Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels

Presented by Weldon ‘Mak’ Makela

Senior Failure Analysis Engineer
Materials Testing & Analysis Group, Element St. Paul

April 26, 2012 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels

Future Topics for webinars
• Metallurgical Failure Analysis for Problem Solving-Dec. 4, 2011
• Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels-April 26, 2012
• Heat Treating
• Stainless Steels
• Tool Steels
• Aluminum Alloys
• Surface Engineering
• Corrosion

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 2

Carbon and low-alloy steels
• What is steel?
• Iron-carbon phase diagram.
• Carbon and low-alloy steel classifications.
• Mechanical properties.
• Microstructure.
• Application.
• Structural Steels.
• Specifications and selection of carbon and low-alloy steels.

• This presentation will not cover cast steels, coated products, forgings, cast
irons, ultra-high strength or other specialty steels.
• Tool steels and stainless steels will be covered in separate presentations.

Source: Metals Handbooks, 10th Edition, ASM International.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 3

What is steel?
• Steel is iron with small amounts of carbon and other elements added to
impart unique properties in the material.
• Pure iron is soft, ductile and has low strength.
• Steel is made by reducing iron ore to iron, which contains carbon and
other impurities. Further refining reduces the impurities, controls
carbon and other element content.
• Steels consist of iron with varying amounts of carbon:
– Carbon content varies from 0.02-1.25%.
– Carbon is the primary elemental addition to increase strength.
– Carbon allows for heat treatment to increase strength.
• Other elemental additions improve properties:
– Manganese-up to 2.00%.
– Silicon-up to 1.0%.
– Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and other elements in varying quantities.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 4

Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 5

Carbon Steels
• The most common metal used to manufacture products.
- Low-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.05% to 0.30%.
- Medium-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.30% to 0.60%.
- High-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.60% to 0.95%.

• Other elements commonly found in carbon steels:

- Manganese is controlled to less than 2.0%.
- Sulfur is controlled to 0.35% maximum.
- Phosphorous is controlled to 0.12% maximum.
- Silicon is usually controlled to less than 0.60%.
- Lead, when added is controlled to less than 0.35%.
- Other elements are not controlled but are usually held to less than 2.0%.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 6

Low-Alloy Steels
Elements are added to modify the basic carbon steel compositions to
provide superior properties.
• Manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel and molybdenum are the most
common additions to form low-alloy steels.
• Vanadium, niobium, aluminum, tungsten, copper and other elements
are added to provide additional specific characteristics.
• Total elemental additions are less than 10%.
Properties enhanced by alloying:
• Hardenability - the ability to be strengthened through heat treatment.
• Toughness - the ability to withstand impact loads.
• Environmental resistance - weathering and other corrosive
environments.
• Elevated temperature resistance.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 7

Classifications of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
• Plain carbon Steels: Carbon, manganese, phosphorous and sulfur are
controlled. Other elements are not controlled.

• Resulfurized, rephosphorized or leaded steels: Sulfur, phosphorous or

lead are intentionally added to improve machineability.

• Low-alloy steels: Controlled additions of elements are utilized to

enhance properties and to provide specific characteristics.

• Structural steels: All steels could be used as structural steels but we

will focus on a group called the High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA)
Steels.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 8

Classification of Steels
Classification can depend on:
• Composition―carbon, low-alloy, tool or stainless steels.
• Manufacturing method―open hearth, basic oxygen, electric
furnace, vacuum processed.
• Finishing method―hot or cold rolled, cold finished, cold drawn.
• Product form―bar, plate, sheet, strip, wire, tubing, or structural shape.
• Deoxidation practice―killed, semikilled, capped or rimmed.
• Microstructure―ferritic, pearlitic, or martensitic.
• Strength level―specified in ASTM or other standards.
• Heat treatment―annealed, normalized, spherodized or quenched and
tempered.
• Quality descriptors―commercial, forging, drawing, or aircraft quality.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 9

Carbon Steel Nomenclature
SAE-AISI: Four digit designation.
• First 2 digits define the alloy group. For example:
– A 10 in the front indicates the group is a plain carbon steel.
– Resulfurized carbon steels start with 11, followed by the carbon content.
– Resulfurized and rephosphorized carbon steels will start with a 12, followed by the
carbon content.
– High manganese carbon steels will start with a 15, followed by the carbon
content for manganese contents between 1.00-1.65%.
• Last 2 digits indicate the nominal carbon content.
– Plain carbon steels will have the designation of: SAE 1005 – SAE 1095. This
indicates the nominal carbon content will vary from 0.05%-0.95%.
• AISI – American Iron and Steel Institute designation is slowly disappearing.
• SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers is more common.
• UNS – Unified Numbering System is a worldwide designation for composition
of metals and alloys. For example: UNS G10200 is the designation for SAE
1020 carbon steel.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 10

SAE-AISI Carbon & Low-Alloy Steel Nomenclature
Type of Carbon/Alloy Steel Group Numeral and Digital Designation Nominal Alloy Content, %

Carbon Steels 10xx C=0.05-0.95%

11xx S<0.33%
12xx S<0.35, P=0.12%
15xx 1.00<Mn<1.65%

Manganese Steels 13xx 1.60<Mn<1.90%

Nickel Steels 23xx Ni=3.50%

25xx Ni=5.00%

Nickel-Chromium Steels 31xx Ni=1.25, Cr=0.65 & 0.80

32xx Ni=1.75, Cr=1.07
33xx Ni=3.50, Cr=1.50 & 1.57
34xx Ni=3.00, Cr=0.77

Molybdenum Steels 40xx Mo=0.20 & 0.25

44xx Mo=0.40 & 0.52

Cr-Mo Steels 41xx Cr=0.50, 0.80, 0.95, Mo=0.12, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30

Ni-Cr-Mo Steels 43xx Ni=1.82, Cr=0.50 & 0.80, Mo=0.25

43BVxx Ni=1.82, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.12 & 0.25, V=0.03 Min.
47xx Ni=1.05, Cr=0.45, Mo=0.20 & 0.35
81xx Ni=0.30, Cr=0.040, Mo=0.12
86xx Ni=0.55, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.20
87xx Ni=0.55, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.25
88xx Ni=0.55, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.35
93xx Ni=3.25, Cr=1.20, Mo=0.12
94xx Ni=0.45, Cr=0.40, Mo=0.12
97xx Ni=0.55, Cr=0.20, Mo=0.20
98xx Ni=1.00, Cr=0.80, Mo=0.25

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 11

SAE-AISI Carbon & Alloy Steel Nomenclature, continued

Type of Carbon/Alloy Steel Group Numeral and Digital Designation Nominal Alloy Content, %

Ni-Mo Steels 46xx Ni=0.85 & 1.82, Mo=0.20 & 0.25

48xx Ni=3.50, Mo=0.25

Cr Steels 50xx Cr=0.27, 0.40, 0.50, 0.65

51xx Cr=0.80, 0.87, 0.92, 0.95, 1.00, 1.05

Cr - Bearing Steels 50xxx C=1.0% Min., Cr=0.50

51xxx C=1.0% Min., Cr=1.02
52xxx C=1.0% Min., Cr=1.45

Cr - Vanadium Steels 61xx Cr=0.60, 0.80, 0.95, V=0.10 %, 0.15 % Min.

Tungsten-Cr Steels 72xx W=1.75, Cr=0.75

Si-Mn Steels 92xx Si=1.40 & 2.00, Mn=0.65, 0.82, 0.85, Cr=0 and 0.65 %

High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels 9xx Various SAE Grades

Boron Steels xxBxx B denotes boron steel

Leaded Steels xxLxx L denotes leaded steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 12

Mechanical Properties of Carbon and Low-Alloy
Steels

• Mechanical properties vs. carbon content.

• Mechanical properties vs. manganese content.
• Mechanical properties vs. cold work.
• Mechanical properties vs. heat treatment.
• Impact properties.
• Fatigue properties.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 13

Typical Stress/Strain Curve for Steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 14

Mechanical Properties vs. Carbon Content

HOT ROLLED CARBON STEEL BARS, MANGANESE <1.0%

140

120

100

80
KSI

Tensile Strength
60
Yield Strength

40

20

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 15

Mechanical Properties vs. Manganese Content

HOT ROLLED CARBON STEEL BARS, MANGANESE

>1.0%
120

100

80
KSI

60
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
40

20

0
0.25 0.36 0.41 0.48 0.52
NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 16

Tensile Strength vs. Manganese Content

EFFECT OF MANGANESE CONTENT ON TENSILE

STRENGTH
140

120

100

80
KSI

60 Mn <1.0%
Mn >1.0%
40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 17

Yield Strength vs. Manganese Content
EFFECT OF MANGANESE CONTENT ON YIELD
STRENGTH
80

70

60

50
KSI

40
Mn <1.0%

30 Mn >1.0%

20

10

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 18

Mechanical Properties vs. Cold Work

COLD DRAWN CARBON STEEL BARS

120

100

80
KSI

60
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
40

20

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 19

Tensile Strength vs. Cold Work

EFFECT OF COLD WORK ON TENSILE STRENGTH

140

120

100

80
KSI

Hot Rolled
60
Cold Drawn

40

20

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 20

Yield Strength vs. Cold Work

EFFECT OF COLD WORK ON YIELD STRENGTH

90

80

70

60

50
KSI

40 Hot Rolled
Cold Drawn
30

20

10

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 21

Quenched & Tempered Hardness vs. Carbon Content

Rockwell C Ultimate Tensile

Hardness, HRC Strength, ksi.

55 301
50 255
45 214
40 182
35 157
30 136
25 120
20 108

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 22

General Comments on Impact Properties of Carbon
and Low-Alloy Steels
1. Carbon and low-alloy steels have a ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature:
- Above the DBTT the material will fail in a ductile manner and the
absorbed impact energy is high.
- Below the DBTT the material will fail in a brittle manner (cleavage)
with low absorbed energy.

2. The transition temperature can be shifted by alloy additions:

- Manganese and silicon will lower the DBTT.
- Sulfur and phosphorous will raise the DBTT.

3. The energy absorbed can be altered by alloy additions:

- Nickel will increase the toughness at low temperatures.
- Chromium, molybdenum and copper indirectly increase absorbed
energy through hardenability enhancement.
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 23
Impact Properties vs. Carbon Content

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 24

General Statements about Fatigue
Fatigue is a progressive, localized and permanent change in a material subjected to
fluctuating strains, at stresses with maximum values less than the ultimate tensile strength of
the material.
1. The stress can be substantially less than the ultimate tensile strength.
2. The alternating strains can lead to crack initiation and propagation.
3. As the crack grows in size, final failure can occur catastrophically when the remaining
cross section can no longer support the applied load.
4. Steels have a fatigue limit, which is approximately 50% of the ultimate tensile strength.
5. The following variables will affect the fatigue limit:
- Surface roughness
- Temperature
- Decarburization, carburizing, nitriding
- Designs that create stress risers
- Microstructure and grain size
- Material discontinuities
- Processing discontinuities
- Residual stress
- Corrosion or erosion
- Service-induced nicks or gouges
- Material properties, carbon content

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 25

Typical S-N Curve for Steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 26

SAE 1005 Low Carbon Steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 27

SAE 1018 Low Carbon Steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 28

SAE 8620 Low Carbon Alloy Steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 29

SAE 1045 Medium Carbon Steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 30

SAE 1144 Resulfurized Steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 31

SAE 1060 Medium Carbon Steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 32

SAE 5150 Alloy Steel

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 33

Applications for Low-Carbon Steels
Low-carbon steels: Carbon content less than 0.30%.
• Products are sheet, strip, plate, wire, bar, tubing and structural shapes.
• Can be purchased in hot or cold-rolled, cold-finished, annealed, cold
drawn condition.
• Typical applications:
- Body panels for vehicles, appliances, etc.
- Coated products such as galvanized sheet, strip or wire.
- Low strength wire products.
- Structural shapes.
- Chain
• Weldable, formable, heat treatable to moderate strength levels.

Note: Low-carbon steels are often referred to as ‘mild’ steels.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 34

Applications for Medium-Carbon Steels
Medium-carbon steels-carbon content between 0.30-0.60%.
• Increased carbon and manganese allow the medium-carbon steels to
be quenched and tempered to high strength levels.
• Purchased in many forms.
• Typical uses:
- Shafts, couplings, crankshafts, gears and other high-strength
applications.
- Rails, railway wheels, rail axles.
- Forgings, castings.
• Can be welded if properly pre-heated and post-heated.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 35

Applications for High-Carbon Steels
High-carbon steels: Carbon content between 0.60-1.00%.
• High carbon allows heat treatment to very high strength levels.
• Cold working produces products with very high strength levels.
• Typical uses:
- Springs.
- High strength wire such as music wire.
- Tool applications-water hardening tool steels are commonly high -
carbon steels.
- Other products requiring high strength with a minimum of processing.
• Normally not weldable because of high-carbon content.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 36

Applications for Low-Alloy Steels
Low-alloy steels: Carbon varies from 0.10-1.00%. Elements are added to
produce unique capabilities.
• Heat-treatable to high strength and toughness.
• Elemental additions can improve environmental degradation under
certain conditions.
• Elemental additions up to 10% can improve oxidation and corrosion
resistance at elevated temperatures.
• Common uses:
- Bearings and bearing races.
- Weathering steels.
- A myriad of parts and products that must be heat-treated to high-
strength or high-toughness.

Note: Low-alloy steels gain strength through heat treatment.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 37

Structural Steels
High-strength carbon and low-alloy steels having yield strengths greater
than 275 MPa (40 ksi) and can be classified as follows:
• As-rolled carbon-manganese steels (13XX and 15XX).
• Heat-treated carbon steels.*
• Heat-treated low-alloy steels.*
• As-rolled high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, also know as
microalloyed steels.

*Notice that we have been talking about carbon and low-alloy steels, but
now they are heat treated for use as high-strength structural steel.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 38

High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels (HSLA)
Primarily utilized for structural applications requiring:
• High strength: HSLA steels utilize low carbon content with small amounts
of alloying elements and a variety of controlled processing parameters to
obtain high yield strengths, greater than 275 MPa (40 ksi.).
• Good toughness, weldability, formability and atmospheric and other
corrosion resistance.
• Availability as hot-rolled sheet, strip, and plate; hot-rolled and cold-finished
bar; tubing, pipe and structural shapes. Can also be furnished as cold-
rolled sheet and forgings.

Applications include construction of bridges, buildings, drilling rigs, vehicle

parts, piling, ships, etc.

Described in at least 18 ASTM specifications, which provide chemical

composition, mechanical properties, forms available and intended uses.
Many of these specs list several grades with different strength levels.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 39

Specifications for HSLA Steels
ASTM Specification Available Forms Special Characteristics Intended Uses

A242 Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 4 in. Atmospheric weathering Welded, bolted or riveted construction

A572 Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 6 in. 6 grades with YS ≥ 42 ksi Bridges and buildings

A588 Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 8 in. Atmospheric weathering, YS ≥ 50 ksi Welded bridges and buildings

A606 HR & CR Sheet and Strip Atmospheric weathering Weight savings and durability

A607 HR & CR Sheet and Strip 6 grades with YS ≥ 45 ksi Weight savings and durability

A618 Welded and Seamless Tubing 3 grades with different characteristics Welded, bolted or riveted construction

A633 Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 6 in. 5 grades with YS ≥ 42 ksi Service down to -50°F

A656 Plate ≤ 5/8 in. YS ≥ 80 ksi Truck, crane, railroad car frames

A690 Piling Corrosion resistance Sea water exposure applications

A709, Gr 50 & 50W Plate, Shapes ≤ 4 in. Minimum YS = 50 ksi Bridges

A714 Pipe, welded and seamless 1/2 to 26 in. Pipe Piping

A715 HR Sheet, Strip 4 grades, YS = 50-80 ksi Structural, formability & weldability

A808 HR Plate ≤ 2 1/2 in. CVN 30-45 ft-lb @ -50°F Railway tank cars

A812 Coiled sheet YS = 65-85 ksi Welded pressure vessels

A841 Plate ≤ 4 in. YS = 45-50 ksi Welded pressure vessels

A847 Welded and Seamless Tubing YS ≥ 50 ksi Bridges and buildings

A860 Welded fittings YS ≥ 70 ksi Gas, oil transmission lines

A871 Plate ≤ 1 3/8 in. Atmospheric weathering Tubular structures and poles

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 40

Specifications for Carbon & Low-Alloy Steels
Specifications are written statements defining product requirements.
• Describes both technical and commercial requirements.
• Controls procurement.
• May cover any or all of the following parameters:
- Scope defines product classification, size range, processing, or other
information deemed useful to both supplier and user.
- Chemical composition of the carbon or low-alloy steel.
- Quality statement describes special requirements such as steel
quality, type and processing methods.
- Quantitative requirements identify chemical composition ranges,
mechanical and physical properties and test methods germane to the
application.
- Additional requirements may include such items as size and
straightness tolerances, surface and edge finish, packaging and
loading instructions.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 41

Specifications, continued
Most existing specifications have been prepared by engineering
societies, associations, and institutions whose members
make, specify, purchase and/or use steel products. Some common ones are
listed below:
• Association of American Railroads – AAR
• American Bureau of Shipbuilding – ABS
• American Railway Engineering Association – AREA
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers – ASME
• American Petroleum Institute – API
• American Society for Testing and Materials – ASTM
• Society of Automotive Engineers – SAE
• Aerospace Material Specifications (of SAE) – AMS
• Federal and Military Specifications – FED and MIL

Foreign countries have their own material and process specification

systems, such as the DIN, JIS, BS, AFNOR, UNI, etc. Many of these
specifications reference some ASTM specifications.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 42

Specifications, continued
ASTM is the most widely used specification system because they are
complete for procurement purposes. Most ASTM specs include
composition, mechanical, dimensional, quality and testing
requirements, or reference other ASTM specs that cover specific aspects
of a material.
• ASTM specifications are used worldwide.
• Some federal and military procurements are gradually transitioning to
ASTM specifications.
• Material descriptions use common SAE-AISI designations but also
include the UNS system to identify a material composition.

A common ASME specification is referred to as the Boiler and Pressure

Vessel Code. This code is the authority for any application involving the
design and construction of boilers, pressure vessels and associated
piping, including nuclear applications. Many ASME material specifications
closely parallel ASTM.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 43

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Selection
Material and process selection should always be based on the following
considerations:
• Material strength with reference to operational loads, vibration,
temperature and environmental exposures.
• Processing parameters such as formability, weldability, machineability
and other fabrication considerations to produce the product.
• Form of material to most economically fabricate the product whether it
be sheet, strip, plate, bar, or structural shape.
• Availability of the material in the required form, quantity and price.
• Finishing processes such as painting, plating, heat treatment, etc.

Always use a material and/or process specification to procure or finish a

product.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 44

Some General Comments
1. Resulfurized, rephosphorized or leaded steels are not generally
weldable or heat treatable.
2. The above materials should not be used in dynamic or cyclical
applications, especially in cold weather environments.
3. When designing products, ensure the maximum load is no greater
than 1/3 of the yield strength of the material and well below the fatigue
limit.
4. Never use a steel in the ‘as quenched’ condition. Always temper the
steel.
5. When welding, always use pre-heat and/or post-heating when the
carbon content is more than 0.30%.
6. A low-alloy steel is not significantly stronger than a plain carbon steel
with the same carbon content, in the same condition. Low-alloy steels
provide high-strength, only after heat treating. Save money if you
don’t need high-strength.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 45

Contact us for further information

Weldon ‘Mak’ Makela Josh Schwantes

Senior Failure Analyst Metallurgical Engineering Manager
651 659 7275 651 659 7205
weldon.makela@element.com joshua.schwantes@element.com

Craig Stolpestad Mark Eggers

Sales Manager Inside Sales, NDT & Metals
651 659 7206 651 659 7349
craig.stolpestad@element.com mark.eggers@element.com

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 46