is the position vector and ⃗ is the linear momentum, then the angular momentum is the
vector product (cross product) between them, given by,
⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (10)
The direction of L is perpendicular to r and p. The SI unit of angular momentum is kgm2s-1.
Torque:
We know that force is required to produce translational motion. Similarly, a torque is

necessary to produce rotational motion. It is the turning effect of the force or rotating ability
of the force. Torque is the product of force and the perpendicular distance between the axis of
rotation and the line of action of force.
If F is the force acting on a particle causing a circular motion with radius r, then the torque is
given by vectorially,
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
(11)
The torque is perpendicular to the plane containing r and F.
125
But , thus,
(12)
(13)
Fig. 4 Torque on a rigid body
The torque is the rate of change of angular momentum. And torque can also be defined as the
product of moment of inertia and angular acceleration. The SI unit of torque is Nm.
Law of conservation of angular momentum:

If the net torque acting on body is zero then the angular momentum remains constant.
If τ=0, then
Which implies L is constant or angular momentum remains constant.
Examples:
1. A ballet dancer changes her angular velocity using the conservation of angular
momentum. The moment of inertia increases when she stretches her arms, as a result
126
angular velocity decrease. The moment of inertia decreases and angular velocity
increases when she brings her arms close to her body.
2. A diver jumps to water by bolding his arms and legs inwards and rotates his body.
This results in decrease in moment of inertia, and increases speed of rotation. This
helps to perform somersault in air with larger angular velocity.
9.3.3 Theorems of moment of inertia

1. Parallel axes theorem:
The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia
about a parallel axis passing through the center of gravity and the product of its mass and
square of the distance between the axes.
Consider a body of mass M rotating about an axis AB as shown in the fig. 5. Let DE be a
parallel axis to AB passing through the center of gravity CG. Let d be the distance between
the two axes AB and DE.
Fig. 5 Parallel axes theorem
Now consider a particle of mass m at a distance x from the axis DE. The moment of inertia of
the particle about AB is . If the entire body is imagined to be made up of such
particles, then the moment of inertia of the body about the axis AB is given by,
∑ ∑ ∑
Where ∑ is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis DE which is passing
through the center of gravity. Algebraic sum of the moments about the center of gravity is
zero, ∑ . Therefore, the equation becomes,
127
∑ ∑
(14)
2. Perpendicular axes theorem:
The moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to
the sum of the moments of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes in the plane passing
through the same point where the perpendicular axis passes through it.
Fig 6: Perpendicular axes theorem
Consider a lamina and two perpendicular axes OA and OB lying in the same plane as shown
in the fig. 6. Let OC be an axis perpendicular to the plane of the lamina. Consider a particle
of mass m at P on plane which is at a distance of x and y from the axes OA and OB
respectively. The moment of inertia of the lamina along OA and OB are given by,
∑ and ∑ .
Let r be the distance of particle at P from O. Then from the diagram, . The
moment of inertia of the lamina about the axis OC is,
∑ ∑
(15)
9.3.4 Moment of inertia of rectangular lamina and circular lamina

(a) About an axis along the breadth of the rectangular lamina:
128
Consider a rectangular lamina of mass M and having length l and breadth b respectively. Let
AB be an axis along the breadth of the lamina as shown in the fig. 7. Consider a small strip of
width dx at a distance x from the axis of rotation AB. The moment of inertia of the strip about
the axis AB is given by,
(16)
where dm is the mass of the strip.
Mass per unit area of the rectangular lamina is,
Now, mass of the strip is given by,
(17)
The moment of inertia of the strip about AB is,
(18)
Fig. 7 Moment of inertia of rectangular lamina
The entire rectangular lamina is imagined to be made up of such small strips. Hence the
moment of inertia of the rectangular lamina about AB is given by,
129
( )
(19)
Similarly, the moment of inertia along the length of the rectangular lamina is given by,
(20)
The moment of inertia along the center of gravity and parallel to breadth of the lamina can be
obtained by using parallel axes theorem.
( )
(21)
Similarly, the moment of inertia along the center of gravity and parallel to length of the
lamina can be obtained by using parallel axes theorem.
( )
(22)
(b) Moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the rectangular
lamina and passing through the center of gravity:
This can be obtained by applying perpendicular axes theorem to the above case. The moment
of inertia will be the sum of moment of inertia along breadth and length through the center of
gravity respectively.
130
The moment of inertia about an axis through the mid-point of breadth and perpendicular to its
plane:
This can be obtained by using parallel axes theorem.
( )
( ) (23)
Fig. 8 Moment of inertia perpendicular to plane and passing through the center of gravity
Similarly, the moment of inertia about an axis through the midpoint of length and
perpendicular to its plane will be,
( ) (24)
9.3.5 Circular lamina

(a) About an axis passing through its center and perpendicular to its plane:
Consider a circular lamina of mass M and radius R rotating about an axis passing through its
center and perpendicular to its plane as shown in the fig. 9a. The mass per unit area of the
lamina is given by,
131
imagine that the circular lamina is made up of circular rings as shown in the fig. 9b. Now,
consider one such rings of radius r and thickness dr.
The mass of the ring is given by,
(25)
The moment of inertia of this ring passing through the center and perpendicular to the plane
is,
(26)
The total moment of inertia of the entire circular lamina is given by,
( )
(27)
Fig. 9 a.Moment of inertia of circular disc, b. circular lamina consisting of rings
132
(b) About an axis passing through its diameter:
Let AB and CD be two perpendicular axes on the plane of the circular lamina. If IX and IY are
the moment of inertia along AB and CD then, , where ID is the moment of inertia
along the diameter. Since moment of inertia along the diameter is same. Now using
perpendicular axes theorem, the moment of inertia of the circular lamina about an axis
perpendicular to the diameter is given by,
Here
(28)
About an axis tangential to plane of circular lamina:
Consider an axis CD tangential to the circular lamina as shown in the fig. 9. The distance
between this axis and an axis passing through the diameter is R, i.e., the radius of the circular
lamina. Now using parallel axis theorem, moment of inertia along CD is given by,
But
(29)
Fig. 10 About an axis tangential to plane
Routh’s rule: the moment of inertia of a body about any one of the three perpendicular axes
of symmetry passing through the center of gravity is given by,
133
i) The product of mass and one-third of the sum of the squares of the semi axes in
the case of rectangular lamina.
ii) The product of mass and one-fourth of the sum of the squares of the semi axes in
the case of circular or elliptical lamina.
Moment of inertia of a rectangular lamina about an axis passing through its center and
( )
perpendicular to its plane is ( ) and moment of inertia of a circular
lamina about an axis passing through its center and perpendicular to its plane is
( )
9.3.6 Kinetic energy of rotation

Consider a body of mass M rotating about an axis passing through its center of gravity as
shown in the diagram. Imagine the body is made up of huge number of particles of masses
m1, m2, m3, etc., and let the distances of these particles from the axis of rotation be r1, r2, r3,
etc., respectively.
The linear velocity of mass m1 is v1=r1ω, and of mass m2 is v2=r2ω, and so on. Therefore, the
kinetic energy of mass m1 is , and of mass m2 is and so on. Hence the total
kinetic energy of the rotating body is given by,
[ ]
Where K is the radius of gyration and
Therefore, the kinetic energy of rotation is,
(30)
134
9.3.7 Compound pendulum

A rigid body of irregular shape capable of oscillating about an axis passing through it is
called compound pendulum.
Consider a rigid body of mass M capable of oscillating about an axis passing through O as
shown in the fig. 10. Imagine a point CG at the distance of L from the point O. Let the
pendulum be displaced through a small angle θ and the pendulum starts to oscillate. The point
CG also displaced through an angle θ as shown.
Restoring couple acting on the pendulum
Moment of the restoring couple
If α is the angular acceleration, then the torque acting on the pendulum,
Where I is the moment of inertia of the pendulum.
At equilibrium, torque acting on the pendulum is equal to the moment of the restoring couple.
For small oscillations, , hence,
Fig. 11 Compound pendulum
Comparing this equation with the equation for simple harmonic motion,
135
Time period of oscillation T is given by,
If Ig is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about an axis passing through the center of
gravity (fig. 11), then using parallel axes theorem we can write,
Where K is the radius of gyration.
Fig. 12
The time period of the compound pendulum is given by,
( )
√
136
Comparing the time period of a simple pendulum, √
We get, is called equivalent length of the compound pendulum. If all mass of the
body were concentrated at a point P (refer fig. 10) such that , we would have a
simple pendulum with the same time period. The point P is called the center of oscillation.
Consider the equation,
This is a quadratic equation with two solutions L1 and L2 satisfying, and

. Thus, both L1 and L2 are positive. This means that at one side of the CG there are
two positions of suspension having the same time period. Similarly, on the other side of the
CG there are two such positions with the same time period. Therefore, there are total four
positions of centers of suspension about which time periods would be the same. Thus, if the
pendulum oscillates about O and the time period would be the same as when it oscillates
about P. The time period would be infinite if the pendulum oscillates about an axis passing
through CG.
Fig. 13 Graph of distance v/s time period for compound pendulum

1. The SI unit of angular velocity is ……
2. The SI unit of moment of inertia is ……
3. What is the formula for radius of gyration?
4. What will be the radius of gyration of a circular disc of diameter 15cm?
5. The moment of inertia of the body is independent of choice of a) axis of rotation b) its
mass c) its shape and size d) its angular velocity.
6. A ……… has a definite and unchanging shape when external forces are applied on it.
137
7. An electric driller comes to rest quicker than an electric grinder after switching off the
device because driller has smaller …………
8. What happens to angular velocity when two stones are gently placed on a circular
table rotating with uniform speed a) increases b) decreases c) remains same d) zero.
9. The torque on body is ……… when the force is applied in the direction of the radius
vector.
9.5 Keywords
Rigid body, moment of inertia, radius of gyration, compound pendulum.
9.6 Worked examples

1. Calculate the angular velocity and linear velocity of a particle at the earth’s equator.
The time period of rotation is 24h and the radius is 6400km.
Solution:
Angular velocity,
Linear velocity,
2. A grinding stone weighing 60kg has a radius of 1.2m. It acquires speed of 120rpm in
10 seconds from zero. Calculate the torque.
Solution:
The moment of inertia,
The angular acceleration,
Torque,
138
3. A circular disc of mass 7kg and radius 0.5m is making 400 revolutions per minute
about its diameter. Calculate the moment of inertia and energy.
Solution:
The moment of inertia,
Angular velocity,
Kinetic energy of rotation,
4. A uniform rod of length 1.4 m oscillates about a horizontal axis of rotation, passing
through one end. Find the period of oscillation and the positions about which the
period is same.
Solution:
The moment of inertia of the rod
If K is the radius of gyration then,
√
√
Time period,
√ √
The other positions at which the time period is same are,
139

1. Define moment of inertia.
2. State and prove perpendicular axes theorem.
3. State and prove parallel axes theorem.
4. Obtain an expression for the kinetic energy of a rigid body.
5. Derive an expression for moment of inertia of rectangular lamina.
6. Give the theory of compound pendulum.

1. rad/sec
2. kg/m2
3. √
4.
5. Its angular velocity

6. Rigid body
7. Moment of inertia
8. Decreases
9. Zero
9.9 References
1. Elements of Properties Matter, D S Mathur, S Chand and Company Ltd.
2. Properties of Matter, R Murugeshan, S Chand Publishing.
140
Unit 10: Elasticity
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3.1 Hooke’s law
10.3.2 Relation between elastic constants
10.3.3 Limiting values of Poisson’s ratio
10.3.4 Work done in stretching
10.3.5 Bending of beams
10.3.6 Bending moment
10.3.7 Light single cantilever
10.3.8 Torsion: Expression for couple per unit twist
10.3.9 Torsional pendulum
10.3.10 Static torsion
10.5 Keywords
10.6 Worked examples
10.9 References
141
10.1 Objectives
After studying this module, you should be able to,
 Elucidate the concepts of moduli of elasticity, Hook´s law and Poisson´s ratio.
 Derive relationship between elastic constants.
 Obtain expressions for work done in stretching, elastic potential energy, bending
moment.
 Explain the theory of single cantilever and torsional pendulum.
10.2 Introduction
In the last chapter we discussed mechanics of rigid objects, which means that they don’t
change their shape or size by the application of external forces. But in real it is not true. There
is no perfect rigid body. All bodies can be deformed by applying suitable forces. For
example, a wire fixed at one end, can be stretched along its length. External forces in all
directions can change the volume of the body. When a body changes its shape or form, we
say that the body is deformed or strained. The body sometimes can regain its original shape
or form after the removal of external forces. The property of the material body to regain its
shape or form is called elasticity. The external forces are called deforming forces. A body can
regain its original shape or form, upon the removal of these deforming forces, are said to be
perfectly elastic. The materials do not show this property are called plastic. But in reality,
there are no perfect elastic or plastic material. Quartz fiber and putty are the nearly perfect
elastic and plastic materials.
The external forces applied on the body to deform it is called load. The body tends develop
an internal balance against the load and will restore to original condition after the removal of
load. This internal balance is called restoring force. The restoring force or recovering force
per unit area set up inside the body is called stress.
at equilibrium, internal restoring force= external deforming force.
The SI unit of stress is Nm-2.
There are three types of stresses.
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i) Longitudinal stress
ii) Tangential stress
iii) Volume stress
The internal restoring force developed per unit area when an external force is applied along
the length of the body is called longitudinal stress. If internal restoring force developed per
unit area is along the surface, then it is called tangential stress. The internal restoring force
developed per unit area when the external force is normal the surface is called volume stress.
The change produced in the dimensions of a body under external forces is called strain. It is
the ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration. It is a dimensionless
quantity. Similar to stress, there are three types of strains.
i) Longitudinal strain
ii) shearing strain
iii) Volume strain
iv) Lateral strain
The ratio of change in length to the original length is called longitudinal strain. The relative
angular displacement of the elastic body when tangential stress applied is called shearing
strain. Volume strain is the ratio of change in volume to the original volume. The ratio of
decrease in radius to the original radius is called lateral strain.
here the negative sign indicates that the radius decreases when the length increases.
10.3.1 Hooke’s law

The relation between stress and strain was first observed by Robert Hooke in the year 1679,
and is called as Hooke’s law. It states that stress is directly proportional to the strain within
the elastic limit. The proportionality constant is called modulus of elasticity or the coefficient
of elasticity. Thomas Young introduced the term modulus of elasticity.
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The unit of modulus of elasticity is same as that of stress. A graph obtained by taking stress
along x axis and strain along y axis is called stress-strain diagram. A stress-strain diagram of
wire is shown in fig. 1. When stress is zero, strain is also zero as indicated by the point O on
the curve. The straight and sloping part of OA shows that strain increases with increase in
stress. Hooke’s law is obeyed up to A. This linear relationship is referred as elastic limit. As
soon as the elastic limit is crossed, strain increases rapidly than the stress as shown along AB.
The body partly behaves as elastic and partly plastic. It does not come back to its original
condition along OA, instead it takes path along BC. There remains a residual strain OC.
Beyond the point B, strain increases erratically up to D as shown by irregular wavy line. This
large increase in strain is called yield point. The stress corresponding to the yield point is
called yielding stress. The wire behaves as plastic beyond the point D. Strain gradually
increases along DF mainly due to shear stress. After point F, strain increases even if the stress
is not increased because of the decrease in the cross-sectional area. Finally, the wire breaks at
E called breaking point. The maximum load that the material can withstand without breaking
is called ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Fig. 1 Stress-strain graph
Types of moduli of elasticity: Corresponding to the types of strain, there are three types of
moduli of elasticity. They are;
i) Linear elasticity (Young’s modulus)

ii) Volume elasticity (Bulk Modulus)
iii) Elasticity of shape (Rigidity modulus/shear modulus)
Young’s modulus: it is the ratio of longitudinal stress to linear strain. It is denoted by the
letter Y. If F is the normal force acting on a surface cross-sectional area A, and if l is the
change produced in the original length l then,
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(1)
Bulk modulus: The ratio of volume stress to the volume strain is called bulk modulus. It is
denoted by K. If F force is acting uniformly on area A produces volume change V in an
original volume V then,
(2)
If is the infinitesimal change in pressure that produces infinitesimal volume change

then, Bulk modulus can also be written as,
(3)
Bulk modulus is a measure of incompressibility, and hence the reciprocal of compressibility

(1/K).
Rigidity modulus: It is the ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain and denoted by the
letter n. If θ is the relative displacement of plane when a force F acts on a surface area A then,
(4)
Fig. 2 Shearing force
Poisson’s ratio: The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
It is denoted by σ.
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Example: when a metallic wire fixed at one end, is subjected to a load at the other end the
length of the wire increases and diameter decreases. Let be the original length and r be the
radius of the wire. If is the increase in length and is the decrease in radius of the wire
then,
The Poisson’s ratio is given by,
10.3.2 Relation between elastic constants

Consider a solid metallic unit cube as shown in the fig. 3. Let P, Q and R be the forces acting
perpendicularly on each face along x, y and z axis respectively. The force Fx acting along x
axis produces extension along x axis and contraction along y and z axis. The longitudinal
stress acting along x axis is given by,
Let α be the longitudinal strain produced along x axis and β be the lateral strain produced
along y and z axis respectively then,
The Poisson’s ratio is given by,
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(5)
Fig. 3 Stress applied on cube
Thus, the force acting along x axis produces elongation along x axis and lateral contraction
along y and z axis respectively.
Similarly, the force Q acting along y axis produces elongation along y axis and lateral
contraction along x and z axis respectively. The force R acting along z axis produces
elongation along z axis and lateral contraction along x and y axis respectively.
The net elongation produced along x axis
The net elongation produced along y axis
The net elongation produced along z axis
Case a): if the forces are equal ,
( ) (6)
Similarly, the net elongation produced along y axis ( ) the net elongation
produced along z axis ( ).
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The new volume of the cube is given by,
( ( ))
( )
Higher powers of σ are neglected. Original volume of the unit cube is 1. Therefore, increase
in the volume ( ) is given by,
( ) (7)
Bulk modulus is given by,
( )
(8)
( )
Case b): if force and

( ) ( )
( )
Similarly, the net contraction produced along y axis ( )
The elongation along x axis and contraction along y axis produce shearing strain in the cube.
Therefore, an expression for shearing strain can be obtained as below.
( ) ( )
148
( ) (9)
The rigidity modulus of the material of the cube is given by,
( )
(10)
( )
Now from the equation (8),
( )
( )
( )
(11)
From the equation (10)
( )
( )
(12)
By comparing the equations (11) and (12), we get,
( )
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(13)
From the equations ( )

and and we can write,
( )
( ) and ( )
Comparing the above two equations,
( ) ( )
( )
(14)
10.3.3 Limiting values of Poisson’s ratio

We have ( ) ( ), where K and n are positive quantities. If the Poisson’s
ratio σ is positive then must be positive. This implies , or . If σ is
negative, then must be positive. This is possible when . So, the limiting values
of Poisson’s ratio are -1 and 0.5. From the equation it is clear that the rigidity modulus
becomes infinite when . Also, the bulk modulus becomes infinite and the material is
perfectly incompressible.
10.3.4 Work done in stretching

To deform a body work is needed to be done. This work will be stored in the form of strain
energy. This energy will be released in the form of heat when the deforming force is lifted.
Consider a wire of length L fixed at one end and a force F is applied downwards. The work
done in stretching the wire by dl is,
Therefore, total work done in stretching a wire from 0 to l is,
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∫ (15)
The Young’s modulus of the wire is,
Substituting the value of F in the above equation,
Work done per unit volume,
(16)
10.3.5 Bending of beams

A beam is a rod or bar of uniform cross section of homogenous elastic material whose length
is very much greater than its thickness. A beam can be imagined to be made up of large
number of thin horizontal plane layers kept one above the other as shown in the fig. 4. Each
layer consists of number of longitudinal metallic fibers kept side by side. When the bar is
bent by applying load, the outer layer gets elongated and inner layer get contracted. The
middle layer will neither elongate nor contract. This layer is called the neutral surface. The
line that separates elongated layers and contracted layers is called neutral axis.
151
Fig. 4 Bending of beam
10.3.6 Bending moment

Due to the load applied to the beam the beam bends. And the beam restores to its original
state after the removal of load due to the elastic property. So, at equilibrium, there exists two
forces. The downward force due to the load and the reactional upward force. These two equal
and opposite forces constitute couple. This couple is called bending couple and the moment
of this couple is called bending moment.
Fig. 5
Consider a small filament AB of the neutral axis EF of the metal beam bent into circular arc
of radius R (fig. 5). Let θ be the angle at the center of curvature as shown in the diagram. Let
RS be another filament at a distance x from the neutral axis.
The length of the filament PQ
The length of the filament RS ( )
Increase in length ( )
Now from the definition, longitudinal strain is given by,
The Young’s modulus,
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The bending moment is the sum of moments of all the force acting over the entire cross
section of the beam.
Where, ∑ is the geometrical moment of inertia. If A is the area of cross action and
K is the radiation of gyration about the neutral axis then,
(117)
Therefore, bending moment is given by,
Case i) for a beam with rectangular cross section of breadth b and thickness d:
Area of cross section and
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Case ii) for a beam of circular cross section having radius r:
Area of cross section and
10.3.7 Light single cantilever

A cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the free end. If the weight
of the beam itself produce no bending, such cantilever is called light cantilever. Here the
weight of the beam is ineffective. Consider a cantilever beam AB of length l fixed at one end
and loaded w at the other end. The free end deflected to the new position C as shown in the
fig. 6.
Fig. 6 A light cantilever
Consider a small section of PQ of the cantilever at a distance x from the fixed end. The
external moment of the couple due to the load is given by,
( )
Internal bending couple acting at P is given by,
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At equilibrium, the bending couples are equal.
( )
( )
(18)
If the distance between the points P and Q is dx and is the angle at the center of curvature
then,
( )
(129)
Consider two tangents drawn at points P and Q so that they meet the vertical line at D and E
respectively. Let be the depression of the point Q below P i.e., DE. The depression is then
given by,
( )
Substituting the value of we get,
( )
( )
( )
The total depression is obtained by integrating the above equation between the limits
and .
( )
∫ ∫
∫( )
[ ]
155
[ ]
(20)
Case i): for a rectangular cantilever, geometrical moment of inertia
Therefore, the total depression,
( )
Case ii) for a circular cross section,
( )
10.3.8 Torsion: Expression for couple per unit twist

A cylinder or a wire clamped at one end and twisted at the other end by load, about its axis is
under a tension. This causes a restoring couple, equal and opposite to the twisting couple due
to the elasticity of the material of the wire.
Consider a cylindrical wire of length and radius having rigidity modulus n. The upper end
of the wire is fixed and couple is applied at the lower end perpendicular to its length, twisting
through an angle θ as shown in the fig. 7. Imagine that the cylinder is made up of large
number of co-axial hollow cylinders. Consider one such cylinder of radius x and thickness
.
Let AB be the line parallel to the axis before twisting and let AC be the line after twisting. If
φ is the angle between BAC then, . Also .
Now the rigidity modulus n is given by,
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(21)
Area of the hollow cylinder
Fig. 7 Angle of twist
The shearing force on this area
The moment of this force along the axis of the wire is given by,
The total twisting couple on the wire can be obtained by integrating the above equation
between the limits and .
[ ]
If θ is 1 radian, the couple per unit twist (C) is given by,
(132)
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This is also called torsional rigidity.
10.3.9 Torsional pendulum

A cylindrical rod or disc suspended from one end of a fine wire whose other end is fixed
constitutes torsional pendulum. The rod or disc is turned to twist the wire and it executes
torsional oscillations when released. Consider a torsional pendulum as shown in the fig. 8.
Let θ be the twist and C be the couple per unit twist.
Then, the twisting couple
Fig. 8 Torsional pendulum
The couple produces an angular acceleration in the rod or disc. If is the angular
acceleration and I is the moment of inertia of the disc the,
(23)
The angular acceleration is proportional to the angular displacement. Hence, the torsional
oscillation is simple harmonic.
The above equation can be re written as,
Comparing this equation with the equation for simple harmonic motion,
(144)
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The time period of oscillation is given by,
√
√ ⁄
10.3.10 Static torsion

This method of determination of rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is the direct
application of the expression . The experimental arrangement is as shown in the fig. 9.
The experimental wire is fixed at one end with the help of a rigid support and a circular
wooden disc is fixed at the other end. A horizontal pointer is attached to the wooden disc to
measure the deflection. Two long inextensible threads are attached the wooden disc and
passed over two pulleys. Scale pans are attached to the free ends of the threads. A circular
scale is fixed horizontally below the pointer to note down the deflection.
Fig. 9 Static torsion
Two equal masses m are placed on the scale pans and the deflections on the pointer s is
noted. If l is the length r is the radius of the wire and d is the diameter of the wooden disc
then twisting couple is given by,
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The restoring couple produced in the wire
At equilibrium,
The rigidity modulus of the experimental wire n is given by,
(155)

1. The modulus of elasticity is dimensionally equivalent to a) stress b) strain c) surface
tension d) Poisson’s ratio.
2. The bulk modulus of a gas is the additional pressure needed to reduce
the volume of the gas by 10% is ……
3. According to Hook´s law within the elastic limit if the stress is increased, the ratio of
stress to strain a) decreases b) increases c) becomes zero d) remains constant.
4. The symbols, , and represent the Young´s modulus, bulk modulus and rigidity
modulus and if , then
5. The Bulk modulus of a fluid is inversely proportional to change in a) pressure b)
volume of the fluid c) density of fluid d) change in its volume.
6. Theoretical values of Poisson’s ratio lie between ……... and ……...
7. The change in shape of a regular body is due to a) bulk strain b) shearing strain c)
longitudinal strain d) volume strain.
8. Longitudinal strain is possible in the case of a) gases b) liquids c) solids d) gases and
liquids.
9. Hook`s law essentially defines a) stress b) strain c) elastic limit d) yield point.
10. Energy in stretched wire is a) half of load strain b) half of stress strain c) stress strain
d) load strain.
10.5 Keywords
Hook´s law, Young`s modulus, Bulk modulus, Rigidity modulus, Poisson`s ratio, elastic
potential energy, torsional pendulum, static torsion.
160

1. A steel wire of length 4.8m and cross section stretches by the same
amount as a copper wire of length 3.6 m and cross section . What is the
ratio of young’s moduli?
Solution:
Young’s modulus is given by,
The ratio of young’s modulus is,
78
2. Find the compressibility of water if pressure increases 100 ltr volume
of water by 0.5ltr.
Solution:
Bulk modulus,
3. Find the work done per unit volume in stretching a wire of length 1.9m and cross
section by 0.1mm. Young’s modulus of the wire is .
Solution:
161
4. A gold wire 0.32mm in diameter elongates 0.1mm when stretched by a mass of 330g
and twists through an angle of 0.1 radian when an equal and opposite torque of
are applied. Find the value of Poisson’s ratio.
Solution:
5. A steel wire and a brass wire are loaded with masses 4kg and 6kg respectively as
shown in the diagram. The unloaded length of the steel wire is 1.25 m and that of
brass is 1 m. Young’s modulus of steel is and that of brass is
. Find the elongation if the diameter of each wire is 0.25cm.
Solution: For steel wire,
Area of cross section,
Stretching force for steel wire,

( )
Elongation of steel wire,
162
For brass wire,
6. What couple must be applied to a wire of length 1m and 2mm diameter in order to
twist one of its ends through 300. The rigidity modulus is .
Solution:
7. A circular body of mass 1.8kg and radius 3cm is suspended by a wire of length 0.5m
and radius 0.3mm. If the period of oscillation is 2.5 seconds calculate the rigidity
modulus of the wire.
Solution:
Time period of torsional oscillations,
The moment of inertia and the couple per unit twist
( )

1. What is elasticity?
2. Define the three moduli of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio.
3. Explain the stress-strain curve.
163
4. Derive the relation between elastic constants.

5. Obtain the limiting values of Poisson´s ratio.
6. Derive an expression for couple per unit twist in case of a cylindrical wire.
7. Obtain an expression for the depression produced by a load in a single cantilever.

1. Stress
2.
3. Remains constant
4. 4.5 K
5. Change in its volume
6. -1 to 0.5
7. Shearing strain
8. Solids
9. Elastic limit
10. Half of load x strain
10.9 References
2. Understanding Physics, Sarmistha Sahu, Kala N, Subhas Stores.
164
Unit 11: Viscosity
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Basic concepts of viscosity
11.3.1 Poiseuille’s formula
11.3.2 Corrections for Poiseuille’s formula
11.3.3 Viscosity of a liquid by Pioseuille’s method
11.3.4 Variation of viscosity with temperature
11.3.5 Variation of viscosity with pressure
11.3.6 Stoke’s Formula
11.3.7 Terminal velocity
11.5 Keywords
11.9 References
165
11.1 Objectives
 Explain the basic concepts of viscosity.

 Derive Poiseuille’s formula.
 Determine the coefficient of viscosity and Stoke’s formula.
11.2 Introduction
Some liquids like petrol, alcohol water etc., flow more freely than honey, glycerin, oil etc.
This is because of frictional force between the different layers of liquid as they move past one
another. The frictional force in a flowing liquid is called viscous force and it is a measure of
how resistive the fluid is to flow. This property is called viscosity. The viscosity is very
similar to the friction between two moving solids.
To understand fluid friction, consider this experiment. Take a beaker filled with water. Stir
the water with the help of a rod. Place some pieces of paper on rotating water. The movement
of papers at the center is faster than those near the wall of the beaker. This clearly shows that
speed of layers gradually decreases as we approach the wall of the beaker. If the stirring is
stopped water rotate for some time and then stops. According to Newton’s law of motion the
liquid can stop rotating only when an opposing force is applied. Since no force is applied
from outside, the opposing force must be arising within the liquid. This opposing force that
destroys relative motion of the liquid layers is called viscous force.
11.3 Basic concepts of viscosity

When flow of liquid is slow and steady, the velocity at every point remains constant in
magnitude as well as in direction in the fluid. The energy needed to drive the fluid used in
overcoming the viscous drag. Each particle of the fluid follows the same path and has the
same velocity as the predecessor. This type of flow is called streamline flow. Turbulent flow
of liquid is one in which the motion of the particles is irregular or velocity of the particles
change continuously.
Consider a fluid moving over a solid surface. Imagine that the fluid is made up of thin layers.
The molecules in the layer in contact with the solid surface are held by adhesive forces.
Therefore, the fluid molecules at the solid surface are stationary. The stationary layer will
retard the flow of the layer just above it. This second layer retard the layer above and so on.
Thus, there exist velocity gradient above the solid surface. The stationary layer is called
166
boundary layer. Newton showed that the force required to move the layer moving with
velocity v is proportional to area and velocity gradient.
Therefore,
Where L is the length of the layer.
(1)
If is velocity gradient then,
(2)
Where, is called coefficient of viscosity. The coefficient of viscosity is constant for a liquid
and depends on the nature of the liquid. is high for thick liquids like honey and glycerin.
Values of for common liquids are tabulated in figure (). The SI unit of coefficient of
viscosity is Pascal seconds or . Another SI unit is or called
Poiseuille (Pl). There is another unit called poise, which is equal to one millipascal second.
Liquid Coefficient of viscosity

in mPa.s
Water at 00C 1.79
0
Water at 20 C 1.002
Water at 1000C 0.28
Glycerin at 00C 12070
Glycerin at 200C 1410
Mercury at 00C 1.55
Ketchup 50000
The equation (2) does not hold for all fluids. Fluids that obey this equation are called
Newtonian fluids. The coefficient of viscosity is independent of the velocity of the flow. The
coefficient of viscosity depends upon the velocity of flow in non-Newtonian fluids. Blood is
an example for non-Newtonian fluid. The blood corpuscles can deform and decrease the
167
viscosity to maintain the rate of blood flow. Corn flour and water mixture is also an example
for non-Newtonian fluid.
11.3.1 Poiseuille’s formula

Poiseuille studied the streamline flow of fluids in tubes and formulated the result. According
to him, the rate of flow of fluid depends on the following factors:
1. The pressure difference between the ends of the pipe.

2. The length of the pipe.
3. The radius of the pipe.
4. The coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.
Consider a capillary tube of length L and radius . Now, imagine a cylindrical layer coaxial
with the tube and of radius . The velocity of flow is at all points on the surface of the
cylindrical layer. The layer in contact with the tube will be at rest and the velocity of other
layers goes on increasing towards the axis. Hence, the liquid inside the imaginary layer is
moving faster than that outside the layer. The tangential drag force is given by the equation
(3)
Where is the surface area of the cylindrical layer.
If is the pressure difference at the ends of the tube, then force acting on the liquid in
forward direction is,
At steady state
Here the negative sign indicates that the forces are opposite.
Integrating the above equation, we get,
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(4)
Where is constant.
Using the boundary condition in the above equation, when
(5)
Substituting the value of in the equation (4) we get,
( ) (6)
Imagine another cylindrical layer of radius surrounding the first. The cross-sectional
area between the layers is . The volume of liquid flowing through this area in one
second is given by,
The volume of liquid flowing through the whole tube in one second is,
Substituting the value of in the above equation,
∫ ( )
∫ ( )
[ ]
[ ]
(7)
Therefore, the coefficient of viscosity η given by,
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(8)
Thus, the coefficient of viscosity can be determined if we know and .
Pioseuille’s formula is valid if the velocity of the flow is small and the tube is narrow. If the
tube has wide bore then the flow becomes turbulent and Poiseuille’s formula is not
applicable. The velocity of liquid at which streamline flow becomes turbulent is called
critical velocity.
11.3.2 Corrections for Poiseuille’s formula

Due to the viscous resistance of the liquid, the actual pressure difference across the capillary
tube is less than P. Therefore, pressure correction factor must be introduced in the formula,
given by,
The liquid accelerates when it enters the capillary tube. Hence, the flow is not uniform in the
beginning. This can be corrected by considering the effective length of the capillary tube
given by, where is the radius of the tube. Substituting the values of effective
pressure and length correction in Poiseuille’s formula, we get,
( )
( )
(9)
( ) ( )
11.3.3 Viscosity of a liquid by Pioseuille’s method
Pioseuille’s apparatus is as shown in the fig. 1. It consists of a capillary tube AB, manometer
M, a liquid tank T and a beaker to collect the liquid. The capillary tube is placed on a
horizontal bench to avoid the effect of gravity. A pinchcock is used to control the flow of
liquid.
Using the pinchcock, the liquid is made to flow through the capillary tube slowly. The liquid
is collected in the beaker. The time for which the liquid was allowed to flow is noted. The
ratio of the volume of liquid collected to the time of flow will give the rate of flow of
liquid . The difference in heights h of the manometer limbs is noted. If ρ is the density of
the liquid, then the pressure difference at the ends of the capillary tube is given by,
170
The radius of the capillary tube is measured using a travelling microscope. If is the length
of the capillary tube then the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid can be determined using the
equation,
(10)
Fig. 1. Poiseuille’s apparatus
11.3.4 Variation of viscosity with temperature

The coefficient of viscosity decreases rapidly with increase in temperature. For example, at
800C the coefficient of viscosity of water is one-third of its value at 200C. There are many
empirical formulae to relate the variation. The formula suggested by Slotte is fairly in
agreement with the practical values. The equation given by Slotte is,
( )
Where t is the temperature, A, B and n are constants and depend on the nature of the liquid.
Based on theoretical calculations Andrade suggested a modified formula given by,
Where is the specific volume, is the absolute temperature, and are constants. This
relation agrees with experimental results except for water and alcohols.
11.3.5 Variation of viscosity with pressure

Viscosity is normally independent of pressure but under extreme pressures, viscosity
increases with increase in pressure except for water. The rise is very small and negligible
since liquids are incompressible and increase in pressure won’t bring the molecules closer.
Only for water, viscosity decreases with increase in pressure.
171
11.3.6 Stoke’s Formula

When a body falls through a viscous medium, it experiences a frictional drag. High speed
cars, projectiles or air-planes experiences viscous drag and loose energy. This energy will be
absorbed by the medium and converted into heat. This viscous drag force is proportional to
the velocity of the body. The drifting force becomes equal to the drag force and the body
attains constant velocity called terminal velocity.
Stoke showed that the retardation due to viscous drag for a spherical body depends on radius
of the body r, it’s velocity v and viscosity ղ of the fluid.
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
The value of C is experimentally found to be 6π
(11)
Where, r is the radius, v is the velocity of the moving body and is the viscosity of the
medium. This relation is called Stoke’s formula.
11.3.7 Terminal velocity

When a small body falls through a viscous medium (fig.2) the forces acting on it are,
i) The weight of the body

ii) The upward thrust due to buoyancy and
iii) The upward viscous drag
172
Fig. 2 Body falling through a viscous medium
The velocity of the body increases as it falls through the viscous medium and also viscous
drag. A stage is reached when the weight balances the drag force and upward buoyancy. At
this stage net force on the body is zero and thus the body moves with a maximum constant
velocity called terminal velocity.
If the density of the spherical body is ρ, then its weight is
Up thrust on the body due to the displacement of the medium
Where, σ is the density of the medium.
The resultant downward force on the body is given by,
( )
When the body attains terminal velocity, retarding force must be equal to the resultant
downward force hence,
( )
( )
(12)

1. A liquid set in rotation comes to rest due to …….
2. What happens to the viscosity of the liquid with increase in temperature?
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3. Which affects the efficiency of oil transportation through pipeline a) surface tension
b) viscosity c) strain d) stress.
4. Dimensional formula of viscosity is …….
5. Give one example for non-Newtonian fluid.
11.5 Keywords
Viscosity, capillarity, Poiseuille`s formula, Stoke´s formula.

1. Two horizontal capillary tubes A and B are connected in series, and a steady stream of
liquid flows through them. The internal radius of A is 0.4mm and length is 256cm.
The internal radius of B is 0.3mm and length is 40.5cm. The pressure of fluid at the
entrance is 33 inches of Hg and at the exit end of B is 30 inches of Hg. What is the
pressure at the junction of A and B?
Solution:
Let h be the pressure at the junction of A and B.
The pressure across the tube A is
The pressure across the tube B is
The rate of flow of liquid is same through both the tubes, hence
( )
( )
2. How much water will flow in 30s through 200mm of capillary tube of 1.5mm inner
diameter, if the pressure difference is 5cm of Hg? The viscosity of water is
and the density of mercury is
Solution:
The pressure difference across the tube is given by,
174
The rate of flow of water is,
The amount of water flowing out in 30s is
3. The inner diameter of an artery in a person is reduced to half of its normal value. By
what factor will the blood flow through the artery be reduced if the pressure
difference across the artery remains unchanged?
Solution:
From Poiseuille’s law, the rate of flow
⁄
( ) ( )
The blood flow will be reduced by 16 times the normal flow.

4. Under the same pressure difference, compare the flow of water through a pipe to the
flow of engine oil. The viscosity of water and engine oil are
and .
Solution:
From Poiseuille’s law, the rate of flow
The flow of water is 250 times larger than oil under the same pressure difference.
5. Determine the radius of a drop of water falling through air if it covers 4.8 cm in 4 s
with a uniform velocity. Density of air is and viscosity of air
.
Solution:
Terminal velocity
Radius of the water drop,
175
√
( )
√
( )

1. Explain the term viscosity of a fluid. Define coefficient of viscosity.
2. What are Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids? Give one example for each.
3. Write a note on variation of viscosity with temperature and pressure.
4. Derive Poiseuille’s formula.
5. Explain Stoke’s law and arrive at the expression for the viscous force from dimensional
analysis.
6. What is terminal velocity? Derive an expression for terminal velocity.
7. With a diagram explain Poiseuille’s method to determine the coefficient of viscosity.
11.8Answers to check your progress

1. Internal friction/Viscosity
2. Decreases
3. Viscosity
4.
5. Blood
11.9 References
4. Properties of Matter, Brij Lal and Subrahmanyam, S Chand Publishing.
176
Unit 12: Surface Tension
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Introduction
12.3.1 The excess pressure inside a bubble
12.3.2 Excess pressure inside a curved surface
12.3.3 Surface tension by drop weight method
12.3.4 Interfacial tension
12.3.5 Surface tension of mercury by Quincke´s method
12.3.6 Variation of surface tension with temperature
12.5 Keywords
12.9 References
177
12.1 Objectives
 Elucidate the basic concepts of surface tension and the origin of surface tension.
 Derive an expression for excess pressure inside a curved liquid surface.
 Determine the surface tension and interfacial tension by drop weight method.
 Deduce Quinke´s method to determine surface tension of mercury.
 Explain variation of surface tension with temperature.
12.2 Introduction
Liquids do not have definite volume; they attain the shape of the container. When a liquid is
poured into a vessel, the free surface separates the liquid from air. The molecules on the
surface are attracted only by a few molecules below them. However, the molecules deep
inside the liquid have attractive force in all directions. Hence, the potential energy of the
molecules near the surface is lesser than those molecules deep inside. The surface of a liquid
is very similar to a stretched membrane and has a tension called surface tension.
The surface tension is a molecular phenomenon. Laplace and Gauss gave the theory of
molecular forces to explain surface tension. There are two types of molecular forces: 1)
adhesive force and 2) cohesive force.
Adhesive force is the force of attraction between the molecules of different substances. The
magnitude of this force is different for different materials. The force of attraction between
molecules of the same substance is called cohesive force. These two intermolecular forces are
different from gravitational force and do not obey inverse square law. The molecular forces
exist when the intermolecular distance is very small. The maximum distance up to which the
molecular force extends is called molecular range. The molecular range is of the order of
10-9m or 1nm. Imagine a molecule at the center of a sphere of radius equal to the molecular
range. Now, any molecule within this sphere experiences force. This sphere is called sphere
of influence.
Laplace extended the kinetic theory of gases to liquids to explain surface tension. Consider a
vessel having a liquid in it (fig. 1). Imagine three molecules A, B and C of the liquid as
shown in the figure. Draw the sphere of influence for each molecule. The molecule A is deep
inside the liquid and attracted by all the molecules within the sphere of influence. As a result,
there is no effective cohesive force acting on the molecule. The molecule B lies on the
surface of liquid and its sphere of influence lies partly outside the liquid. The upper part of
178
the sphere of influence contains air molecules and has attractive force upwards. The other
half of sphere of influence contains liquid molecules and there exist downward force. The
resultant force will be downwards. This downward force per unit area is called cohesive
pressure. All the molecules lying on the liquid surface experiences downward pull. Because
of this, the surface of a film acts as a stretched membrane and this tension is called surface
tension.
Fig. 1 Molecular theory of surface tension
Work has to be done against the downward cohesive force in order to bring a molecule from
the interior of the liquid to its surface. This will increase the potential energy. Hence, the
potential energy of the molecules on the surface is more than those inside the liquid. The
potential energy of the system tends to be minimum. That can be achieved by minimizing the
surface area. Therefore, a film tends to reduce its surface area to minimize the potential
energy. The potential energy per unit area of the film surface is called surface energy.
The surface tension is due to cohesive forces. Mathematically, surface tension is defined as
the force per unit length on the liquid surface. The direction of the force is tangential to the
surface.
Let F be the tangential force on the liquid surface of length L. Then the surface tension T is
given by,
(1)
The unit of surface tension is ( ).
12.3.1 The excess pressure inside a bubble

An air bubble suggests that the pressure inside the bubble is greater than outside. This excess
pressure balances the inward pull due to the surface tension. Let us calculate the excess
pressure. Consider a spherical bubble of radius having pressure inside it. The force due to
the surface tension round the edge of the bubble is .
179
The force due to the excess pressure is
At equilibrium these forces balance and hence,
(2)
Soap bubble: Soap bubble has two surfaces. Hence, the surface tension is 2T. At equilibrium
one can write,
(3)
12.3.2 Excess pressure inside a curved surface

Consider a small element of a liquid surface (fig. 2). As we discussed earlier, at equilibrium
the excess pressure is balanced by the surface tension. Let and be the adjacent sides of an
elemental surface. The radius of curvature be and . The outward force due to excess
pressure on inner surface ABCD is given by,
Suppose the surface is displaced by a small amount to a new position . The work
done to expand the surface is,
Let the length of the sides now be and . Increase in the elemental area is given
by,
( )( )
The increase in surface energy is,

( )
At equilibrium, the increase in surface energy is equal to the work done. Therefore,
( )
( ) (4)
From the diagram it is clear that the triangles and are similar, so,
180
(5)
Similarly, from the triangles and we have,
(6)
Substituting the equations (5) and (6) in equation (4), we get,
( ) (7)
This is the excess pressure inside a film surface.
Fig. 2. Excess pressure inside a curved liquid surface
Case 1: Spherical bubble

For a spherical surface . Therefore, the excess pressure inside a spherical bubble
is,
( )
For a soap bubble, there are two surfaces hence,
181
(8)
Case 2: Cylindrical surface: and . Hence the excess pressure inside a

cylindrical bubble is,
(9)
If there are two surfaces then, the excess pressure will be,
12.3.3 Surface tension by drop weight method

A drop of liquid about to be detached from the circular orifice of a tube, experiences the
following forces;
1. The weight of the drop mg vertically downwards.
2. Upward force due to the surface tension .
3. The downward force due to the excess pressure inside the cylindrical drop,
At equilibrium,
The experimental set up is as shown in the fig. 3. It consists of a burette fitted with a stopper
to control the flow of liquid. A thermometer is used to note down the temperature. The
burette is filled with a liquid. A clean dry beaker is weighed (m1) and placed under the burette
to collect the droplets. The stopper is adjusted until liquid drop is made to form on the tip of
the tube. The rate of formation of droplets must be slow (8-10 drops per minute). The beaker
is weighed (m2) again after collecting n number of droplets. The difference between these
two values ( ) will give the mass of n drops.
Fig. 3. Surface tension by drop weight method
182
The mass of one drop of liquid is,
( )
The radius of the tube (r) is determined with the help of a travelling microscope. The surface
tension can be found out using the formula,
(10)
Lord Rayleigh suggested a correction for the above formula which yields better result.
(11)
12.3.4 Interfacial tension

When two immiscible liquids come in contact, an interface is developed. The surface tension
of interfacial film developed is called interfacial tension. The experimental arrangements are
same as we discussed for surface tension by drop weight method.
If ρ1 and ρ2 are the densities of two immiscible liquids such that , the liquid with
density ρ1 is taken in the funnel. A beaker with the liquid having density ρ 2 is used to collect
the drops. A known number of drops are collected in a similar manner discussed earlier.
If m is the mass of one drop of liquid formed in another liquid, then the weight of the drop is
mg. The volume of the drop is . The upthrust on this drop due to the second liquid is
. Therefore, the effective weight of the drop is given by,
( )
( )
Assuming the drop takes cylindrical shape, the excess pressure inside the drop is given by,
Where T12 is the interfacial tension.
The downward force due to the excess pressure,
The upward force on the drop due to the surface tension,
183
At equilibrium,
( )
( ) (12)
Lord Rayleigh suggested a correction for the above formula which yields better result.
( )
12.3.5 Surface tension of mercury by Quincke´s method

This method is used to determine the surface tension of mercury as it does not wet the
surface. It is also used to determine the angle of contact. Consider a drop of mercury placed
on a glass surface as shown in fig.4, such that the central part of the drop is horizontal to the
surface. Let be the angle of contact and θ be the supplement of the angle of contact. The
surface tension can be obtained in two ways i) without involving angle of contact ii)
involving angle of contact.
i) Without involving the angle of contact: Imagine the drop is cut into two halves by a
vertical plane ABCD and further cut by two parallel planes AEFD and BHGC to obtain a
thin slice as shown in the fig. Let AB=CD=b. The forces acting on the slice; surface
tension at M which acts vertically upwards, the hydrostatic pressure p on the plane ABPO
acting towards the left and the pull due to surface tension at AB towards the right.
The hydrostatic pressure p over ABPO
Hydrostatic thrust over ABPO
The pull due to the surface tension at AB

At equilibrium,
(13)
184
Fig. 4. Surface tension by Quincke´s method
ii) Involving the angle of contact: The reactional force at G due to mercury on glass along
GD is . Therefore, the total force acting on the left is .
At equilibrium,
Where L is the total height of the slice.
( )
(14)
( )
The quantities h and L can be obtained using a traveling microscope. Now comparing the
equations 13 and 14, we get,
( )
(15)
The angle of contact is given by,

(16)
12.3.6 Variation of surface tension with temperature
It is found that the surface tension decreases with increase in temperature. It becomes zero at
critical temperature. For small temperature range, variation in surface tension is linear given
by,
( )
Where T is the surface tension at at and α is the temperature coefficient of
surface tension.
185

1. Raindrops assume spherical shape. Why?
2. Why hot soup tastes better than cold soup?
3. Dancing of small piece of camphor on the surface of water is due to …….
4. Surface tension of water can be reduced by a) dissolving salt b) reducing temperature
c) adding detergent d) all of the above
5. The surface tension of a liquid a) increases with area b) decreases with area c)
increases with temperature increase d) decreases with temperature increase.
12.5 Keywords
Cohesive force, Adhesive force, surface tension, excess pressure, Quincke`s method.
1. Calculate the work done in spraying a spherical drop of mercury of radius 1mm into a
million drops of equal size. Surface tension of mercury is .
Solution: Radius of bigger drop surface tension
The volume of the bigger drop,
( )
Let r be the radius of smaller drop, then the volume of smaller drop is
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
186
2. The interiors of a cylindrical and a spherical soap bubble are put in contact.
Determine the ratio of the radii of the sphere and the cylinder in order that the bubbles
are in equilibrium.
Solution: At equilibrium, pressure inside the bubbles must be same.
The excess pressure inside the cylindrical bubble of radius is,
The excess pressure inside the spherical bubble of radius is,
At equilibrium,
3. Calculate the work done to break up a water drop of radius 6mm into drops of water,
each of radii . Surface tension of water is .
Solution: Radius of bigger drop Radius of bigger drop
surface tension .
Solution:
( )
( )
Therefore,
4. Calculate the excess pressure inside a soap bubble of radius and surface energy.
Surface tension of the soap solution is .
Solution:
The excess pressure inside the spherical bubble of radius R is,
187
5. Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 0.02m. What additional
work should be done in order to increase its radius to double the value? Surface
tension of the solution is
Solution:
( )
6. The excess pressure inside a soap bubble of radius 0.35cm is . Calculate

the surface tension of the soap solution.
Solution:
The excess pressure inside the soap bubble is,
7. Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 100mm. What additional
work should be done in order to increase its radius to 150mm. Surface tension of the
solution is
Solution:
8. Find the total pressure inside a water droplet having diameter of 0.05mm at 200C if
the outside pressure is and surface tension of water is
Solution:
188
Surface tension
Radius
The excess pressure inside the droplet is given by,
The total pressure inside the droplet is

1. Explain surface tension on the basis of molecular theory.
2. Derive an expression for excess pressure inside a curved liquid surface.
3. With necessary theory explain the method of determination of surface tension by drop
weight method.
4. What is interfacial tension? With necessary theory explain the method of
determination of interfacial tension by drop weight method.
5. With necessary theory explain Quinke’s method of determination of surface tension
of mercury.
6. Discuss the variation of surface tension with temperature.

1. For the given volume, sphere has the minimum surface area.
2. Surface tension reduces so hot soup spreads on the tongue which increases taste.
3. Surface tension
4. Adding detergent
5. Decreases with temperature increase
12.9 References
4. Properties of Matter, Brij Lal and Subrahmanyam, S Chand Publishing.
189

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KARNATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

Mukthagangothri, Mysuru – 570 006

2. Prof. S. Krishnaveni External Subject Expert

3. Mr. S. V. Niranjana Convener

Motion of a point particle: point mass, the position vector of a moving

Rigid body dynamics: Review of definitions, moment of inertia and

changes in the object's position relative to its surroundings.

of matter and light on the atomic and subatomic scale.

2 Unit-2: Ordinary Differential Equations 21

3 Unit-3: Frames of reference 37

3.6 Centrifugal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4 Unit-4: Special Theory of Relativity 50

5 Unit-5: Motion of a point particle 61

6 Unit-6: Conservation of linear momentum 74

6.7.1 Motion of a reduced mass under inverse square force . . . . . . . . . 84

7 Unit-7: Conservation of angular momentum 88

8 Unit-8: Conservation of energy 106

 Recognise the statements of Gauss-divergence theorem and Stokes theorem to under-

Two vectors A~ and B,

1.3 Vector Algebra

1.3.1 Vector addition

1.3.2 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

1.3.3 Product of Two Vectors

1.3.4 Scalar product

where, θ is the angle between vectors A and B

this clearly showing that the distributive law holds good.

we have angle θ between the two vectors given by the relation,

1.3.5 Vector product

The important observations on vector product are,

~ cannot be negative and clearly,

Above equation indicating that the vector product is not commutative.

Conversely, if the vector product A~×B ~ = 0, we have AB sin θn̂ = 0 either A ~ = 0 or

The vectors A,~ B~ and (A ~ × B)

î × ĵ = −ĵ × î = k̂; ĵ × k̂ = −k̂ × ĵ = î and k̂ × î = −î × k̂ = ĵ

5. If Â and Â are unit vectors, we have A = B = 1 and therefore,

Â × B̂ = AB sin θn̂ = sin θ

1.4 Vector integration

1.4.2 Surface integrals

Associate with the differential of surface area dS a vector dS whose magnitude is dS

and whose direction is that of n. Then dS = ndS. The integral

1.4.3 Volume integrals

In terms of the Cartesian components, the volume integrals can be rewritten as

1.5 Gauss-divergence theorem

Suppose V is the volume bounded by a closed surface S and A is a vector function of

where n is the positive (outward drawn) normal to S.

1.6 Stokes theorem

where C is traversed in the positive direction.

1.7 Check your progress

2. The value if i · i and i · k are −−− and −−−

3. Suppose A × B = 0 and A and B are not zero, then

(a) A is parallel to B (b) A is perpendicular to B (c) A is equal to B (d) A is

4. The component of a vector is

5. A line integral and surface integral is related to

1.8 Key words

1.9 Solved Problems

ā = 5î + 3ĵ − 2k̂

Thus, the required unit vector is

~ = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂ + 2î + ĵ + k̂ + î − 3ĵ − 2k̂

4. Suppose A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k. Prove that A · B =

A1 i · (B1 i + B2 j + B3 k) + A2 j · (B1 i + B2 j + B3 k) + A3 k · (B1 i + B2 j + B3 k)

A1 B1 i·i+A1 B2 i·j+A1 B3 i·k+A2 B1 j·i+A2 B2 j·j+A2 B3 j·k+A3 B1 k·i+A3 B2 k·j+A3 B3 k·k

~ = 2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂ and B

From the figure we have,

Recognise the statements of Gauss-divergence theorem and Stokes theorem to under-