5HR009

The International HR
Professional
Student number:

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 1. What factors influence people management in an international context
as opposed to a domestic context?

In broad terms, international human resource management is concerned with the

same functions as domestic HRM, however, domestic HRM is involved with
individuals only within one national boundary. Employing various national categories
of employees and the intricacies of operating in different countries is a key variable
that distinguishes domestic and international HRM, rather than any major variations
between the HRM functions implemented (Dowling, 1999).

Approaches to IHRM are mainly studied by scholars in three principal contexts

including cross-cultural, comparative, and multinational. Firstly, the cross-cultural
approach in IHRM is based on the primary assumption that variations exist across
management practices in different countries and also, a respective environment is of
particular significance in explaining these variations (Dowling, Festing, and Engle
2017). Edwards and Rees (2011) define the cross-cultural approach as the unique
sets of deep-lying values and beliefs reflected in the ways a society functions, and
the way individuals work and are managed at work. Hofstede (1993) has suggested
cultural dimensions in table 1 that can differentiate between how management
practices and theories are culturally connected. In addition, culture is considered as
the crystallisation of history in the thinking, feeling and acting of the present
generation (Brewster and Mayrhofer, 2012). Dowling (1999) posits, situations that
demonstrate cultural differences in language, dress, food, hygiene, and attitude to
time will be experienced by any individual travelling abroad, either as a business
person or a tourist. While a traveller may sense cultural differences as novel and
enjoyable, for an individual to live and work in a new country, such differences could
lead to culture shock which is a phenomenon experienced by individuals who move
across cultures.

According to Moran and Harris (2011), culture shock could result in negative
sentimentalities about the host country and its individuals and a longing to return
home. Adapting to new cultures is one of the most critical aspects of international
assignments, and this is where cross-cultural training can play a significant role
(Forster, 2000).
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 Cultural dimensions Analysis
Power Distance Inequality and power are considered from the
viewpoint of the individuals (CFI, 2015).
Individualism vs. Collectivism Considers the classification of societies into
groups and their dependence and obligations
upon other groups.
Masculinity vs. Femininity Considers the preference and attitudes of
individuals towards sexual equality.
Long vs. Short-Term Focus on the extent of how much a society views
Orientation its time horizon.
Indulgence vs. Restraint This dimension considers how societies control
their impulses and desires.
Uncertainty Avoidance What unknown circumstances and unexpected
events are dealt with.
Table 1 – Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.

Secondly, the comparative approach of IHRM focuses on STEEPLE factors within a

country. The comparative approach contrasts practices within organisations of
various national origin in the parent country or compares practices between different
nations (Brewster, Sparrow, and Harris, 2005). These differences include factors
such as social, technological, economic, environmental, political, legal, and ethical
that can differentiate the process of working for employees in various nations. For
example, Roe (2003) suggests that political factors in a country will determine the
positions of owners and employees. In countries with right-wing governments,
workers’ rights are likely to be weaker than their owner’s rights. This can also imply
that the management will be acting in the interest of owners, and employees will
have less authority. Conversely, legal factors may empower employees in a
particular country. As Brewster and Mayrhofer (2012) posit, in civil law countries,
employment law legislation is considered to be comprehensive, significantly valuing
the rights of employees and unions.

Thirdly, the multinational approach is based on the assumption that the MNEs in
various countries will attempt to gain a competitive advantage by replicating HRM
practices from the headquarters (Collings, Wood, and Caligiuri, 2015). The
multinational approach was considered to have the same dimensions as HRM in a
domestic context however to function on a comprehensive scale, more complex co-

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ordination and control demands, and some additional HR functions. Brewster,
Sparrow, and Harris (2005) suggest, such HR functions are considered mandatory in
a multinational approach to allow for greater operating unit diversity, external
stakeholder influence, and more organisational involvement in employees’ life and
family situations. Likewise, for organisations that adopt a multinational approach to
HRM, the focus is more on contingencies that impact the HR functions to be
internationalized. For instance, the country that the MNE has operated in, the size
and life-cycle stage of the firm, and the type of employee.

Furthermore, the effective selection of an expatriate is considered a preliminary

procedure to increase expatriate success (Graf, 2004). Technical skills are
accentuated in the selection procedures of an expatriate however, assessing factors
such as intercultural skills also have a significant impact on the selection process.
Expatriate selection can be based on a cultural-specific or cultural-general profile.
Regarding cultural-specific selection, for every country’s expatriates, a particular skill
profile will be sent and the personnel will be selected based on these profiles.
However, for a cultural-general selection, a successful expatriate will be considered
and a prototype will be created based on the factors in which the particular employee
has succeeded (Boles, 1997). For instance, an ideal expatriate is an individual who
is interested in people and their ideas, capable of building relationships of trust
among people, and expresses respect for others.

Staffing approaches are another critical element of IHRM, and the MNEs’ quest for
suitable staff is a fundamental building block of its economical activity. (Andersson et
al., 2019). Crawshaw and Davis (2020) state, there are four main approaches to
staffing that are demonstrated in table 2. Many MNEs have used the ethnocentric
approach in order to replicate the HQ ways of people management. When the
ethnocentric approach is followed by an MNE, strategic decisions are made at
headquarters and key positions in the domestic and foreign operations are given to
staff from the parent country. The reason why most of the MNEs follow the
ethnocentric approach is that it enables effective control and coordination of activities
in an organisation, also, it allows parent country nationals to improve their
international experience (Crawshaw and Davis, 2020).

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 Staffing Approaches
Ethnocentric An approach taken when headquarters make the strategic
decisions and personnel from the parent country are filling
positions in both foreign and domestic operations of an
MNE. Also, with zero or limited authority delegated to the
foreign subsidiaries.
Polycentric When an MNE allows its subsidiary to operate as a
recognizable national entity. In this approach, the host
country organisation will be given more decision-making
autonomy and the staff will be employed primarily from the
host country.
Geocentric The MNE base its operations on a global perspective,
recognising that both the subsidiaries and headquarters
contribute uniquely with valuable competence. In addition,
ability is favoured and nationality is ignored.
Regiocentric Only within the specific geographical region employees
could move outside their countries. Although regional staff
will have a degree of autonomy in decision-making,
however, they may not be promoted to headquarter
positions.
Table 2 – Staffing approaches (Crawshaw and Davis, 2020).

Development in technology and employment relations have impacted the practices

of HRM in a global context. Although, organisations continue to adopt the three main
approaches including cross-cultural, comparative, and multinational in order to
manage employees and employment practices in various countries. As the cross-
cultural approach considers cultural values in each country, the comparative
approach focuses on STEEPLE factors across the host country. Likewise, the
multinational approach replicates practices from the HQ and implement them in the
host country.

Furthermore, the selection of an expatriate should not only be based on competency

skills but cultural skills should also be considered in order for the expatriate to
progress well in an international assignment. Since selecting the right person for the
right job leads to maximum productivity, MNEs are implementing various staffing
approaches to recruit and manage staff effectively and efficiently. The most frequent
staffing approaches implemented by MNEs are ethnocentric and geocentric.

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Arguably, the geocentric approach could be effective for implementation since it
recognises that both the subsidiaries and headquarters contribute uniquely with
valuable competence to the operations.
Reference list
Andersson, U. R. Brewster, C. J. Minbaeva, D. B. Narula, R. Wood, G. T. (2019) The
IB/IHRM interface: Exploring the potential of intersectional theorizing. Journal of
World Business, 54(5), pp.1-8

Brewster, C. Sparrow, P. Harris, H. (2005) Towards a new model of globalizing

HRM. International journal of human resource management, 16(6), pp.949-970.

Brewster, C. Mayrhofer, W. (2012) Handbook of Research on Comparative Human

Resource Management. 2nd ed. Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: Edward Elgar
Publishing.

Boles, M. (1997) Expatriation: Economic aspects. Workforce, 76(8), pp.21-22.

Crawshaw, B. and Davis. (2020) Human resource management: strategic and

international perspectives. 3rd ed. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Corporate Finance Institute (2015) Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory. [online].

[Accessed 04/03/2022]. Available at:
https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/other/hofstedes-cultural-
dimensions-theory/

Collings, G. D. Wood, T. G. Caligiuri, M. P. (2015) The Routledge Companion to

International Human Resource Management. London: Routledge.

Dowling, P. J. (1999) Completing the Puzzle: Issues in the Development of the Field
of International Human Resource Management. Management international review,
39(3), pp.27-43.

Dowling, P.J. Festing, M. Engle, D. A. (2017) International human resource

management. 7th ed. Hampshire, England: Cengage Learning.

Edwards, T. Rees, C. (2011) International Human Resource Management:

Globalization, National Systems and Multinational Companies. 2nd ed. Harlow:
Pearson.

Forster, N. (2000) Expatriates and the impact of cross‐cultural training. Human

Resource Management Journal, 10(3), pp.63-78.

Hofstede, G. (1993) Cultural constraints in management theories. The

Executive, 7(1), pp.81-94.

Moran, R. T. Harris, P. R. (2011) Managing cultural differences. 8th ed. Boca Raton,
FL: Routledge.

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Roe, M. (2003) Political Determinants of Corporate Governance. Oxford: Oxford
University Press

2. Discuss the employment rights problems in one African country of your

choice?

The unequal distribution of power also called power distance is one of the significant
phenomena in Nigerian organisations. When societies accept unequal power as
legitimate, it is referred to as power distance (Elele and Fields, 2010). With the
absence of employee protection due to the recurrent gaging of the trade unions,
economic hardship, and poor governance in Nigeria, power distance is at its peak as
employers capitalise on such conditions to take advantage of their workers (Emeka
and Dibia, 2020).

The Nigerian work culture is based on a master-servant relationship as respect for

management hierarchy should be considered. Okpu (2016) posits, such a working
culture unravels Nigeria’s employment relations system, which hinders employees’
views of engaging with employers and participating in decision-making processes. In
addition, due to the high authority of senior management in the majority of Nigerian
organisations, employees are exploited as their expected psychological contracts are
breached (Etodike, Joe-Akunne, and Obibuba, 2020). In private sector organisations
across Nigeria, employees of insurance companies are victims, for instance, some
employees were subjected to the positions of customer relationship officer but were
later redeployed to the marketing unit.

Due to the higher level of discrimination in Nigeria, the condition of female workers in
the national labour market is a considerable agenda (ILO, 2002). Discrimination
against female workers is significantly high as they are under-employed and often
paid less than male workers. According to ILO (2002), within the organised labour
market, the role of maternity for female employees is not recognised and therefore,
they are provided with fewer promotions and fewer rewards than male employees.
Likewise, in extreme circumstances, female employees are the first to be fired in
case of downsizing. Regarding the health and safety of employees in the workplace,
the factories act which is the major Nigerian legislation on health and safety does not
tackle sufficiently the particular concerns of female workers (Oyewunmi, 2013).
However, the Nigerian legislation only references the peculiar needs of female
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workers which is the requirement of separate sanitary conveniences for female and
male workers. Oyewunmi (2013), posits, another critical element of health and safety

needs is the reproductive health of female workers which is not considered by the
Nigerian legislation. The reproductive health envelops the preventive aspects within
the workplace including the safeguarding of the health of an unborn baby from the
impact of the toxic materials, radioactive materials, and other hazardous chemicals.

Despite the increasing government and public hustle, numerous forms of slavery
continue to emerge and subsist in Nigeria which has raised considerable policies
and academic concerns. Modern slavery is an umbrella term that focuses attention
on the existence of human trafficking, forced labour, and the exploitation of children.
Larsen and Diego-Rosell (2017) define modern slavery as circumstances of
exploitation that an individual cannot refute or leave due to the threats, violence, and
abuse of power. Human trafficking is a modern form of slavery in Nigeria and it has
assumed a considerable dimension in the last two decades due to several factors
including economic recession, poverty, conflicts, and unstable legislation (Okeshola
and Adenugba, 2018). Also, individual factors concerning human trafficking in
Nigeria include the quest for better opportunities, gender discrimination and
considerable levels of illiteracy.

A lack of conceptual clarity between trafficking and forced labour has caused the
Nigerian legislation and civil society organisations to respond inappropriately
(Olateru-Olagbegi and Ikpeme, 2006). For instance, the legislation has directed its
policy responses toward restricting migration due to addressing the issue of human
trafficking from the angle of human smuggling. Therefore, since modern slavery is
prevalent in Nigeria, the legislation requires a clear understanding of the nature of
human trafficking, smuggling, and forced labour in order to plan and implement
appropriate strategies and overcome such crimes.

It is a cultural practice in Nigeria whereby children of poor parents from rural

communities are sent to their rich relatives for education however, such practice has
deviated from its original purpose as some parents are virtually selling their children
who are eventually subjected to various types of labour (Olateru-Olagbegi and
Ikpeme, 2006). According to ILO (n.d.), child labour refers to the exclusion of

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children from their childhood, dignity, potential, and that which is detrimental to their
physical and mental development. Olateru-Olagbegi and Ikpeme (2006) posit,
UNICEF has estimated roughly eight million children in Nigeria who are involved in
exploitative labour. Likewise, children in Nigeria are forced into ‘worst forms of
labour’ including servitude, farm labour, and work in illegal mining sites and quarries
which is forbidden under the ILO convention 182 (ILO, 2017). Nigeria has signed and
ratified legislative provisions such as ‘The Convention on the Rights of the Child’ and
‘ILO Convention on the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour’ due to their
relevance to address forced labour. In addition to such legislative provisions, Nigeria
has enacted their own state laws regarding child rights.

Mainly, economic and political factors have made the power distance more prevalent
among Nigerian societies and organisations where power between individuals is
distributed unequally and as a result, causes employers to capitalise on the lower-
level employees. In addition, the exploitation of employees in Nigeria has contributed
to discrimination within organisations, as female employees are discriminated
against by their male colleagues. Concerning modern slavery in Nigeria, the most
frequent forms include human trafficking and child labour which mainly occur due to
poverty, conflicts, and economic recession. Although the Nigerian legislation is trying
to eradicate modern slavery, significant attention is not given to it. Therefore, a
strategic plan is needed to firstly analyse slavery circumstances around the country
and afterwards, develop and implement potential solutions.

Reference list

Etodike, C.N., Joe-Akunne, C.O. Obibuba, I. M. (2020) Employee deviance as by-

product of psychological contract: The moderating effects of power distance among
employees in insurance companies in Nigeria. Asian Research Journal of Arts &
Social Sciences, 10(4), pp.44-54.

Elele, J. Fields, D. (2010) Participative decision making and organizational

commitment: Comparing Nigerian and American employees. Cross Cultural
Management,17(4), pp.368-392.

Emeka, S.O. Dibia, C. (2020) Employee stress and the implication of high-power
distance culture: empirical evidence from Nigeria's employment terrain. Employee
Relations, 42(6), pp.1381-1400.

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International Labour Organization (2017) C182-Worst Forms of Child Labour
Convention, 1999. [online]. [Accessed 22/03/2022]. Available at:
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?
p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C182

International Labour Organization (2002) Nigeria: an assessment of the international

labour migration situation: the case of female labour. [online]. [Accessed
12/03/2022]. Available at:
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/
wcms_117952.pdf

International Labour Organization (n.d.) What is child labour. [online]. [Accessed,

22/03/2022]. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang--en/index.htm

Larsen, J.J. Diego-Rosell, P. (2017) Using surveys to estimate the national

prevalences of modern slavery: Experience and lessons learned. CHANCE, 30(3),
pp.30-35.

Oyewunmi, A. (2013) The promotion of sexual equality and non-discrimination in the

workplace: A Nigerian perspective. International journal of discrimination and the
law, 13(4), pp.324-347.

Olateru-Olagbegi, B. Ikpeme, A. (2006) Review of legislation and policies in Nigeria

on human trafficking and forced labour. [online]. [Accessed, 22/03/2022]. Available
at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---declaration/documents/
publication/wcms_083149.pdf

Okeshola, F.B. Adenugba, A. A. (2018) Human trafficking: A modern day slavery in

Nigeria. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 8(2), pp.40-44.

Okpu, T. (2016) Employee voice and workers commitment in Nigerian workplace.

Lap Lambert: Academic Publishing.

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Explain the problems caused by remote working and how they can be
overcome?

Constant development in digital technology has produced extensive changes in work

and its management, specifically where work is performed elsewhere from an
employer’s premises through remote working (Donnelly and Johns, 2021). This
report will mainly outline the challenges of employees concerning remote working. In
addition, remote working is considered one type of flexible working arrangement that
is implemented to produce and deliver work outputs. Urbaniec, Malkowska, and
Wlodarkiewicz-Klimek (2022) define remote working as the supported work by
information communication technology tools outside an employer’s premises.
Janene-Nelson and Sutherland (2020) classify remote workers into three types
including telecommuter, freelancer, and digital nomad.

A telecommuter is an individual employee who works remotely often from home on a

fixed team for one company, either full time or part-time (Janene-Nelson and
Sutherland 2020). However, Gajendran, Harrison, and Delaney-Klinger (2015)
provide a broader definition by stating, ‘telecommuting is a circulated mode of work
that allows employees to carry out tasks while working from inaccessible locations,
implementing information and communication technologies to connect with others
inside and outside the workplace’. Telecommuting can be practiced both as a full-
time and part-time arrangement. Concerning full-time arrangements, employees can
typically work from home for five or more days a week whereas, in part-time
arrangements, employees can alternate days working at home and a central work
location. Telecommuting can assist employees in proactively reconfiguring their
duties and responsibilities in order to support effective schedule flexibility (Kossek,
Lautsch, and Eaton, 2006). Moreover, when working remotely, the ability of an
employee to personally assess the degree to which they can structure where, when,
and how they perform activities with their job increases.

Firstly, one of the primary challenges for remote employees’ is the availability of
resources (Franken et al., 2021). For remote employees’ resources are not as easily
provided or visible as in face to face arrangements. Without transparency or
understanding of the resources available to tackle demands, and then biformed with
social isolation from the co-worker or supervisor contact could enhance stress levels
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for remote employees. Likewise, when the majority of remote employees experience
information technology issues with firm deadlines for deliverables, it can cause them
an excessive amount of stress. From this view, organisations must provide remote
employees with meaningful and visible levels of sufficient support in order to assist
remote employees’ balance preservation and further use of pertinent job-related
resources for both wellbeing and productivity (Franken et al., 2021).

The implementation of information technology resources and then covering their cost
personally are also critical challenges for remote employees. The provision of timely
advice and assistance from the managers regarding IT support and efficiency play a
significant role in enabling team members to work from home effectively and
efficiently (Franken et al., 2021). Concerning the costs of IT for remote workers,
Muralidhar, Prasad, and Mangipudi (2020) report, in order for employees to work
remotely, the cost of power bills and internet usage must be spent from their after-tax
income. However, when working from the physical workplace, such costs are
covered by the organisation. Hence, organisations must urgently address such
challenges by suitably modifying the HR policies and practices and providing scope
for reimbursing partial costs to reduce the burden on remote working employees
(Muralidhar, Prasad, and Mangipudi, 2020).

Isolation perception is one of the dominant issues for remote working employees
(Cooper and Kurland, 2002). The lack of support available in today’s organisations is
one of the critical challenges for remote working employees. Marshall, Michaels, and
Mulki (2007) posit, an employee’s workplace isolation is caused by his or her
perceptions regarding missed opportunities for informal interactions with colleagues,
the lack of support availability and recognition, and not being part of the group.
Donati et al. (2021) state, the use of ICT for remote workers had well-being costs,
specifically during the pandemic of COVID-19. The well-being of employees was
affected due to an increase in technology-related job demands and technostress,
however, also in terms of depression, anxiety, and sleep quality. It is also proposed
that workplace isolation perception emanates from availability, not only spatial
separation.

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Sequentially, Kirkman et al. (2002) report, organisations are concerned about remote
working employees for developing perceptions of isolation, which has led to lower
job satisfaction and reduced organisational commitment. In addition, remote working
employees tend to believe that their work efforts are not recognised or valued and
that they have fewer opportunities for career advancement in comparison with their
traditional office colleagues. To manage remote employees effectively, Mulki et al.
(2009) contend, managers must be trained in three key areas including finding the
right work-life balance for employees, overcoming workplace isolation, and
compensating the lack of face-to-face communication. Firstly, managers must be
trained to take the initiative concerning how they should practice work-life balance
with their team members, for instance, allowing employees to sign off from work at
certain times. Secondly, managers should be able to check-in informally with team
members and understand their concerns relating to remote working arrangements.
Thirdly, managers must develop the habit of meeting remote employees in person at
least once a year at the company headquarters (Mulki et al., 2009). To an extent,
managers must use face-to-face communication with their team members informally.

The rise of globalisation has made remote working more prevalent, especially
telecommuting where employees have to work from remote locations using ICT.
Remote working can be practised as a part or full-time arrangement. Furthermore,
the frequent challenges of remote working for employees include unfamiliarity with
ICT resources and their shortage, costs, and workplace isolation. Although remote
working has created various challenges for employees, meanwhile, HR practitioners
and scholars have developed potential solutions to overcome such challenges.
Regarding solutions for workplace isolation, Marshall, Michaels, and Mulki (2007)
state, as organisations hustle to achieve competitive advantage in the marketplace,
they also need to consider the effect of isolation on employee success and
organisational effectiveness. In addition, Challagalla, Shervani, and Huber (2000)
report, the greater work-based social support for employees and higher recognition
of their achievements by senior management can decrease the isolation perceptions
of remote workers and simultaneously, can increase their job satisfaction. Hence,
remote working employees require guidance, direction, and mentorship from their
managers and other organisational staff since the absence of such factors can boost
perceptions of isolation. If the challenges of remote working increase, it will result in
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lower job satisfaction, motivation, and reduced organisational commitment.
Therefore, organisations must support remote workers with both physical and
emotional resources by modifying HR procedures and policies. Also, managers and
supervisors must develop effective communications and connections with remote
workers in order to decrease the chance of workplace isolation.

Reference list
Cooper, C. D. Kurland, N. B. (2002) Telecommuting, professional isolation, and
employee development in public and private organizations, Journal of Organizational
Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational
Psychology and Behavior, 23(4), pp.511-532.

Challagalla, G. Shervani, T. Huber, G. (2000) Supervisory orientations and

salesperson work outcomes: The moderating effect of salesperson location. Journal
of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 20(3), pp.161-171.

Donnelly, R. Johns, J. (2021) Recontextualising remote working and its HRM in the
digital economy: An integrated framework for theory and practice. International
journal of human resource management, 32(1), pp.84-105.

Donati, S. Viola, G. Toscano, F. Zappala, S. (2021) Not All Remote Workers Are
Similar: Technology Acceptance, Remote Work Beliefs, and Wellbeing of Remote
Workers during the Second Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic. International journal
of environmental research and public health, 18(22), pp.12095.

Franken, E. Bentley, T. Shafaei, A. Farr-Wharton, B. Onnis, L. Omari, M. (2021)

Forced flexibility and remote working: opportunities and challenges in the new
normal. Journal of management & organization, 27(6), pp.1-19.

Gajendran, R. S. Harrison, A. D. Delaney-Klinger, K. (2015) Are Telecommuters

Remotely Good Citizens? Unpacking Telecommuting’s Effects on Performance Via I-
Deals and Job Resources. Personnel psychology, 68(2), pp.353-393.

Janene-Nelson, K. and Sutherland, L. (2020) Work Together Anywhere: A

Handbook on Working Remotely -Successfully- for Individuals, Teams, and
Managers. Newark: John Wiley & Sons.

Kirkman, B. L. Rosen, B. Gibson, C. B. Tesluk, P. E. McPherson, S. O. (2002) Five

challenges to virtual team success: Lessons from Sabre, Inc. Academy of
Management Perspectives, 16(3), pp.67-79.

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Kossek, E. E. Lautsch, B. A. Eaton, S. C. (2006) Telecommuting, control, and
boundary management: Correlates of policy use and practice, job control, and work–
family effectiveness. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(2), pp.347-367.

Muralidhar, B. Prasad, D.K. Mangipudi, D. M. R. (2020) Association among Remote

Working Concerns and Challenges on Employee Work-Life Balance: An Empirical
Study Using Multiple Regression Analysis with Reference to International Agricultural
Research Institute, Hyderabad. International Journal of Advanced Research in
Engineering and Technology, 11(6), pp.281-297.

Mulki, J. Bardhi, F. Lassk, F. Nanavaty-Dahl, J. (2009) Set up remote workers to

thrive. MIT Sloan management review, 51(1), pp.63–69.

Marshall, G. W. Michaels, C. E. Mulki, J. P. (2007) Workplace isolation: Exploring the

construct and its measurement, Psychology & Marketing, 24(3), pp.195-223.

Urbaniec, M. Malkowska, A. Wlodarkiewicz-Klimek, H. (2022) The Impact of

Technological Developments on Remote Working: Insights from the Polish
Managers’ Perspective. Sustainability (Basel, Switzerland), 14(1), pp.552.

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