MTH633

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Group Theory Group Theory
Properties of Real
Topic No. 1
Numbers
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Properties of Real Numbers Properties of Real Numbers
Number Systems 0.131313…=0.13+

ℕ ={ 1, 2, 3, … } 0.0013+0.000013+…
ℤ={…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, … } =13/100+13/10000+
ℚ={p/q | p, q ∊ ℤ and q≠0} 13/1000000+…
ℚˊ= Set of Irrational =(13/100)(1+1/100+
Numbers 1/10000+…)
ℝ=ℚ ∪ ℚˊ =(13/100)(100/99)
=13/99
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Properties of Real Numbers Properties of Real Numbers
 e=2.718281828459045… ∊ ℚˊ  ∀ a, b, c ∊ ℝ, (ab)c=a(bc)
 √2=1.414213562373095… ∊ ℚˊ  For instance, ((-2/3)4)√2=(-8/3) √2 =(-2/3)(4 √2)
 √5=2.23606797749978… ∊ ℚˊ  For every a ∊ ℝ and 0 ∊ ℝ, a+0=a=0+a
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a.b ∊ ℝ  For every a ∊ ℝ and 1 ∊ ℝ, a.1=a=1.a
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a+b ∊ ℝ  For every a ∊ ℝ there exists -a ∊ ℝ such that
 ∀ a, b, c ∊ ℝ, (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) a+(-a)=0=(-a)+a
 For example, (1/4+3)+ √7=(13+4 √7)/4=1/4+(3+ √7)  For every a ∊ ℝ\{0} there exists 1/a ∊ ℝ\{0} such that
a(1/a)=1=(1/a)a
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a+b=b+a
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a.b=b.a
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Properties of Complex
Topic No. 2
Numbers
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Properties of Complex Numbers Properties of Complex Numbers
 ℂ={a+bi | a, b ∊ ℝ}  ∀ a+bi, c+di, e+fi ∊ ℂ, [(a+bi).(c+di)].(e+fi)

 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ, (a+bi)+(c+di)=(a+c)+(b+d)i ∊ ℂ =[(ac-bd)+(bc+ad)i].(e+fi)
 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ, (a+bi).(c+di)=(ac-bd)+(ad+bc)i ∊ ℂ =[(ac-bd)e-(bc+ad)f]+[(bc+ad)e+(ac-bd)f]i
 ∀ a+bi, c+di, e+fi ∊ ℂ, [(a+bi)+(c+di)]+(e+fi)= =[a(ce-df)-b(de+cf)]+[a(de+cf)]+b(ce-df)]i
[(a+c)+(b+d)i]+(e+fi)=[(a+c)+e]+[(b+d)+f]i =(a+bi).[(ce-df)+(de+cf)i]=(a+bi).[(c+di).(e+fi)]
=[a+(c+e)]+[b+(d+f)]i=(a+bi)+[(c+e)+(d+f)i]=  For every a+bi ∊ ℂ and 0=0+0i ∊ ℂ, (a+bi)+0=
(a+bi)+[(c+di)+(e+fi)] (a+bi)+(0+0i)=(a+0)+(b+0)i=a+bi=0+(a+bi)
 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ and 1=1+0i ∊ ℂ, (a+bi).1=
(a+bi).(1+0i)=(a.1-0b)+(b.1+0.a)i=a+bi=1.(a+bi)
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Properties of Complex Numbers Properties of Complex Numbers
 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ there exists -a-bi ∊ ℂ such that  ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ,
(a+bi)+(-a-bi)=(a+(-a))+(b+(-b))i=0+0i=0=(-a-bi)+(a+bi) (a+bi)+(c+di)=(a+c)+(b+d)i
 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ\{0} there exists =(c+a)+(d+b)i=(c+di)+(a+bi)
1/(a+bi)=a/(a2+b2)-(b/(a2+b2))i ∊ ℂ\{0}  ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ,
such that (a+bi).(a/(a2+b2)-(b/(a2+b2))i ) (a+bi).(c+di)
= (a2+b2)/(a2+b2)+((ab-ab)/(a2+b2))i=1+0i=1 =(ac-bd)+ (ad+bc)i
=(a/(a2+b2)-(b/(a2+b2))i )(a+bi) =(ca-db)+(cb+da)i
=(c+di).(a+bi)
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Binary Operations
Topic No. 3
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Binary Operations Binary Operations
Definition  Usual addition ‘+’ is a

A binary operation ∗ on a binary operation on the
set S is a function sets ℝ, ℂ, ℚ, ℤ, ℝ+, ℚ+,
mapping S x S into S. ℤ+
For each (a, b) ∈ S x S, we  Usual multiplication ‘.’ is
will denote the element a binary operation on
∗((a, b)) of S by a∗b. the sets ℝ, ℂ, ℚ, ℤ, ℝ+,
ℚ+, ℤ+
 Usual multiplication ‘.’ is
a binary operation on
the sets ℝ\{0}, ℂ\{0},
ℚ\{0}, ℤ\{0}
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Let M(ℝ) be the set of all Usual addition ‘+’ is not a

matrices with real entries. binary operation on the
The usual matrix addition sets ℝ\{0}, ℂ\{0}, ℚ\{0},
is not a binary operation ℤ\{0} since
on this set since A+B is 2+(-2)=0 ∉ ℤ\{0}⊂ℚ\{0}
not defined for an ⊂ ℝ\{0} ⊂ ℂ\{0}.
ordered pair (A, B) of
matrices having different
numbers of rows or of
columns.
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Definition Usual addition ‘+’ on the

Let ∗ be a binary set ℝ of real numbers
operation on S and let H does not induce a binary
be a subset of S. operation on the set
ℝ\{0} of nonzero real
The subset H is closed numbers because
under ∗ if for all a, b ∈ H 2∈ℝ\{0} and -2∈ℝ\{0},
we also have a∗b ∈ H.
but 2+(-2)=0 ∉ ℝ\{0}.
In this case, the binary
operation on H given by Thus ℝ\{0} is not
restricting ∗ to H is the closed under +.
induced operation of ∗
on H.
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Binary Operations Group Theory
Usual multiplication ‘.’ on

the sets ℝ and ℚ induces
a binary operation on the
sets ℝ\{0}, ℝ+ and ℚ\{0}, Binary Operations
ℚ+, respectively.
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 Let S be a set and  Let S be a set and

a, b  S . a, b  S .
 A binary operation 
on S is a rule which
assigns to any ordered
pair (a, b) an element
a  b  S.
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Examples Examples
 For S  , , , , ,  For S  , , , , ,
a b  a  b a b  a  b
 For S  , , , , ,
a  b  ab

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Examples
Examples
 For S  , , , , ,
 For S  , , , , ,
a b  a  b a b  a  b
 For S  , , , , ,
 For S  , , , , ,
a  b  ab a  b  ab
 For S  , , , ,
 For S , , , ,
a b  a  b a b  a  b
 For S  , , , ,
a  b  min(a, b)
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Examples Examples
 For S  1, 2,3  For S  1, 2,3
a b  b a b  b
 For example
1  2  2,
1 1  1,
2  3  3.
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Examples
Examples
 For S  , a  b  a / b is not everywhere
 For S  , a  b  a / b is not everywhere
defined since no rational number is assigned by
defined since no rational number is assigned by
this rule to the pair (3, 0).
this rule to the pair (3, 0).
 For S   , a  b  a / b is not a binary operation
on  since  is not closed under .
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Definition Definition
 A binary operation   A binary operation 
on a set S is on a set S is
commutative if and associative if
only if a  b  b  a (a  b)  c  a  (b  c)
for all a, b  S . for all a, b, c  S .
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Examples Examples
 The binary operation  defined by  The binary operation  defined by
a b  a  b a b  a  b
is commutative and associative in . is commutative and associative in .
 The binary operation  defined by
a  b  ab
is commutative and associative in .
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 The binary operation defined by a  b  a  b  The binary operation defined by a  b  a  b

is not commutative in . is not commutative in .
 The binary operation given by a  b  a  b is
not associative in .
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Binary Operations Group Theory
 The binary operation defined by a  b  a  b

is not commutative in .
Bijective Maps
 The binary operation given by a  b  a  b is
not associative in .
 For instance,
(a  b)  c  (4  7)  2  5
but
a  (b  c)  4  (7  2)  1.
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Bijective Maps Bijective Maps
 A function f : X  Y is  A function f : X  Y is
called injective or one-to- called injective or one-to-
one if one if
f  x1   f  x2   x1  x2. f  x1   f  x2   x1  x2.
or
x1  x2  f  x1   f  x2 .
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 A function f : X  Y is  A function f : X  Y is
called surjective or onto if called surjective or onto if
for any y  Y , there exists for any y  Y , there exists
x  X with y  f ( x) . x  X with y  f ( x) .
i.e. if the image f ( x) is
the whole set Y .
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Definition Example
 A bijective function or one- 
to-one correspondence is a
f:  , f ( x)  10 x
function that is both
injective and surjective.
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Example Example
 
f:  , f ( x)  10 x f:  , f ( x)  10 x
f ( x)  f ( y)  10  10  x  y
x y
f ( x)  f ( y)  10x  10 y  x  y
Therefore, f is one-to-one. Therefore, f is one-to-one.
If r  , then log10 r  such that
f (log10 r )  10log10 r  r .
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Example Example
 
f:  , f ( x)  10 x f:  , f ( x)  10 x
f ( x)  f ( y)  10x  10 y  x  y f ( x)  f ( y)  10x  10 y  x  y
Therefore, f is one-to-one. Therefore, f is one-to-one.
If r  , then log10 r  such that If r  , then log10 r  such that
f (log10 r )  10log10 r  r . f (log10 r )  10log10 r  r .
It implies that f is onto. It implies that f is onto.
Hence f is bijective.
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Example Example
f:  , f (m)  3m f:  , f (m)  3m
f (m)  f (n)  3m  3n  m  n
Therefore, f is one-to-one.
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Example Example
f:  , f (m)  3m
f:  , f ( x)  x 2.
f (m)  f (n)  3m  3n  m  n
Therefore, f is one-to-one.
We assume that m is the pre-image of 4 ,
then f (m)  3m  4  m  4 / 3  .
It implies that f is not onto.
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Example Example
f :  , f ( x)  x . 2
f :  , f ( x)  x 2.
f (3)  f (3)  9 but 3  3. f (3)  f (3)  9 but 3  3.
Therefore, f is not one-to-one. Therefore, f is not one-to-one.
We assume that x  is the pre-image of 5  ,
then f ( x)  x 2  5  x  5  .
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 Let f : X  Y be a  A function f : X  Y is
function and let H be a called surjective or onto if
subset of X . The image of f X  Y .
H under f is given by
f  H   { f  h  | h  H }.
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Example Example
 
f:  , f ( x)  10 x f:  , f ( x)  10 x
f  
Therefore, f is onto.
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Example Example
f:  , f (m)  3m f:  , f (m)  3m
f 3 
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Example Example
f:  , f ( x)  x 2 f:  , f ( x)  x 2
f  
{0} 
So, f is not onto.
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Group Theory Inversion Theorem
Lemma
If f : X  Y and g : Y  Z are two functions, then:
(i) If f and g are injective, g f is injective.
Inversion Theorem
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Inversion Theorem Inversion Theorem
Lemma Lemma
If f : X  Y and g : Y  Z are two functions, then: If f : X  Y and g : Y  Z are two functions, then:
(i) If f and g are injective, g f is injective. (i) If f and g are injective, g f is injective.
(ii) If f and g are surjective, g f is surjective. (ii) If f and g are surjective, g f is surjective.
(iii) If f and g are bijective, g f is bijective.
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Proof Proof
(i) Suppose that  g f  x1    g f  x2 . Then, (i) Suppose that  g f  x1    g f  x2 . Then,
g  f  x1    g  f  x2    f  x1   f  x2   x1  x2. g  f  x1    g  f  x2    f  x1   f  x2   x1  x2.
(ii) Let z  Z . Since g is surjective, there exists y  Y
with g ( y)  z .
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Proof Proof
(i) Suppose that  g f  x1    g f  x2 . Then, (i) Suppose that  g f  x1    g f  x2 . Then,
g  f  x1    g  f  x2    f  x1   f  x2   x1  x2. g  f  x1    g  f  x2    f  x1   f  x2   x1  x2.
(ii) Let z  Z . Since g is surjective, there exists y  Y (ii) Let z  Z . Since g is surjective, there exists y  Y
with g ( y)  z . Since f is also surjective, there exists with g ( y)  z . Since f is also surjective, there exists
x  X with f ( x)  y . x  X with f ( x)  y . Hence,
 g f  x   g  f  x   g  y   z .
So, g f is surjective.
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Proof Theorem
(i) Suppose that  g f  x1    g f  x2 . Then, The function f : X  Y has
g  f  x1    g  f  x2    f  x1   f  x2   x1  x2. an inverse if and only if f is
(ii) Let z  Z . Since g is surjective, there exists y  Y bijective.
with g ( y)  z . Since f is also surjective, there exists
x  X with f ( x)  y . Hence,
 g f  x   g  f  x   g  y   z .
So, g f is surjective.
(iii) This follows from parts (i) and (ii).
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Proof Proof
Suppose that h : Y  X is an inverse of f . Suppose that h : Y  X is an inverse of f .
The function f is injective because
f  x1   f  x2    h f  x1    h f  x2   x1  x2 .
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Proof Proof
Suppose that h : Y  X is an inverse of f . Suppose that h : Y  X is an inverse of f .
The function f is injective because The function f is injective because
f  x1   f  x2    h f  x1    h f  x2   x1  x2 . f  x1   f  x2    h f  x1    h f  x2   x1  x2 .
The function f is surjective because if for any y  Y The function f is surjective because if for any y  Y
 
with x  h  y  , it follows that f  x   f h  y   y .  
with x  h  y  , it follows that f  x   f h  y   y .
Therefore, f is bijective.
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Proof Proof
Conversely, suppose that f is bijective. We define the Conversely, suppose that f is bijective. We define the
function h : Y  X as follows. function h : Y  X as follows. For any y  Y , there
exists x  X with y  f  x .
Since f is injective, there is only one such element x.
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Inversion Theorem Group Theory
Proof
Conversely, suppose that f is bijective. We define the  Isomorphic Binary
function h : Y  X as follows. For any y  Y , there Structures
exists x  X with y  f  x .
Since f is injective, there is only one such element x.
Define h  y   x . This function h is an inverse of f
because
 
f h  y   f  x   y and h f  x   h  y   x.
 
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Isomorphic Binary Structures Isomorphic Binary Structures
 Let us consider a binary algebraic structure S ,  to  Let us consider a binary algebraic structure S ,  to
be a set S together with a binary operation  on S . be a set S together with a binary operation  on S .
 Two binary structures S ,  and S,  are said to
be isomorphic if there is a one-to-one
correspondence between the elements x of S and
the elements x of S such that
x  x and y  y  x  y  x  y.
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Definition
 Let us consider a binary algebraic structure ( S , ) to  Let S ,  and S,  be binary algebraic
be a set S together with a binary operation on S . structures. An isomorphism of S with S is a one-
 Two binary structures ( S , ) and ( S, ) are said to to-one function  mapping S onto S such that
be isomorphic if there is a one-to-one
correspondence between the elements x of S and  ( x  y)   ( x)   ( y)  x, y  S.
the elements x of S such that
x  x and y  y  x  y  x  y.
 A one-to-one correspondence exists if the sets S
and S have the same number of elements.
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How to show binary structures are isomorphic How to show binary structures are isomorphic
 Step 1. Define the function  that gives the  Step 1. Define the function  that gives the
isomorphism of S and S. isomorphism of S and S.
 Step 2. Show that  is one-to-one.
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How to show binary structures are isomorphic How to show binary structures are isomorphic
 Step 1. Define the function  that gives the  Step 1. Define the function  that gives the
isomorphism of S and S. isomorphism of S and S.
 Step 2. Show that  is one-to-one.  Step 2. Show that  is one-to-one.
 Step3. Show that  is onto S.  Step3. Show that  is onto S.
 Step 4. Show that
 ( x  y)   ( x)   ( y)  x, y  S.
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Example Example
 We show that the binary structure ,  is  We show that the binary structure ,  is
 
isomorphic to the structure ,. . isomorphic to the structure ,. .
 Step 1.
:  
,  ( x)  e
x
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Example Example
 
isomorphic to the structure ,. . isomorphic to the structure ,. .
 Step 1.  Step 1.
:  
,  ( x)  e
x
:  
,  ( x)  e
x
 Step 2.  Step 2.
 ( x)   ( y)  e  e  x  y.
x y
 ( x)   ( y)  e x  e y  x  y.

 Step3. If r  , then ln(r )  and
 (ln r )  eln r  r.
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Isomorphic Binary Structures Group Theory
Example
 We show that the binary structure ,  is  Isomorphic Binary
isomorphic to the structure  ,. . Structures
 Step 1.  :   ,  ( x)  e x
 Step 2.  ( x)   ( y)  e x  e y  x  y.
 Step3. If r  , then ln r  and

 (ln r )  eln r  r.
 Step 4.  ( x  y)  e x y  e x e y   ( x) ( y)  x, y  .
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Example Example
isomorphic to the structure 2 ,  . isomorphic to the structure 2 ,  .
 Step 1.  :  2 ,  (m)  2m
97 98
Example Example
isomorphic to the structure 2 ,  . isomorphic to the structure 2 ,  .
 Step 1.  :  2 ,  (m)  2m  Step 1.  :  2 ,  (m)  2m
 Step 2.  (m)   (n)  2m  2n  m  n.  Step 2.  (m)   (n)  2m  2n  m  n.
 Step3. If n  2 , then m  n / 2  and
 (m)  2  n / 2   n.
99 100
Example How to show binary structures are not isomorphic

 We show that the binary structure ,  is  How do we demonstrate that two binary structures
isomorphic to the structure 2 ,  . S ,  and S,  are not isomorphic?
 Step 1.  :  2 ,  (m)  2m
 Step 2.  (m)   (n)  2m  2n  m  n.
 Step3. If n  2 , then m  n / 2  and
 (m)  2  n / 2   n.
 Step 4.
 (m  n)  2  m  n   2m  2n   (m)   (n)  m, n  .
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How to show binary structures are not isomorphic How to show binary structures are not isomorphic
 How do we demonstrate that two binary structures  How do we demonstrate that two binary structures
S ,  and S,  are not isomorphic? S ,  and S,  are not isomorphic?
 There is no one-to-one function  from S onto S  There is no one-to-one function  from S onto S
with the property with the property
 ( x  y)   ( x)   ( y)  x, y  S.  ( x  y)   ( x)   ( y)  x, y  S.
 In general, it is not feasible to try every possible
one-to-one function mapping S onto S and test
whether it has homomorphism property.
103 104
 A structural property of a binary structure is one  A structural property of a binary structure is one
that must be shared by any isomorphic structure. that must be shared by any isomorphic structure.
 It is not concerned with names or some other
nonstructural characteristics of the elements.
105 106
 A structural property of a binary structure is one  A structural property of a binary structure is one
that must be shared by any isomorphic structure. that must be shared by any isomorphic structure.
 It is not concerned with names or some other  It is not concerned with names or some other
nonstructural characteristics of the elements. nonstructural characteristics of the elements.
 A structural property is not concerned with what we  A structural property is not concerned with what we
consider to be the name of the binary operation. consider to be the name of the binary operation.
 The number of elements in the set S is a structural
property of S ,  .
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How to show binary structures are not isomorphic Possible Structural

 In the event that there are one-to-one mappings of Properties
S onto S, we usually show that S ,  is not  The set has four elements.
isomorphic to S,  by showing that one has
some structural property that the other does not
possess.
109 110
Possible Structural Possible Structural

Properties Properties
 The set has four elements.  The set has four elements.
 The operation is  The operation is
commutative. commutative.
 x  x  x for all x  S.
111 112
Possible Structural Possible Nonstructural

 The set has four elements.  The number 4 is an
 The operation is element.
commutative.
 x  x  x for all x  S.
 The equation a  x  b
has a solution x in S
for all a, b  S.
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Possible Nonstructural Possible Nonstructural

 The number 4 is an  The number 4 is an
element. element.
 The operation is called  The operation is called
“addition”. “addition”.
 The elements of S are
matrices.
115 116
Possible Nonstructural Example

Properties  The binary structures
 The number 4 is an ,  and ,  are
element. not isomorphic because
 The operation is called has cardinality 0
“addition”.
(aleph-null) while
 The elements of S are
  0 .
matrices.
 S is a subset of .
117 118
Example Example
 We prove that the binary structures ,  and  We prove that the binary structures ,  and
,  under the usual addition are not isomorphic. ,  under the usual addition are not isomorphic.
 Both and have cardinality 0 , so there are
lots of one-to-one functions mapping onto .
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Example Example
 We prove that the binary structures ,  and  We prove that the binary structures ,  and
,  under the usual addition are not isomorphic. ,  under the usual addition are not isomorphic.
 Both and have cardinality 0 , so there are  Both and have cardinality 0 , so there are
lots of one-to-one functions mapping onto . lots of one-to-one functions mapping onto .
 The equation x  x  c has a solution x for all  The equation x  x  c has a solution x for all
c  but this is not the case in . c  but this is not the case in .
 For example, the equation x  x  3 has no solution
in .
121 122
Example Example
 The binary structures  The binary structures M 2   ,. and ,.
,. and ,. under usual matrix multiplication and number
under usual multiplication, respectively because multiplication
multiplication are of numbers is commutative, but multiplication of
not isomorphic because matrices is not.
the equation x.x  c
has solution x for all
c  but x.x  1has
no solution in .
123 124
Group Theory Isomorphic Binary Structures
Example
 Isomorphic Binary  Is  :  ,  (n)  3n for n  an isomorphism?
Structures
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Example Example
 Is  :  ,  (n)  3n for n  an isomorphism?  Is  :  ,  (n)  3n for n  an isomorphism?
  :  ,  (n)  3n   :  ,  (n)  3n
  (m)   (n)  3m  3n  m  n
127 128
Example Example
 Is  :  ,  (n)  3n for n  an isomorphism?  Is  :  ,  (n)  3n for n  an isomorphism?
  :  ,  (n)  3n   :  ,  (n)  3n
  (m)   (n)  3m  3n  m  n   (m)   (n)  3m  3n  m  n
 Choose 5 ,  (m)  3m  5 but m  5 / 3   Choose 5 ,  (m)  3m  5 but m  5 / 3 
 Is  :  ,  (n)  3n homomorphism?
 (m  n)  3  m  n   3m  3n   (m)   (n)  m, n 
129 130
Example Example
 Is  :  ,  (n)  3n for n  an isomorphism?  Is  :  ,  (n)  n  1for n  an isomorphism?
  :  ,  (n)  3n
  (m)   (n)  3m  3n  m  n
 Choose 5 ,  (m)  3m  5 but m  5 / 3 
 Is  :  ,  (n)  3n homomorphism?
 (m  n)  3  m  n   3m  3n   (m)   (n)  m, n 
 ,  3 ,
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Example Example
 Is  :  ,  (n)  n  1for n  an isomorphism?  Is  :  ,  (n)  n  1for n  an isomorphism?
  :  ,  (n)  n  1   :  ,  (n)  n  1
  (m)   (n)  m  1  n  1  m  n
133 134
Example Example
 Is  :  ,  (n)  n  1for n  an isomorphism?  Is  :  ,  (n)  n  1for n  an isomorphism?
  :  ,  (n)  n  1   :  ,  (n)  n  1
  (m)   (n)  m  1  n  1  m  n   (m)   (n)  m  1  n  1  m  n
 For every n  , there exists n  1 such that  For every n  , there exists n  1 such that
 (n 1)  n  1  1  n.  (n 1)  n  1  1  n .
  (m  n)  m  n  1   (m)   (n)  m  n  2
135 136
Example Example
 Is  :  ,  ( x)  x / 2 for x  isomorphism?  Is  :  ,  ( x)  x / 2 for x  isomorphism?
  :  ,  ( x)  x / 2
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Example Example
 Is  :  ,  ( x)  x / 2 for x  isomorphism?  Is  :  ,  ( x)  x / 2 for x  isomorphism?
  :  ,  ( x)  x / 2   :  ,  ( x)  x / 2
  ( x)   ( y)  x / 2  y / 2  x  y   ( x)   ( y)  x / 2  y / 2  x  y
 For every y  , there exists 2y  such that
 (2 y)  2 y / 2  y .
139 140
Example Example
 Is  :  ,  ( x)  x / 2 for x  isomorphism?  We prove that the binary structures ,. and
  :  ,  ( x)  x / 2 
,. under the usual multiplication are not
  ( x)   ( y)  x / 2  y / 2  x  y isomorphic.
 For every y  , there exists 2y  such that
 (2 y)  2 y / 2  y .
x y x y
  ( x  y)      ( x)   ( y )
2 2 2
141 142
Example Example
 We prove that the binary structures ,. and  We prove that the binary structures ,. and
 
,. under the usual multiplication are not ,. under the usual multiplication are not
isomorphic. isomorphic.
 Both and  have cardinality 0 , so there are  Both and  have cardinality 0 , so there are
lots of one-to-one functions mapping onto . lots of one-to-one functions mapping onto .
 In ,. there are two elements x such that x.x  x,
namely, 0 and 1.
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Isomorphic Binary Structures Group Theory
Example
 We prove that the binary structures ,. and  Isomorphic Binary

,. under the usual multiplication are not Structures
isomorphic.
 Both and  have cardinality 0 , so there are
lots of one-to-one functions mapping onto .
 In ,. there are two elements x such that x.x  x,
namely, 0 and 1.

 However, in ,. , there is only the single element
1.
145 146
Associative Binary
Operation
 A binary operation 
is called associative if
Groups
(a  b)  c  a  (b  c).
147 148
Example Example
 Can we solve  Can we solve 3  x  2
3 x  2 in ?
in ?
 The equation is
unsolvable in since
3  .
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Example Example
 Can we solve 3  x  2  Can we solve 3  x  2
in ? in ?
 add 3 on both sides  add 3 on both sides
3  (3  x)  3  2 3  (3  x)  3  2
(3  3)  x  3  2
151 152
Example Example
 Can we solve 3  x  2  Can we solve 3  x  2
in ? in ?
 add 3 on both sides  add 3 on both sides
3  (3  x)  3  2 3  (3  x)  3  2
(3  3)  x  3  2 (3  3)  x  3  2
 Thus  Thus
0  x  3  2
0  x  3  2
 x   1.
153 154
Example Group(Definition)
 Can we solve 3  x  2 A group G,  is a set G with binary operation 
in ? satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G :
 add 3 on both sides
1. We use associative 3  (3  x)  3  2
property (3  3)  x  3  2
2. Existence of 0  Thus
with 0  x  x
0  x  3  2
3. Existence of 3
with 3  3  0  x   1.
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Group(Definition) Group(Definition)
A group (G, ) is a set G with binary operation  A group (G, ) is a set G with binary operation 
satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G : satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G :
1. For a, b  G , a b G (closure) 1. For a, b  G , a b G (closure)

2. (a  b)  c  a  (b  c) (associative)
157 158
Group(Definition) Group(Definition)
A group G,  is a set G with binary operation  A group (G, ) is a set G with binary operation 
satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G : satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G :
1. For a, b  G , a b G (closure) 1. For a, b  G , a b G (closure)

2. (a  b)  c  a  (b  c) (associative) 2. (a  b)  c  a  (b  c) (associative)
3. There exists e  G such that (identity) 3. There exists e  G such that (identity)
ea  a e  a ea  a e  a
4. For every a  G , there exists a 1  G such that
a1  a  a  a 1  e (inverse)
159 160
Example Example
 Can we solve equations of the form  Can we solve equations of the form
a  x  b in a group G,  ? a  x  b in a group G,  ?
a  (a  x)  a  b
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Example Example
 Can we solve equations of the form  Can we solve equations of the form
a  x  b in a group G,  ? a  x  b in a group G,  ?
a  (a  x)  a  b a  (a  x)  a  b
(a  a)  x  a  b (a  a)  x  a  b
e  x  a  b
163 164
Example
 Can we solve equations of the form
a  x  b in a group G,  ?
Examples of Groups
a  (a  x)  a  b
(a  a)  x  a  b
e  x  a  b
x  a  b
165 166
Example Example
, ,
 Closure  m, n  , m  n 
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Example Example
, ,
 Closure  m, n  , m  n   Closure  m, n  , m  n 
 Associative  Associative
 m, n, p  ,(m  n)  p  m  (n  p)  m, n, p  ,(m  n)  p  m  (n  p)
 Identity
For every m , 0  , 0  m  m  m  0.
169 170
Example Example
, ,
 Closure  m, n  , m  n 
 Associative
 m, n, p  ,(m  n)  p  m  (n  p)
 Identity
For every m , 0  , 0  m  m  m  0.
 inverse
For every m    m  such that
m  (m)  0  (m)  m.
171 172
Example Example
, ,
 closure  closure
 m, n  , m  n   m, n  , m  n 
 associative
(2  3)  4  5  3  2  (3  4)
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Example Example
,. ,.
 closure  m, n  , m.n 
175 176
Example Example
,. ,.
 closure  m, n  , m.n   closure  m, n  , m.n 
 associative  associative
 m, n, p  ,(m.n). p  m.(n. p)  m, n, p  ,(m.n). p  m.(n. p)
 identity
For every m , 1 , 1.m  m  m.1.
177 178
Example Example
,. ,
 closure  m, n  , m.n 
 associative
 m, n, p  ,(m.n). p  m.(n. p)
 identity
For every m , 1 , 1.m  m  m.1.
 Inverse
1
2 but 
2
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Example Example
, ,
 Closure  r , s  , r  s   Closure  r , s  , r  s 
 Associative
 r, s, t  ,(r  s)  t  r  (s  t )
181 182
Example Example
, ,
 Closure  r , s  , r  s   Closure  r , s  , r  s 
 Associative  Associative
 r, s, t  ,(r  s)  t  r  (s  t )  r, s, t  ,(r  s)  t  r  (s  t )
 Identity  Identity
For every r  , 0  r  r  r  0, 0  . For every r  , 0  r  r  r  0, 0  .
 inverse
For every r    r  such that
r  (r )  0  (r )  r.
183 184
Example Example
,. ,.
 closure  r , s  , r.s 
185 186
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Example Example
,. ,.
 closure  r , s  , r.s   closure  r , s  , r.s 
 associative  associative
 r, s, t  ,(r.s).t  r.(s.t )  r, s, t  ,(r.s).t  r.(s.t )
 identity
For every r  , 1.r  r  r.1, 1 .
187 188
Example Examples
,.
 closure  r , s  , r.s    {0},. is a group.
 associative
 r, s, t  ,(r.s).t  r.(s.t )
 identity
For every r  , 1.r  r  r.1, 1 .
 Inverse
Inverse of 0 does not exist
189 190
Examples Examples
  {0},. is a group.   {0},. is a group.
  {0},. is a group.   {0},. is a group.
  {0},. is a group.
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Proposition
 Let G,  be a
group. Then
Uniqueness of Identity
and Inverse
193 194
Proposition Proposition
 Let G,  be a  Let G,  be a
group. Then group. Then
1) G has exactly one 1) G has exactly one
identity element identity element
2) Each element of G
has exactly one
inverse.
195 196
Proof Proof
1) Suppose e, e are 1) Suppose e, e are
identity elements. identity elements. So
e x  x e  x
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Proof Proof
1) Suppose e, e are 1) Suppose e, e are
identity elements. So identity elements. So
e x  x e  x e x  x e  x
e  x  x  e  x e  x  x  e  x
holds for all x  G
199 200
Proof Proof
1) Suppose e, e are 2) Let x  G and
identity elements. So suppose x, x are
e x  x e  x inverses of x.
e  x  x  e  x
holds for all x  G
 In particular
e  e  e  e.
201 202
Proof Proof
2) Let x  G and 2) Let x  G and
suppose x, x are suppose x, x are
inverses of x. So inverses of x. So
x  x  x  x  e x  x  x  x  e
x  x  x  x  e
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Proof Proof
x  x  x  x  e x  x  x  x  e
x  x  x  x  e x  x  x  x  e
 Then  Then
x  x  e x  x  e
 x  ( x  x)
205 206
Proof Proof
x  x  x  x  e x  x  x  x  e
x  x  x  x  e x  x  x  x  e
 Then  Then
x  x  e x  x  e
 x  ( x  x)  x  ( x  x)
 ( x  x)  x  ( x  x)  x
 e  x  x.
207 208
Group Theory An Interesting Example of Group
Example
Let G = {x ∊ ℝ| x ≠ 1}
An Interesting and define
Example of Group
x *y = xy – x – y + 2.
Prove that (G, *) is a
group.
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An Interesting Example of Group An Interesting Example of Group
Solution Associative:
Closure:
(a * b) * c
Let a, b∊ G, so a ≠ 1 =(a * b)c – (a* b) – c + 2
= (ab – a – b + 2)c –
and b ≠ 1. (ab – a – b + 2) – c + 2
Suppose a * b = 1. = abc – ac – bc + 2c – ab
+a+b–2–c+2
Then ab – a – b + 2 = 1 = abc – ab – ac – bc + a +
and so (a – 1)(b – 1) = 0 b+c
which implies that a = 1 Similarly a * (b * c) has
the same value.
or b = 1, a contradiction.
211 212
An Interesting Example of Group An Interesting Example of Group
Identity: Inverses:
An identity, e, would If x * y = 2, then
have to satisfy: xy – x – y + 2 = 2.
e * x = x = x * e for all x So
∊ G, y(x – 1) = x and
that is, hence
y =x/(x – 1).
ex – e –x + 2 = x,
or
(e – 2)(x – 1) = 0 for all x.
Clearly e = 2 works.
213 214
An Interesting Example of Group Group Theory
This exists for all x ≠ 1,

i.e. for all x ∊ G. But we
must also check that it is Topic No. 14
itself an element of G.
This is so because
x/(x – 1) ≠ 1
for all x≠1.
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Group Theory Elementary Properties of Groups
Theorem
If G is a group with binary
operation * then the left
Elementary Properties
and right cancellation
of Groups
laws hold in G, that is,
a * b = a * c implies b = c,
and b * a = c * a implies
b = c for all a, b, c ∊ G.
217 218
Elementary Properties of Groups Elementary Properties of Groups
Proof Theorem
Suppose a * b = a * c. If G is a group with binary
Then, there exists a'∊ G, and operation *, and if a and b
a'* (a* b) =a'*(a*c). are any elements of G, then
(a'* a)* b =(a'* a)* c. the linear equations a * x=b
So, e * b = e *c implies b = c. and y * a=b have unique
Similarly, from b * a = c * a
solutions x and y in G.
one can deduce that b = c
upon multiplication by a'∊ G
on the right.
219 220
Elementary Properties of Groups Group Theory
Proof
First we show the existence of at least one solution by just
computing that a' * b is a solution of a* x = b.
Note that Topic No. 15
a* (a'* b) =(a* a')* b= e * b= b.
Thus x = a' *b is a solution of a * x = b.
In a similar fashion, y = b * a' is a
solution of y *a = b.
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Theorem Proof
Let G be a group. For all Note that in a group G,
a, b∊ G, we have we have
(a*b)' = b' *a'. (a* b) * (b' *a')
= a* (b * b') *a'
= (a* e) *a‘
= a* a'= e.
223 224
It shows that b' * a' is Theorem

the unique inverse of For any n ∈ ℕ, (an )−1 = (a−1 )n.
a* b.
That is,
(a * b )' = b' * a'.
225 226
Proof
By definition, (an)-1 is the unique element of G whose product which by induction on n equals e (the cases n = 0
with an in any order is e. and n = 1 are trivial).
But by associativity,
an ∗ (a−1 )n = (an−1 ∗ a) ∗ (a−1 ∗(a−1)n−1) Similarly, the product of an and (a−1 )n in the other
order is e.
n−1 n−1
=a ∗ (a ∗ (a−1 ∗ (a−1 ) ))
n−1 n−1 This proves that (a−1 )n is the inverse of an.
=a ∗ ((a ∗ a−1 ) ∗ (a−1 ) )
n−1 n−1
=a ∗ (e ∗ (a−1 ) ))
n−1 n−1
=a ∗ (a−1 ) ,
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Group Theory Groups of Matrices
Is ⟨ Mmn(ℝ), + ⟩ group?
 ∀ [aij], [bij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ), [aij] + [bij]=[aij + bij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ)
 ∀ [aij], [bij], [cij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ),
Groups of Matrices
([aij] + [bij])+ [cij] =[aij + bij]+ [cij]
=[(aij + bij)+ cij]
=[aij +( bij+ cij)]
= [aij]+[bij+ cij]
= [aij] + ([bij]+ [cij])
229 230
Groups of Matrices Group Theory
 For every [aij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ) and [0] ∊ Mmn(ℝ),

[aij] + [0]=[aij+0]=[aij]=[0]+[aij]
 For every [aij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ) there exists [-aij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ) such
that [aij] + [-aij]=[aij+(- aij)]= [0]= [-aij]+[aij]
Groups of Matrices
231 232
Groups of Matrices Groups of Matrices
Is ⟨ Mnn(ℝ), . ⟩ group?
 ∀ [aij], [bij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ),  ∀ A, B ∊ Mnn(ℝ),
[aij] + [bij]=[aij + bij] AB ∊ Mnn(ℝ)
=[bij+ aij]= [bij] + [aij]  ∀ A, B, C ∊ Mnn(ℝ),
Therefore, ⟨ Mmn(ℝ), + ⟩ is (AB)C=A(BC)
abelian group.  For every A ∊ Mnn(ℝ)
 Similarly, ⟨ Mmn(ℤ), + ⟩, and In ∊ Mnn(ℝ),
AIn=A=InA
⟨ Mmn(ℚ), + ⟩ and
 A-1 does not exist for all
⟨ Mmn(ℂ), + ⟩ are also those A ∊ Mnn(ℝ) having
abelian groups. det(A)=0
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Field
,
(F,+,.)
 ⟨F,+⟩ is abelian group ,
 ⟨F\{0},.⟩ is abelian  {0},.
group
∀ a, b, c ∊ F, ,
 a(b+c)=ab+ac  {0},.
 (a+b)c=ac+bc
,
 {0},.
235 236
 Let F  or .
Abelian Groups
237 238
 Let F  or .  Let F  or .
 Let [aij ] be a matrix  Let [aij ] be a matrix

over F i.e. all over F i.e. all
aij  F aij  F
 Let GL(n, F ) denotes

the set of all n  n
invertible matrices
over F .
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 In general set of all  In general set of all

n  n matrices is not n  n matrices is not
a group under matrix a group under matrix
multiplication. multiplication.
 But GL(n, F ) is a
group under matrix
multiplication.
241 242
Axioms Axioms
 Let G  GL(n, F ).  Let G  GL(n, F ).
 Closure: For all A, B  G , AB  G .
243 244
Axioms Axioms
 Let G  GL(n, F ).  Let G  GL(n, F ).
 Closure: For all A, B  G , AB  G .  Closure: For all A, B  G , AB  G .
 Associative property also holds in G.  Associative property also holds in G.
 I n is the identity matrix.
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Axioms Example
 Let G  GL(n, F ).  Let G  GL(2, ) and A, B  G such that
 Closure: For all A, B  G , AB  G .  1 1 0 1
A , B 
 Associative property also holds in G.
0 2  1 0
 I n is the identity matrix.
 Since both A and A1
are invertible so inverse exists.
247 248
Example Example
 Let G  GL(2, ) and A, B  G such that  Let G  GL(2, ) and A, B  G such that
 1 1 0 1  1 1 0 1
A , B  A , B 
0 2  1 0 0 2  1 0
 then  then
 1 1 0 1   1 1   1 1 0 1   1 1 
AB      AB     
 0 2  1 0   2 0   0 2  1 0   2 0 
 0 1  1 1  0 2 
BA     
 1 0  0 2   1 1
249 250
 Let G,  be a group.  Let G,  be a group.
If for all a, b  G, If for all a, b  G,
a b  b  a a b  b  a
We call G an abelian We call G an abelian
group. group.
 Examples
n ,
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Definition Examples
 Let G,  be a group.
If for all a, b  G, ,
a b  b  a
We call G an abelian
group.
 Examples
n ,
 {0},.
253 254
Examples Examples
, ,
, ,
 {0},.
255 256
Examples Examples
, GL(n, )
,
 {0},.
 {0},.
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Examples Examples
GL(n, ) GL(n, )
 1 1  1 1
A  A 
0 2  0 2 
1  2 1
A1   
2  0 1
259 260

Examples
GL(n, )
Abelian Groups
 1 1
A 
0 2 
1  2 1
A1   
2  0 1
GL(n, )
261 262
Abelian Groups Abelian Groups
Proof
Theorem If n = 0 or n = 1, this holds trivially. Now let n > 1.
If a ∗ b = b ∗ a, then for all/any m m
By commutativity, b ∗ a = a ∗ b for all m ≥ 0.
one n ∈ ℤ, (a ∗ b)n = an ∗ bn . Then by induction on n,
(a ∗b)n = (a ∗ b)n−1 ∗(a ∗b)= (an−1 ∗ bn−1) ∗(a ∗b)
= ((an−1 ∗ bn−1 ) ∗ a) ∗ b = (an−1 ∗ (bn−1 ∗ a)) ∗ b
= (an−1 ∗ (a ∗ bn−1 )) ∗ b = (an−1 ∗ a) ∗ bn−1 ) ∗ b

= an ∗ (bn−1 ∗ b) = an ∗ bn.
Thus the result holds for all n∊ℕ.
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Abelian Groups Group Theory
If n<0, then by the positive case

and commutativity,
(a ∗b)n Modular Arithmetic

= (b ∗a)n
= ((b ∗a)-n)-1
=(b-n ∗ a-n)-1
=(a-n)-1 ∗ (b-n)-1
= an ∗ b n
265 266
Modular Arithmetic Modular Arithmetic
Definition Theorem
Let n be a ﬁxed positive integer Show that the congruence
and a and b any two integers. relation modulo n is an
We say that a is congruent to b equivalence relation on ℤ.
modulo n if n divides a−b.

We denote this by a ≡ b mod n.
267 268
Proof (ii) If a ≡ b mod n, then n|(a−b),

so n|−(a −b).
Write “n|m” for “ n divides m,”
Hence n|(b−a) and b ≡ a mod n.
which means that there is (iii) If a ≡ b mod n and b ≡ c
some integer k such that m = mod n, then n|(a−b) and
nk. n|(b−c), so n |(a−b)+(b−c).
Hence a ≡ b mod n if and Therefore, n|(a−c) and a ≡ c
mod n.
only if n|(a−b).
Hence congruence modulo n is
(i) For all a ∈ ℤ, n |(a−a), so
an equivalence relation on ℤ.
a ≡ a mod n and the relation is
reﬂexive.
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In the congruence relation modulo 3, we have the following
The set of equivalence equivalence classes:
classes is called the set of [0]={...,−3,0,3,6,9,...} [1]={...,−2,1,4,7,10,...} [2]={...,−1,2,5,8,11,...}

[3]={...,0,3,6,9,12,...}=[0]
integers modulo n and is Any equivalence class must be one of [0], [1], or [2], so
denoted by ℤ𝑛 . ℤ3 ={[0],[1],[2]}.
In general, ℤ𝑛 ={[0],[1],[2],...,[n−1]}, since any integer is congruent

modulo n to its remainder when divided by n.
271 272
Group Theory Order of a Group
Definition
The number of elements of a
group G is called the order of
Order of a Group G.
We denote it as |G|.
We call G finite if it has only
finitely many elements;
otherwise we call G infinite.
273 274
Order of a Group Order of a Group

In the congruence relation modulo 4, we have
Definition the following equivalence classes:
Let G be a group and a [0]={...,−4,0,4,8,12,...} [1]={...,−3,1,5,9,13,...}
∈ G.
If there is a positive [2]={...,−2,2,6,10,14,...} [3]={...,-1,3,7,11,15,...}
integer n such that an
= e, then we call the Any equivalence class must be one of [0], [1], [2]
smallest such positive or [3],
integer the order of a.
If no such n exists, so ℤ4 ={[0],[1],[2],[3]}.
we say that a has
infinite order. Let +4 be addition modulo 4. Then, 2 +4 3 = 1.
The order of a is
denoted by |a|.
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Order of a Group Order of a Group
We can write out its Cayley table:  |ℤ4|=4

 1+41+41+41=4(1)=0 ⟹ |[1]|=4
+4 [0] [1] [2] [3]
 2+42=2(2)=0 ⟹ |[2]|=2
[0] [0] [1] [2] [3]
 3+43+43+43=4(3)=0 ⟹ |[3]|=4
[1] [1] [2] [3] [0]  1(0)=0 ⟹ |[0]|=1
[2] [2] [3] [0] [1]  ℤ4=⟨1⟩=⟨3⟩
[3] [3] [0] [1] [2]
 Let ℤn={[0], [1], [2],…,[n-1]}. Then, ⟨ℤn,+n ⟩ is a
Therefore, ⟨ℤ4,+4 ⟩ is a group. group.
 | ℤn |=n
277 278
Order of a Group Group Theory
,
,
Finite Groups
 {0},.
,
 {0},.
,
 {0},.
279 280
Finite Groups Finite Groups
Let U4 = {1, −1, i, −i}, and let “.” be multiplication. Then  |U4|=4
U4 is a group, and we can write out its multiplication table
 (-1)(-1)=(-1)2=1 ⟹ |-1|=2
(Cayley table):
 i.i.i.i=i4=1 ⟹ |i|=4
. 1 -1 i -i
 (-i)(-i)(-i)(-i)=(-i)4=1 ⟹ |-i|=4
1 1 -1 i -i
 11=1 ⟹ |1|=1
-1 -1 1 -i i  U4=⟨i⟩=⟨-i⟩
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1
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Is ⟨U4, .⟩≅⟨ℤ4,+4 ⟩? Let Un={ei2kπ/n: k=0, 1, …, n-1}.

1⟷[0] Then, ⟨Un,.⟩ is a group.
-1 ⟷[2] ⟨Un, .⟩≅⟨ℤn,+n ⟩
i ⟷[1]
-i ⟷[3]
283 284
Group Theory Finite Groups

Since a group has to have at least one element,
namely, the identity, a minimal set that might give
rise to a group is a one-element set { e}.
Finite Groups The only possible binary operation on
{ e} is defined by e ∗ e = e.
The three group axioms hold.
The identity element is always its own
inverse in every group.
285 286
Let us try to put a group structure on a set of two Since e is to be the

elements. identity, so e∗x=x∗e=x
Since one of the elements must play the role of for all x∊{e, a}.
identity element, we may as well let the set be Also, a must have an
{ e, a}. inverse a' such that
Let us attempt to find a table for a binary a ∗ a' = a' ∗ a = e.
operation ∗ on { e, a} that gives a group In our case, a' must be
structure on { e, a}. either e or a. Since a' =
e obviously does not
work, we must have
287 a' = a. 288
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So, we have to complete We know that

the table as follows: ℤ2 ={[0], [l]}
under addition modulo
∗ e a
2 is a group, and by
e e a +2 [0] [1] our arguments, its table
a a e [0] [0] [1] must be the one above
[1] [1] [0]
with e replaced by [0]
and a by [1].
289 290
Suppose that G is any group of three

elements and imagine a table for G with identity
element appearing first.
Finite Groups Since our filling out of the table for G = { e, a, b}
could be done in only one way, we see that if we
take the table for G and rename the identity e, the
next element listed a, and the last element b, the
resulting table for G gives an isomorphism of the
group G with the group G' ={[0], [1], [2]}.
291 292
Our work above can be summarized by saying that

∗ e a b +3 [0] [1] [2]
all groups with a single element are isomorphic, all
e e a b [0] [0] [1] [2]
[1] [1] [2] [0]
groups with just two elements are isomorphic, and
a a b e
b b e a [2] [2] [0] [1]
all groups with just three elements are isomorphic.
a∗b = b ⟹ a=e not possible We may say:
There is only one group of single element (up to
a∗b = a ⟹ b=e not possible Isomorphism), there is only one group of two
elements (up to isomorphism) and there is only
a∗a = a ⟹ a=e not possible
one group of three elements (up to isomorphism).
b∗b = b ⟹ b=e not possible
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There are two different types of group structures of We describe Klein 4-group by
its group table.
order 4.
 The group ⟨ℤ4 , +4⟩ is isomorphic to the group ∗ e a b c
e e a b c
U 4= { 1, i, -1, -i} of fourth roots of unity under a a e c b
multiplication. b b c e a
 The group V=⟨a,b | a2=b2=(ab)2=e ⟩ c c b a e
is the Klein 4-group, and the notation V comes

from the German word Vier for four.
295 296
Is ⟨ℤ6\{[0]}, .6 ⟩ a group?
.6 [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Finite Groups
[1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
[2] [2] [4] [0] [2] [4]
[3] [3] [0] [3] [0] [3]
[4] [4] [2] [0] [4] [2]
[5] [5] [4] [3] [2] [1]
297 298
Finite Groups Group Theory
Is ⟨ℤ5\{[0]}, .5 ⟩ a group?
.5 [1] [2] [3] [4]

[1] [1] [2] [3] [4] Subgroups
[2] [2] [4] [1] [3]
[3] [3] [1] [4] [2]
[4] [4] [3] [2] [1]
⟨ℤp\{[0]}, .p ⟩ is a group,
where p is a prime number
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Subgroups Subgroups
Subgroups Examples
 Let G,  be a group.  ,  is a subgroup of ,
A subgroup of G is a
subset of G which is
itself a group under  .
301 302
Subgroups Subgroups
Examples Examples
 ,  is a subgroup of ,  ,  is a subgroup of ,
  {0},. is not a subgroup of ,   {0},. is not a subgroup of ,
 {1, 1},. is a subgroup of {1, 1, i, i},.
303 304
Subgroups Subgroups
Examples Proposition
 ,  is a subgroup of ,  Let G be a group. Let
H  G . Then H is a
  {0},. is not a subgroup of , subgroup of G if the
following are true:
 {1, 1},. is a subgroup of {1, 1, i, i},.
 {1, i},. is not a subgroup of

{1,  1, i, i},.
305 306
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Subgroups Subgroups
Proposition Proposition
 Let G be a group. Let  Let G be a group. Let
H  G . Then H is a H  G . Then H is a
subgroup of G if the subgroup of G if the
following are true: following are true:
1) e  H 1) e  H
2) if h, k  H then
hk  H
307 308
Subgroups Subgroups
Proposition Example
 Let G be a group. Let  Let G  GL(2, )
H  G . Then H is a  Let  1 n  
subgroup of G if the H    n 
following are true:  0 1  
1) e  H
2) if h, k  H then
hk  H
3) if h  H then
1
h H
309 310
Subgroups Subgroups
Example Example
 Let G  GL(2, )  Let G  GL(2, )
 Let  1 n    Let  1 n  
H    n  H    n 
 0 1    0 1  
1) e  H 1) e  H
2) let 1 n 1 p
h , k   
0 1 0 1 
then 1 p  n
hk     H.
0 1 
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Subgroups Subgroups
Example Example
3) let 1 n 3) let 1 n
h . h .
0 1 0 1
Then Then
 1 n 
1  1 n 
h    H. h 1     H.
0 1  0 1 
Hence H is a subgroup
of G .
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Group Theory Groups of Matrices
If F is a field GL(n, F) denotes the group of

all invertible n  n matrices over F under
multiplication. This group is called the general linear
Examples of Subgroups group of degree n over F.
We know that the associative law holds for matrix
multiplication. Checking the closure law requires us
to know that the product of two invertible matrices is
invertible. And we need to know more than just the
fact that every invertible matrix has an inverse. We
need to observe that such an inverse is itself
invertible.
315 316
An interesting subgroup of GL(n, F) is T+(n, F) the Then there are the lower triangular matrices
set of all n  n upper- triangular matrices over F, T(n, F) which are the transposes of the upper
that is, n  n matrices of the form: triangular ones.
 a11 a12 a13 ... a1n   a11 0 0 ... 0 
0 a ... 0 
 a22 a23 ... a2 n   12 a22 0
0 0 a33 ... a3n   a13 a23 a33 ... 0 
   
 ... ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... ... 
 0 0 0 ... ann   a1n a2 n a3n ... ann 
where each diagonal component is

non-zero.
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Diagonal matrices D(n, F). It’s closed under Within D(n, F) we have the non-zero scalar
multiplication, identity and inverses simply because matrices S(n, F). These are simply the diagonal
each of T+(n, F) and T(n, F) are. matrices that have the same non-zero entry down
the diagonal, that is, non-zero scalar multiples of
This is a special case of the general fact that: the identity matrix.
The intersection of any collection of subgroups is
itself a subgroup.  0 0 ... 0  1 0 0 ... 0
0  0 ... 0  0 0 
 a11 0 0 ... 0    1 0 ...
0 a22 0 ... 0  0 0  ... 0     0 0 1 ... 0    In ,   0
    
0 0 a33 ... 0  ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
   0
 ... ... ... ... ...  0 0 ...    0 0 0 ... 1 
 0 0 0 ... ann 
319 320

+
Another interesting subgroup of T (n, F) is the 
And inside T (n, F) we have the uni-lower-triangular
group of uni-upper-triangular matrices UT+(n, F). 
matrices UT (n, F).
These are the upper-triangular matrices with 1’s down
the diagonal:
1 0 0 ... 0
 1 a12 a13 ... a1n  a 1 0 ... 0 
0 1  12
 a23 ... a2 n   a13 a23 1 ... 0
0 0 1 ... a3n   
   ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...   a1n a2 n a3n ... 1 
 0 0 0 ... 1 
321 322
Another very important

We can summarize the connections between these subgroup of GL(n, F) is
subgroups in a “lattice diagram”: SL(n, F) consisting of
GL(n, F)
all the matrices with
determinant 1.
+
T (n, F) T(n, F) It’s called the special
linear group of degree
D(n, F) n over F.
UT+(n, F) UT(n, F)
S(n, F)
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The Two Step

Topic No. 28 Subgroup Test
325 326
The Two Step Subgroup Test The Two Step Subgroup Test
Theorem Proof
A subset H of a group G is a The fact that if H is subgroup of G then conditions
subgroup of G if and only if
1 and 2 must hold follows at once from the
1. H is closed under the binary operation ∗ of G, definition of a subgroup.
2. for all a ∈ H it is true that a-1 ∈ H also. Conversely, suppose H is a subset of a group G
such that conditions 1 and 2 hold.
By 1 we have at once that closure property is
satisfied. The inverse law is satisfied by 2.
Therefore, for every a∊H there exists a-1∊H such
that e=a∗a-1∊H by 1. So, e∗a=a∗e=a by 1.
327 328
The Two Step Subgroup Test Group Theory
It remains to check the

associative axiom.
But surely for all a, b, c ∊
Topic No. 29
H it is true that
(ab)c = a(bc)
in H, for we may actually
view this as an equation
in G, where the
associative law holds.
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Group Theory Examples on Subgroup Test
Recall
Examples on Subgroup Let G be a group and H a
nonempty subset of G. If
Test a∗b is in H whenever a and
b are in H, and a-1 is in H
whenever a is in H, then H is
a subgroup of G.
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Examples on Subgroup Test Examples on Subgroup Test
To Apply the Two Step Example

Subgroup Test: Show that 3Q* is a subgroup of Q*, the non-zero rational
 Note that H is numbers.
nonempty
 Show that H is closed 3Q* is non-empty because 3 is an element of 3Q*.
with respect to the For a, b in 3Q*, a=3i and b=3j where i, j are in Q*.
group operation Then ab=3i3j=3(3ij), an element of 3Q* (closed)
 Show that H is closed For a in 3Q*, a=3i for i an element in Q*.
with respect to inverses. Then a-1=(i-13-1), an element of 3Q*. (inverses)
 Conclude that H is a Therefore 3Q* is a subgroup of Q*.
subgroup of G.
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The One Step Subgroup

Topic No. 30 Test
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The one Step Subgroup Test The one Step Subgroup Test
Theorem Proof
If S is a subset of the If S is a subgroup, then
group G, then S is a of course S is nonempty
subgroup of G if and and whenever a, b ∈ S,
only if S is nonempty then ab−1 ∈ S.
and whenever a, b ∈ S,
then ab−1 ∈ S.
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The one Step Subgroup Test Group Theory
Conversely suppose S is a nonempty subset of

the Group G such that whenever a, b ∈ S, then
ab−1 ∈ S. Topic No. 31
Let a ∈ S, then e = aa -1 ∈ S and so a-1 = ea-1 ∈ S.
Finally, if a, b ∈ S, then b-1 ∈ S by the above and
so ab = a(b-1)-1 ∈ S.
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Recall
Suppose G is a group and H
Examples on Subgroup is a non-empty subset of G.
Test If, whenever a and b are in
H, ab-1 is also in H,
then H is a subgroup of G.
Or, in additive notation:

If, whenever a and b are in
H, a - b is also in H,
then H is a subgroup of G.
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Examples on Subgroup Test Examples on Subgroup Test
Example
Show that the even integers are a subgroup of the
To apply this test:
Integers.
 Note that H is a
Note that the even integers is not an empty set because
non-empty subset
2 is an even integer.
of G.
Let a and b be even integers.
 Show that for any
Then a = 2j and b = 2k for some integers j and k.
two elements
a + (-b) = 2j + 2(-k) = 2(j-k) = an even integer
a and b in H, ab-1 is
Thus a - b is an even integer
also in H.
Thus the even integers are a subgroup of the integers.
 Conclude that H is a
subgroup of G.
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Examples on Subgroup Test Group Theory
Example
For a, b in 3Q*, a=3i and b=3j
where i, j are in Q*
Then
ab-1=3i(3j)-1 =3i(j-13-1)=3(ij-13-1), Topic No. 32
an element of 3Q*
345 346
Group Theory The finite Subgroup Test
Theorem
If S is a subset of the
The Finite Subgroup
finite group G, then S is
Test
a subgroup of G if and
only if S is nonempty
and whenever a, b ∈ S,
then ab ∈ S.
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The finite Subgroup Test The finite Subgroup Test
Proof
That is an ∈ S for all integers
If S is a subgroup then obviously S is nonempty n > 0.
and whenever a, b ∈ S, then ab ∈ S. But G is finite and thus so is S.
Conversely suppose S is nonempty and Consequently the sequence,
whenever a, b ∈ S, then ab ∈ S.
a, a2, a3, a4,…,an,…
Then let a ∈ S. The above property says that
cannot continue to produce
a2=aa∈S and so a3=aa2∈S and so a4=aa3∈S new elements.
and so on and on and on. That is there must exist m<n
such that am=an.
Thus e= an-m ∈ S.
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The finite Subgroup Test Group Theory
Therefore for all a ∈ S, there

is a smallest integer k > 0
such that ak = e.
Topic No. 33
Moreover, a-1 = ak-1 ∈ S.
Finally if a, b ∈ S, then b-1 ∈ S
by the above and so by the
assume property we have
a b-1 ∈ S.
Therefore S is a subgroup as
desired.
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Example
 ({1,−1, i,−i}, ・)
Examples on Subgroup
Test  {1,i}
 {1,-i}
 {1,−1}
 {1,-1,i}
 {1,-1,-i}
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Examples on Subgroup Test Group Theory
Example  Cyclic Groups

 ({[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]}, +6 )
 {[0], [1]} or {[0], [4]} or {[0], [5]} or {[0], [2]}
 {[0], [3]}
 {[0], [2], [4]}
 {[0], [2], [3], [4]}
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Cyclic Groups Cyclic Groups
Let G be a group and let  An element a of a group G
a ∊ G. generates G and is a
generator for G if a=G.
Then the subgroup
 A group G is cyclic if there is
H={an| n ∊ ℤ} some element a in G that
of G is called the cyclic generates G.
subgroup of G generated
by a, and denoted by 〈a〉.
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Cyclic Groups Cyclic Groups
 Let a be an element of a
group G.
 If the cyclic subgroup a is
finite, then the order of a is
the order | a | of this
cyclic subgroup.
 Otherwise, we say that a is
2𝜋
of infinite order. 𝑰𝒎
= 𝜔, 𝜔2 , … , 𝜔𝑛−1 , 𝜔𝑛 = (𝑒 𝑖 𝑛 )𝑛 = 1 𝝎𝟑
𝝎𝟐
𝝎
𝟏 𝑹𝒆
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Group Theory Examples of Cyclic Groups
 Examples of Cyclic
Groups
361 362
Examples of Cyclic Groups Examples of Cyclic Groups
363 364
Group Theory Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups
 Elementary Theorem
Properties of Cyclic Every cyclic group is
Groups abelian.
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Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups
Proof
 Let G be a cyclic group and let a be a generator of G so that
G = a ={an|n ℤ}.
 If g1 and g2 are any two elements of G, there exists integers r and s such
that g1=ar and g2=as.
 Then
g1g2= aras = ar+s = as+r = asar = g2g1.
 So, G is abelian.
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Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups Group Theory
 Elementary
Properties of Cyclic
Groups
369 370
 Elementary Definition: G is cyclic if G = <a> for some a in G.

Properties of Cyclic Theorem
Groups If |a| = ∞, ai=aj iff i =j
If |a| = n, ai=aj iff n| i – j
<a> = {a, a2, … an-1,e}
Corollary 1: |a| = |<a>|
Corollary 2: ak = e implies |a| | k
Example: U5=< ω |ω5=1>=< ω2 >=< ω3 >= < ω4 >, ω=ei(2𝜋/5)
ω2≠ω4 5⫮4 – 2 ; ω5=ω10 5|10 – 5
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Example Example
U6=< ω |ω6=1>={ω,ω2, ω3, ω4, ω5,1} with ω=ei(2𝜋/6) U6=< ω |ω6=1>={ω,ω2, ω3, ω4, ω5,1} with ω=ei(2𝜋/6)
(ω5)2= ω10= ω6ω4= ω4 < ω2>={ω2, ω4,1} < U6
(ω5)3= ω15= (ω6)2ω3= ω3 < ω3>={ω3,1} < U6
(ω5)4= ω20= (ω6)3ω2= ω2 < ω4>={ω4, ω2,1} = < ω2>
(ω5)5= ω25= (ω6)4ω= ω
(ω5)6= ω30= (ω6)5= 1
U6 =< ω5>={ω5, ω4, ω3, ω2,ω,1}
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 Elementary Theorem 1
Properties of Cyclic If |a| = n, then
Groups  <ak> = <agcd(n,k)>
 |ak| = n/gcd(n,k)
375 376
To prove the |ak| = n/gcd(n,k) , we begin with a little lemma. Now, we prove that |ak| = n/gcd(n,k).
Prove: If d | n = |a|, then |ad| = n/d. Let d = gcd(n,k). Then, we have
Proof: Let n = dq. Then e = an = (ad)q.
|ak| = |<ak>| by Corollary 1
So |ad| ≤ q.
= |<ad>| by Part 1 of Theorem 1
If 0< i < q, then 0 < di < dq = n = |a|
= |ad| by Corollary 1
so (ad)i ≠ e
= n/d by above Lemma.
Hence, |ad| = q which is n/d as required.
This concludes the proof.
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Example  Elementary
 Suppose G = <a> with |a| = 30. Properties of Cyclic
Find |a21| and <a21>. Groups
 By Theorem 1, |a21| = 30/gcd(30,21) = 10
 Also <a21> = <a3>
= {a3, a6, a9, a12,a15, a18, a21, a24, a27, e}
379 380
Theorem 1 Corollaries to Theorem 1

If |a| = n, then <ak> = <agcd(n,k)> and |ak| = n/gcd(n,k). 3. Let |a| = n.
Corollaries to Theorem 1 Then < ai > = aj iff gcd(n,i) = gcd(n,j)
1.In a finite cyclic group, the order of an element divides the order of the 4. An integer k in ℤn is a generator of ℤn iff gcd(n,k)
group.
=1
2.Let |a| = n in any group. Then
a) <ai> = <aj> iff gcd(n,i) = gcd(n,j)
b) |ai| = |aj| iff gcd(n,i) = gcd(n,j)
381 382
Example  Fundamental
Find all the generators of U(50) = 〈3〉. Theorem of Cyclic
U(50) ={1,3,7,9,11,13,17,19,21,23,27,29,31,33, Groups
37,39,41,43,47,49} |U(50)| = 20
The numbers relatively prime to 20 are 1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19
The generators of U(50) are therefore
31, 33, 37, 39, 311, 313, 317, 319
i.e. 3, 27, 37, 33, 47, 23, 13, 17
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Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups
Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups Subgroups are cyclic

a) Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. Proof: Let G = <a> and suppose H ≤ G. If H is trivial, then H is cyclic.
b) If |a| = n, then the order of any subgroup of <a> is a divisor of n Suppose H is not trivial.
c) For each positive divisor k of n, the group <a> has exactly one subgroup Let m be the smallest positive integer with am in H.
of order k, namely <an/k> (Does m exist?) ________
385 386
By closure, <am> is contained in H. Since b = ak = aqma r, we have

We claim that H = <am>. To see this, ar = (am)-q b
choose any b = ak in H. There exist integers q,r with Since b and am are in H, so is ar.
0≤ r < m such that But r < m (the smallest power of a in H)
ak = aqm + r (Why?) ___________ so r = 0.
Hence b = (am)q and b is in H.
It follows that H = <am> as required.
387 388
|H| is a divisor of |a| Exactly one subgroup for each divisor k of n

Proof: Given |<a>| = n and H ≤ <a>. We showed H = <am> where m is the  (Existence) Given |<a>| = n. Let k | n.
smallest positive integer with am in H. Say n = kq. Note that gcd(n,q) = q
Now e = an is in H, so as we just showed, n = mq for So |aq| = n/gcd(n,q) = n/q = k.
some q. Hence there exists a subgroup of order k, namely <an/q>
Now |am| = q is a divisor of n as required.
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Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups Group Theory
 (Uniqueness) Let H be any subgroup of <a> with order k. We claim H =  Subgroups of Finite
<an/k> Cyclic Groups
From (a), H = <am> for some m.
From (b), m | n so gcd(n,m) = m.
So k = |am| = n/gcd(n,m) by Theorem 1
= n/m
Hence m = n/k
So H = <an/k> as required.
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Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups
Theorem Example
Let G be a cyclic group with n elements and generated by a. Let bG and using additive notation, consider in ℤ12, with the
let b=ak. Then b generates a cyclic subgroup H of G containing n/d generator a=1.
elements, where d = gcd (n, k).
 3 = 31, gcd(3, 12)=3, so  3  has 12/3=4 elements.
Also <ak >= <as> if and only gcd (k, n) = gcd (s, n).
 3 ={0, 3, 6, 9}
 Furthermore,  3 =  9  since gcd(3, 12)=gcd(9, 12).
393 394
Corollary
Example
If a is a generator of a finite cyclic group G of order n, then
 8= 81, gcd (8, 12)=4, so  8  has 12/4=3 elements. the other generators of G are the elements of the form ar,
 8 ={0, 4, 8} where r is relatively prime to n.
 5= 51, gcd (5, 12)=1, so  5  has 12 elements.
 5 =ℤ12.
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Example Example
Find all subgroups of ℤ18 and give their subgroup diagram.  3={0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15} is of order 6, and gcd(3,
 All subgroups are cyclic 18)=3=gcd(k, 18) where k=15
 By above Corollary is the generator of Z18, so is 5, 7, 11,  6={0, 6, 12} is of order 3, so is 12
13, and 17.  9={0, 9} is of order 2
 Starting with 2,  2  ={0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 }is of
order 9, and gcd(2, 18)=2=gcd(k, 18) where k is 2, 4, 8, 10,
14, and 16. Thus 2, 4, 8, 10, 14, and 16 are all generators
of 2.
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Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups Group Theory
1
Theorem on Cyclic
Group
2 3
6 9
0
399 400
Theorem on Cyclic Group Theorem on Cyclic Group
Proof
Theorem
Case 1
Let G be a cyclic group
with generator a. For all positive integers m, am ≠ e.
If the order of G is In this case we claim that no two distinct
infinite, then G is exponents h and k can give equal elements ah
isomorphic to (ℤ, +). and ak of G.
If G has finite order n, Suppose that ah = ak and say h > k.
then G is isomorphic to Then aha-k = ah-k = e, contrary to our Case 1
(ℤn, +n). assumption.
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Case 1 Case 1
Hence every element Also,
of G can be expressed ϕ(aiaj)=ϕ(ai+j)
as am for a unique m
∊ ℤ. =i+j
The map ϕ : G → ℤ =ϕ(ai )+ϕ(aj),
given by ϕ(ai) = i is so the homomorphism
thus well defined, one property is satisfied and
to one, and onto ℤ. ϕ is an isomorphism.
403 404
Case 2
Case 2
am = e for some positive integer m. Thus the elements
Let n be the smallest positive integer such that a0=e, a, a2, a3, ···, an-1
are all distinct and
an = e.
comprise all elements
If s ∊ ℤ and s = nq + r for 0 < r < n, then of G.
as = anq+r = (an)q ar = eq ar = ar. The map 𝛹 : G → ℤn
As in Case 1, if 0 < k < h < n and
given by 𝛹(ai) = i for i
ah = ak, then ah-k = e and 0 < h-k < n, = 0, 1, 2, ···, n - 1 is
contradicting our choice of n. thus well defined, one
to one, and onto ℤn.
405 406
Theorem on Cyclic Group Group Theory
Case 2
Because an = e, we see
that ai aj = ak
Permutation Groups
where k = i +n j.
Thus 𝛹(ai aj) = i +n j
= 𝛹(ai) +n 𝛹(aj),
so the homomorphism
property is satisfied and
𝛹 is an isomorphism.
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Permutation Groups Permutation Groups
Array Notation
Definition  Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
A permutation of a set  Here are two permutations of A:
A is a function from A to
A that is both one to 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
one and onto.      
 2 3 1 4  2 1 4 3
 (2)  3  (4)  3
 (4)  4  (1)  2
 (2)   (3)  4
409 410
Composition in Array Notation Composition in Array Notation
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
         
 2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4  2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
   
1  1 4 
411 412
Composition in Array Notation Composition in Array Notation
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
         
 2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4  2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
   
1 4 2  1 4 2 3 
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Composition in Array Notation

Definition
A permutation group of
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
     a set A is a set of
2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4 permutations of A that
forms a group under
1 2 3 4 function composition.

1 4 2 3 
415 416
Permutation Groups Group Theory
Example
 The set of all permutations on {1,2,3} is called the symmetric group
Examples of
on three letters, denoted S3
Permutation Groups
 There are 6 permutations possible:
 1 2 3
 
 __ __ __ 
3  2  1 6
417 418
Examples of Permutation Groups Examples of Permutation Groups
S3
 The permutations of {1,2,3}: Is S3 a group?
1 2 3   Composition of functions is always associative.
1 2 3
       Identity is .
1 2 3  2 3 1  Since permutations are one to one and onto, there exist inverses
1 2 3 1 2 3 (which are also permutations).
2        Therefore, S3 is group.
3 1 2 1 3 2
1 2 3 1 2 3
     2   
2 1 3 3 2 1
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Computations in S3
Simplified Computations in S3
 1 2 3   1 2 3  1 2 3 
3      
 2 3 1   3 1 2  1 2 3   

1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3   
2     
1 3 2  1 3 2  1 2 3  
 Double the exponent of when switching with .
1 2 3   1 2 3   1 2 3   We can simplify any expression in S3!
        
2
1 3 2   2 3 1   3 2 1  421 422
Group Theory Examples of Permutation Groups
Symmetric Groups, Sn
 Let A = {1, 2, … n}. The symmetric group on n letters, denoted Sn, is
Examples of
the group of all permutations of A under composition.
Permutation Groups
 Sn is a group for the same reasons that S3 is group.
 |Sn| = n!
423 424
Symmetries of a Square, D4
Why do we care?
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
R0    H    Every group turns out to be a permutation group on some set!
1 2 3 4 2 1 4 3
(To be proved later).
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 3 2
R90    V  
2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 
R180    D 
3 4 1 2 1 4 3 2  4 1
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
R270   D    D 4 ≤ S4
 4 1 2 3 3 2 1 4 425 426
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Group Theory Permutation Groups
Definition
Let f : A → B be a
Permutation Groups
function and let H be a
subset of A. The image
of H under f is
{f (h) I h ∊ H} and is
denoted by f[H].
427 428
Lemma Proof
Let G and G' be groups Let x', y' ∊ ϕ[G]. Then there exist x, y ∊ G such that ϕ(x)
= x' and ϕ(y) = y'.
and let ϕ : G → G' be a
one-to-one function such By hypothesis, ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) = x'y', showing that x'y' ∊
ϕ[G].
that ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x )ϕ(y)
We have shown that ϕ[G] is closed under the operation of
for all x, y ∊ G. G'.
Then ϕ[ G] is a subgroup
of G' and ϕ provides an
isomorphism of G with
ϕ[G].
429 430
Let e' be the identity of G'. For x' ∊ ϕ[G] where x' =
Then ϕ(x), we have
e'ϕ(e) = ϕ(e) e'=ϕ(e)
= ϕ(ee) = ϕ(xx-1)
= ϕ(e)ϕ(e). = ϕ(x) ϕ(x-1)
Cancellation in G' shows = x' ϕ(x-1)
that e' = ϕ(e) so e' ∊ ϕ[G]. which shows that
x'-1 = ϕ(x-1) ∊ ϕ[G].
Therefore, ϕ[G]<G'.
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Permutation Groups Group Theory
Note that ϕ provides an

isomorphism of G with
ϕ[G] follows at once Cayley’s Theorem
because ϕ provides a one-
to-one map of G onto ϕ[G]
such that ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y)
for all x, y ∊ G .
433 434
Cayley’s Theorem Cayley’s Theorem
Theorem Proof
Every group is isomorphic Let G be a group.
to a group of permutations. We show that G is
isomorphic to a
subgroup of SG.
We Need only to define
a one-to-one function
ϕ: G → SG such that
ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y)
for all x, y ∊ G.
435 436
Cayley’s Theorem Cayley’s Theorem
For x ∊ G, let λx : G → G be defined by λx (g) = xg We now define ϕ: G → SG by defining ϕ(x) = λx

for all g ∊ G. (We think of λx as performing left for all x ∊ G.
multiplication by x.) To show that ϕ is one to one, suppose that
The equation λx(x-1c) = x(x-1c) = c for all c ∊ G ϕ(x) = ϕ(y ).
shows that λx maps G onto G. If λx(a) = λx(b),
then xa = xb so a= b by cancellation. Thus λx is Then λx = λy as functions mapping G into G.
also one to one, and is a permutation of G. In particular λx(e) = λy(e), so xe = ye and x = y.
Thus ϕ is one to one.
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Cayley’s Theorem Group Theory
It only remains to show that ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x )ϕ(y ),

that is, λxy = λx λy .
Examples of
Now for any g ∊ G, we have λxy(g) = (xy)g. Permutation Groups
Permutation multiplication is function
composition, so (λx λy)(g) = λx(λy(g)) = λx(yg) =
x(yg).
Thus by associativity, λxy = λx λy .
439 440
There is a natural correspondence between the ρ0 = do nothing

elements of S3 and the ways in which two copies of 1
an equilateral triangle with vertices 1, 2, and 3 can μ1 = reflect in line l1 1

3 2
be placed, one covering the other with vertices on 3
top of vertices. l3 l2
μ2 = reflect in line l2
2 1
For this reason, S3 is also the group D3 of 2
symmetries of an equilateral triangle. We used 𝜌, μ3 = reflect in line l3 2 3
1 3
for rotations and µ; for mirror images in bisectors of l1
angles. The notation D3 stands for the third dihedral 3
ρ1 = rotate anticlockwise 120o
group. 1 2
The nth dihedral group Dn is the group of 2

ρ2 = rotate anticlockwise 240o
symmetries of the regular n-gon. 3 1
441 442
Examples of Permutation Groups Group Theory

1 2 3 
 0   
1 2 3 
 1 2 3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 μ1 μ2 μ3
1   
 2 3 1 ρ0 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 μ1 μ2 μ3
Examples of
1 2 3 Permutation Groups
 2    ρ ρ1 ρ2 ρ0 μ3 μ1 μ2
3 1 2 1
1 2 3  ρ2 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1 μ2 μ3 μ1
1   
1 3 2  μ 1 μ1 μ2 μ3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2
 1 2 3
 2    μ2 μ2 μ3 μ1 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1
 3 2 1
μ μ3 μ1 μ2 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0
 1 2 3 3
3   
 2 1 3
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Symmetries of a Square, D4
Recall
We form the dihedral group D4 of permutations 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
0    1   
corresponding to the ways that two copies of a 1 2 3 4  2 1 4 3
square with vertices 1, 2, 3, and 4 can be placed, 1 2 3 4
one covering the other with vertices on top of 1   1 2 3 4 3 2
  
vertices.  2 3 4 1  2  4 3 2

1
D4 is the group of symmetries of the square. 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
2    1   
It is also called the octic group. 3 4 1 2 1 4 3 2
4 1
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
3    2    D 4 ≤ S4
 4 1 2 3 3 2 1 4
445 446
Examples of Permutation Groups Group Theory
Orbits
447 448
Orbits Orbits
Definition Find all orbits of 1 2 3 4 5

   
An orbit of a permutation  2 3 1 5 4
p is an equivalence class Method:
under the relation: Let S be the set that the permutation works on.
a~b ⇔ b = pn(a), 0) Start with an empty list
for some n in ℤ. 1) If possible, pick an element of the S not already
visited and apply permutation repeatedly to get
an orbit.
2) Repeat step 1 until all elements of S have been
visited.
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Orbits Group Theory
 Look at what happens to elements as a

permutation is applied.
Orbits

1 2 3 4 5 
  
 2 3 1 5 4
α(1)=2, α2(1)=3, α3(1)=1 {1,2,3}
α(4)=5, α2(4)=4 {4,5}
451 452
Orbits Orbits
Theorem Proof
Let p be a permutation 1) reflexive:
of a set S. a = p0(a) ⇒ a~a
The following relation 2) symmetric:
is an equivalence a~b ⇒ b = pn(a), for
relation: some n in ℤ
a ~ b ⇔ b =pn(a), ⇒ a = p-n(b),
for some n in ℤ. with -n in ℤ
⇒ b~a
453 454
Orbits Group Theory
3) transitive:
a~b and b~c
Cycles
⇒ b = 𝑝𝑛1 (a) and c = 𝑝𝑛2 (b) , for some n1 and n2 in
ℤ
⇒ c = 𝑝𝑛2 (𝑝𝑛1 (a)) , for some n1 and n2 in ℤ
⇒ c = 𝑝𝑛2+𝑛1 (a) , with n2 + n1 in ℤ
⇒ a~c
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Cycles Cycles
A permutation is a A cycle of length 2 is
cycle if at most one of called a transposition.
its orbits is nontrivial
(has more than one
element).
457 458
Cycles Cycles
Example Composition in cycle notation

 = (1 2 3)(1 2)(3 4)
1 2 3 4 5 = (1 3 4)(2)
    = (1 3 4)
 2 3 1 5 4
 = (1 2)(3 4)(1 2 3)
=(1, 2, 3)(4, 5) = (1)(2 4 3)
=(1,3)(1,2)(4,5) = (2 4 3)
459 460
Group Theory Disjoint Cycles
Definition
Two permutations are
Disjoint Cycles
disjoint if the sets of
elements moved by
the permutations are
disjoint.
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Disjoint Cycles Disjoint Cycles
Symmetries of a Square, D4 ≤ S4 Symmetries of a Square, D4 ≤ S4

1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
0     (1 2)(1 2) 1     (1 2)(3 4)
1 2 3 4   2 1 4 3
1 2 3 4 1 3 4
1     (1 2 3 4)  (1 4)(1 3)(1 2) 2  
2
2 3 4 1   (1 4)(2 3)
4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
2     (1 3)(2 4) 1     (2 4)
3 4 1 2 1 4 3 2
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
3     (1 4 3 2)  (1 2)(1 3)(1 4) 2     (1 3)
 4 1 2 3 3 2 1 4
463 464
Group Theory Cycle Decomposition
Theorem:
Every permutation of
Cycle Decomposition
a finite set is a product
of disjoint cycles.
465 466
Cycle Decomposition Cycle Decomposition
Proof: Lemma
Let σ be a permutation. Every cycle is a product
Let B1, B2, …, Br be the of transpositions.
orbits. Proof
Let μi be the cycle
defined by μi (x) = σ(x) if Let (a1, a2, …, an) be a
x in Bi and x otherwise. cycle, then
Then σ = μ1 μ2 … μr . (a1, an) (a1, an-1) … (a1, a2)
= (a1, a2, …, an).
Note: Disjoint cycles
commute.
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Cycle Decomposition Group Theory
Theorem
Every permutation can
Parity of Permutation
be written as a product
of transpositions.
Proof
Use the lemma plus the
previous theorem.
469 470
Parity of a Permutation Parity of a Permutation
Definition Theorem
The parity of a permutation The parity of a
is said to be even if it can permutation is even or
be expressed as the odd, but not both.
product of an even number
of transpositions, and odd
if it can be expressed as a
product of an odd number
of transpositions.
471 472
Parity of a Permutation Parity of a Permutation
One way uses linear algebra: For the permutation π

Proof
define a map from Rn to Rn by switching coordinates
We show that for any positive integer n, parity is a
homomorphism from Sn to the group ℤ2, where 0 as follows
represents even, and 1 represents odd. Lπ(x1, x2, …, xn) = (x π(1), xπ(2), …, xπ(n)).
These are alternate names for the equivalence classes Then Lπ is represented by a n x n matrix Mπ whose
2ℤ and 2ℤ+1 that make up the group ℤ2.
rows are the corresponding permutation of the rows
There are several ways to define the parity map.
They tend to use the group {1, -1} with multiplicative of the n x n identity matrix.
notation instead of {0, 1} with additive notation. The map that takes the permutation π to Det (Mπ) is
a homomorphism from Sn to the multiplicative group
{-1, 1}.
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Parity of a Permutation Group Theory
Another way uses the action of the permutation on

the polynomial
Alternating Group
P(x1, x2, …, xn ) = Product{(xi - xj )| i < j }.
Each permutation changes the sign of P or leaves it
alone.
This determines the parity: change sign = odd parity,
leave sign = even parity.
475 476
Alternating Group Alternating Group
The alternating group The alternating group
on n letters consists of on n letters consists of
the even permutations the even permutations
in the symmetric group in the symmetric group
of n letters. of n letters.
477 478
Alternating Group Alternating Group
1 2 3 
0     (12)(12)
Theorem 1 2 3 
If n≥2, then the  1 2 3
1     (1 2 3)  (1 3)(1 2)
collection of all even  2 3 1
permutations of 1 2 3
2     (1 3 2)  (1 2)(1 3)
{1, 2, …, n} 3 1 2
forms a subgroup of 1 2 3 
1     (2 3)
order n!/2 of the 1 3 2 
symmetric group Sn. 1 2 3
2     (1 3)
3 2 1
 1 2 3
3     (1 2)
479  2 1 3 480
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Alternating Group Group Theory
A3={(1), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}
(1) (1 2 3) (1 3 2) Direct Products

(1) (1) (1 2 3) (1 3 2)
(1 2 3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2) (1)
(1 3 2) (1 3 2) (1) (1 2 3)
481 482
Direct Products Direct Products
Definition Let G 1, ···, Gn be groups, and let us use

The Cartesian product of multiplicative notation for all the group operations.
Regarding the G as sets, we can form ∏i=1n Gi.
sets S1, …, Sn is the set of Let us show that we can make ∏i=1n Gi into a group
all n-tuples (a1,···, an), by means of a binary operation of multiplication by
where ai ∊ Si for i = 1,···, n. components.
The Cartesian product is
denoted by either
S1 X … X Sn or by ∏i=1n Si.
483 484
Theorem Proof
Let G1, …, Gn be groups. Note that since ai , bi ∊ G, and Gi is a group, we
For (a1, …, an) and (b1,…, bn) in ∏i=1n Gi, have aibi ∊ G.
define (a1, …, an)(b1,…, bn) to be the element Thus the definition of the binary operation on
(a1 b1, …, an bn). ∏i=1n Gi given in the statement of the theorem
Then ∏i=1n Gi is a group, the direct product of the makes sense, that is, ∏i=1n Gi is closed under the
groups Gi , under this binary operation. binary operation.
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The associate law in

If ei is the identity element in Gi, then clearly,
∏i=1n Gi is thrown back onto the associative law in
with multiplication by components, (e1,···,en) an
each component as follows:
identity in ∏i=1n Gi.
(a1,···, an)[(b1,···, bn)(c1,···, cn)]
Finally, an inverse of (a1,···, an) is (a1-1,···, an-1);
=(a1, ···, an)(b1c1,···, bncn)= (a1(b1c1),···, an(bncn)) compute the product by components.
= ((a1b1)c1,···, (anbn)cn)=(a1b1,…,anbn)(c1,…,cn) Hence ∏i=1n Gi is a group.
=[(a1,…,an)(b1,…,bn)](c1,…,cn)
487 488
Group Theory Direct Products
In the event that the operation of each Gi is

Direct Products commutative, we sometimes use additive
notation in ∏i=1n Gi, and refer to ∏i=1n Gi as the
direct sum of the groups Gi. The notation
⨁i=1nGi is sometimes used in this case in place of
∏i=1n Gi, especially with abelian groups with
operation +. The direct sum of abelian groups G1,
G2,···, Gn may be written as G1 ⨁… ⨁Gn.
489 490
Proposition Proof
A direct product of Let G1, …, Gn be abelian
abelian groups is groups. For (a1, …, an)
abelian. and (b1,…, bn) in
∏i=1n Gi ,
(a1, …, an)(b1,…, bn)
=(a1 b1, …, an bn)
=(b1a1,…,bnan)
=(b1,…, bn) (a1, …, an).
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Direct Products Group Theory
If the Si has ri elements

for i =1,···,n, then ∏i=1n Si
has r1…rn elements, for Direct Products
in an n-tuple, there are
r1 choices for the first
component from S1, and
for each of these there
are r2 choices for the
next component from S2,
and so on.
493 494
Example • 1(1, 1) = (1, 1)

Consider the group ℤ2 x ℤ3, which has 2·3=6 • 2(1. 1) = (l, l) + (1, 1) = (0, 2)
elements, namely (0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (l, 0), (1, 1), • 3(1, 1) = (1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 0)
and (1, 2). We claim that ℤ2 x ℤ3 is cyclic. It is only • 4(1, 1) = 3(1. 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 0) + (1. 1) = (0, 1)
necessary to find a generator. Let us try (1, 1). Here
the operations in ℤ2 and ℤ3 are written additively, • 5(1, 1) = 4(1, 1) + (1, 1) = (0, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2)
so we do the same in the direct product ℤ2 x ℤ3. • 6(1, 1) = 5(1. 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2) + (1, 1) = (0, 0)
Thus (1, 1) generates all of ℤ2 x ℤ3. Since there is,
up to isomorphism, only one cyclic group structure
of a given order, we see that ℤ2 x ℤ3 is isomorphic
to ℤ6.
495 496
Example
Consider ℤ3 x ℤ3. This is a group of nine elements.
We claim that ℤ3 x ℤ3 is not cyclic.
Direct Products
Since the addition is by components, and since in ℤ3
every element added to itself three times gives the
identity, the same is true in ℤ3 x ℤ3 . Thus no
element can generate the group, for a generator
added to itself successively could only give the
identity after nine summands. We have found
another group structure of order 9. A similar
argument shows that ℤ2 x ℤ2 is not cyclic. Thus ℤ2 x
ℤ2 must be isomorphic to the Klein 4-group.
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Theorem Proof
The group ℤm x ℤn is cyclic and is isomorphic to ℤmn if Consider the cyclic subgroup of ℤm x ℤn generated
and only if m and n are relatively prime, that is, the by (1,1). The order of this cyclic subgroup is the
gcd of m and n is 1. smallest power of (1,1) that gives the identity (0,0).
Here taking a power of (1,1) in our additive
notation will involve adding (1,1) to itself
repeatedly. Under addition by components, the
first component 1 ∊ ℤm yields 0 only after m
summands, 2m summands, and so on, and the
second component 1 ∊ ℤn yields 0 only after n
summands, 2n summands, and so on.
499 500
For them to yield 0 simultaneously, the number of For the converse, suppose that the gcd of m and
summands must be a multiple of both m and n. The n is d > 1. The mn/d is divisible by both m and n.
smallest number that is a multiple of both m and n Consequently, for any (r, s) in ℤmx ℤn, we have
will be mn if and only if the gcd of m and n is 1; in this
case, (1,1) generates a cyclic subgroup of order mn, (r,s) + ··· + (r,s) = (0,0).
mn/d summands
which is the order of the whole group. This shows
that ℤm x ℤn is cyclic of order mn, and hence Hence no element (r, s) in ℤm x ℤn can generate
isomorphic to ℤmn if m and n are relatively prime. the entire group, so ℤm x ℤn is not cyclic and
therefore not isomorphic to ℤmn.
501 502
Corollary Example
The group ∏i=1nℤ𝑚𝑖 is If n is written as a product
cyclic and isomorphic to of powers of distinct prime
ℤ𝑚1 …𝑚𝑛 if and only if numbers, as in
the numbers mi for i = n=𝑝1 𝑛1 …𝑝𝑟 𝑛𝑟
1,…, n are such that the then ℤn is isomorphic to
gcd of any two of them ℤ𝑝1 𝑛1 x … xℤ𝑝𝑟 𝑛𝑟 .
is 1.
In particular, ℤ72 is
isomorphic to ℤ8 x ℤ9.
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We remark that changing

the order of the factors
Direct Products in a direct product yields
a group isomorphic to the
original one. The names
of elements have simply
been changed via a
permutation of the
components in the n-
tuples.
505 506
It is straightforward to prove that the subset of ℤ Definition

consisting of all integers that are multiples of both r Let r1,···, rn be positive integers. Their least
and s is a subgroup of ℤ, and hence is cyclic group common multiple (abbreviated lcm) is the positive
generated by the least common multiple of two generator of the cyclic group of all common
positive integers r and s.
multiples of the ri, that is, the cyclic group of all
Likewise, the set of all common multiples of n positive
integers divisible by each ri, for i = 1,···, n.
integers r1,···, rn is a subgroup of ℤ, and hence is cyclic
group generated by the least common multiple of n
positive integers r1,···, rn.
507 508
Theorem Proof
Let (a1,···, an)∊ ∏i=1n Gi. If ai is of finite order ri in This follows by a repetition of the argument used
Gi, then the order of (a1,···,an) in ∏i=1n Gi is equal to in the proof of previous Theorem. For a power of
the least common multiple of all the ri. (a1,···, an) to give (e1, ···,en), the power must
simultaneously be a multiple of r1 so that this
power of the first component a1 will yield e1, a
multiple of r2, so that this power of the second
component a2 will yield e2, and so on.
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Example
Find the order of (8, 4, 10) in the group ℤ12 x ℤ6o x
Direct Products
ℤ24.
Solution
Since the gcd of 8 and 12 is 4, we see that 8 is of
order 3 in ℤ12. Similarly, we find that 4 is of order
15 in ℤ6o and 10 is of order 12 in ℤ24. The lcm
of 3, 15, and 12 is 3·5·4 = 60, so (8, 4,10) is of
order 60 in the group ℤ12 x ℤ60 x ℤ24.
511 512
Example
The group ℤ x ℤ2 is generated by the elements
Fundamental Theorem
(1, 0) and (0, 1). More generally, the direct
product of n cyclic groups, each of which is of Finitely Generated
either ℤ or ℤm for some positive integer m, is Abelian Groups
generated by then n-tuples
(1, 0,···, 0), (0, 1,···, 0),…,(0, 0,···, 1). Such a direct
product might also be generated by fewer
elements. For example, ℤ3 x ℤ4 x ℤ35 is generated
by the single element (1, 1, 1).
513 514
Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated

Theorem Example
Every finitely generated abelian group G is Find all abelian groups, up to isomorphism, of
isomorphic to a direct product of cyclic groups in the order 360. The phrase up to isomorphism
form signifies that any abelian group of order 360
should be structurally identical (isomorphic) to
ℤ𝑝1 𝑟1 x … x ℤ𝑝𝑛𝑟𝑛 x ℤ x … x ℤ one of the groups of order 360 exhibited.
where the pi are primes, not necessarily distinct,
and the ri are positive integers. The direct product
is unique except for possible rearrangement of the
factors; that is, the number (Betti number of G) of
factors ℤ is unique and the prime powers 𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 are
unique. 515 516
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Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated

Solution Then, we get as possibilities

Since our groups are to be of the finite order 1. ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ3 x ℤ3 x ℤ5
360, no factors ℤ will appear in the direct 2. ℤ2 x ℤ4 x ℤ3 x ℤ3 x ℤ5
product shown in the statement of the
fundamental theorem of finitely generated 3. ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ9 x ℤ5
abelian groups. 4. ℤ2 x ℤ4 x ℤ9 x ℤ5
First we express 360 as a product of prime 5. ℤ8 x ℤ3 x ℤ3 x ℤ5
powers 23.32.5. 6. ℤ8 x ℤ9 x ℤ5
Thus there are six different abelian groups (up
to isomorphism) of order 360.
517 518
Group Theory Applications
Definition
A group G is decomposable if it is isomorphic to
Applications a direct product of two proper nontrivial
subgroups. Otherwise G is indecomposable.
519 520
Applications Applications
Theorem Proof
The finite indecomposable abelian groups are Let G be a finite indecomposable abelian group.
exactly the cyclic groups with order a power of Then, G is isomorphic to a direct product of
a prime. cyclic groups of prime power order. Since G is
indecomposable, this direct product must
consist of just one cyclic group whose order is a
power of a prime number.
Conversely, let p be a prime. Then ℤp' is
indecomposable, for if ℤp' were isomorphic to
ℤ𝑝𝑖 x ℤ j , where i + j = r, then every element
𝑝
would have an order at most pmax{i,j}<pr.
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Theorem
If m divides the order of a finite abelian group
Applications G, then G has a subgroup of order m.
523 524
Applications Applications
Proof Recalling that <a> denotes the cyclic subgroup

We can think of G as being generated by a, we see that
ℤ𝑝1 𝑟1 x … x ℤ𝑝𝑛𝑟𝑛 where not all primes pi need be < 𝑝1 𝑟1 −𝑠1 > x … x < 𝑝𝑛 𝑟𝑛 −𝑠𝑛 >
distinct. Since 𝑝1 𝑟1 … 𝑝𝑛 𝑟𝑛 is the order of G, then m is the required subgroup of order m.
must be of the form 𝑝1 𝑠1 … 𝑝𝑛 𝑠𝑛 , where 0≤ si ≤ri.
𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 −𝑠𝑖 generates a cyclic subgroup of ℤ𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 of
order equal to the quotient of 𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 by the gcd of
𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 and 𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 −𝑠𝑖 . But the gcd of 𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 and 𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 −𝑠𝑖 is
𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 −𝑠𝑖 . Thus 𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 −𝑠𝑖 generates a cyclic subgroup
ℤ𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖 of order [𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 ]/[𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 −𝑠𝑖 ]= 𝑝𝑖 𝑠𝑖 .
525 526
Theorem
If m is a square free integer, that is, m is not
Applications divisible by the square of any prime, then
every abelian group of order m is cyclic.
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Applications Group Theory
Proof
Let G be an abelian group of square free order
m. Then, G is isomorphic to
Cosets
ℤ𝑝1 𝑟1 x … x ℤ𝑝𝑛𝑟𝑛 ,
where m= 𝑝1 𝑟1 … 𝑝𝑛 𝑟𝑛 . Since m is square free,
we must have all ri = 1 and all pi distinct
primes. Then, G is isomorphic to ℤ𝑝1 …𝑝𝑛 , so G
is cyclic.
529 530
Cosets Cosets
Definition Example
Let H be a subgroup of a group G, which may be of finite We exhibit the left cosets and the right cosets of the
or infinite order and a in G. subgroup 3ℤ of ℤ.
The left coset of H containing a is the set 0+3ℤ= 3ℤ ={…, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, … }
aH = {ah | h in H} 1+3ℤ={…, -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, … }
The right coset of H containing a is the set 2+3ℤ={…, -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, … }
Ha = {ha | h in H} ℤ= 3ℤ⊔1+3ℤ ⊔ 2+3ℤ
In additive groups, we use a+H and H+a for left and So, these three left cosets constitute the partition of
right cosets, respectively. ℤ into left cosets of 3ℤ.
531 532
Cosets Group Theory
Example
3ℤ+0= 3ℤ ={…, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, … }=0+3ℤ
3ℤ+1={…, -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, … }=1+3ℤ Cosets
3ℤ+2={…, -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, … }=2+3ℤ
ℤ= 3ℤ⊔3ℤ+1 ⊔ 3ℤ+2
So, the partition of ℤ into right cosets is the same.
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Partitions of Groups
Topic No. 67
535 536
Partitions of Groups Partitions of Groups
Let H be a subgroup of a Theorem

group G, which may be of Let H be a subgroup of a group G.
finite or infinite order. Let the relation ∼L be defined on G by a ∼L b iff a-1b∊H.
We exhibit two partitions Let ∼R be defined by a ∼R b iff ab-1∊H.
of G by defining two Then ∼L and ∼R are both equivalence relations on G.
equivalence relations, ∼L
and ∼R on G.
537 538
Proof Symmetric
Reflexive Suppose a∼Lb.
Let a∊G. Then a-1b∊H.
Then a-1a = e ∊ H Since H is a subgroup,
since H is a subgroup. (a-1b)-1=b-1a ∊H.
Thus a∼La. It implies that b ∼L a.
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Transitive  a is called the coset

representative of aH.
Let a∼Lb and b∼Lc .
 Similarly, aHa-1 ={aha-1 |
Then a-1b∊H and b-1c∊H.
h in H}
Since H is a subgroup,
(a-1b)(b-1c)=a-1c ∊H.
So, a ∼L c.
541 542
Examples of Cosets
Topic No. 68
543 544
Examples of Cosets Examples of Cosets
Vectors under addition are a group: Visualizing H={(2t,t) | t∊ℝ}

(a,b) + (c,d) = (a+c,b+d)∊ℝ2 Let x = 2t, y = t
Identity is (0,0) ∊ℝ2 Eliminate t:
Inverse of (a,b) is (-a,-b) in ℝ2 y = x/2
H
((a,b)+(c,d))+(e,f)=(a+c,b+d)+(e,f)=((a+c)+e,(b+d)+f)
=(a+(c+e),b+(d+f))=(a,b)+(c+e,d+f)=(a,b)+((c,d)+(e,f))
H = {(2t,t) | t∊ℝ} is a subgroup of ℝ2.
Proof: (2a,a) - (2b,b) = (2(a-b),a-b) ∊H
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H and some cosets

Cosets of H={(2t,t) | t ∊ ℝ}
(a,b) + H = {(a+2t,b+t)} (0,1) + H
Set x = a+2t, y = b+t and eliminate t:

H
y = b + (x-a)/2 (–3,0)+H
The subgroup H is the line y = x/2.

The cosets are lines parallel to y = x/2 !
(1,0) + H
547 548
Examples of Cosets
Topic No. 69
549 550
Group Theory Examples of Cosets
Left Cosets of <(23)> in S3

Let H = <(23)> {, (23)}
Examples of Cosets
H = {, (23)}=H
(123)H = {(123), (12)}
(132)H = {(132), (13)}
S3= H ⊔ (123)H ⊔ (132)H
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Right Cosets of <(23)> in S3 Left Cosets of <(123)> in A4

Let H = <(23)> {, (23)} Let H = <(123)> {, (123), (132)}
H  = {, (23)}=H H = {, (123), (132)}
H(123) = {(123), (13)} (12)(34)H = {(12)(34), (243), (143)}
H(132) = {(132), (12)} (13)(24)H = {(13)(24), (142), (234)}
S3= H ⊔ H(123) ⊔ H(132) (14)(23)H = {(14)(23), (134), (124)}
553 554
Examples of Cosets
Topic No. 70
555 556
Group Theory Properties of Cosets
Proposition
Let H be a subgroup of G,
Properties of Cosets and a,b in G.
1. a belongs to aH
2. aH = H iff a belongs to
H
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Properties of Cosets
559 560
Topic No. 71
561 562
Group Theory Properties of Cosets
Proposition
Let H be a subgroup of G, and a,b in G.
3. aH = bH iff a belongs to bH
4. aH and bH are either equal or disjoint
5. aH = bH iff a-1b belongs to H
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Properties of Cosets Properties of Cosets
4. aH and bH are either disjoint or equal.

Proof: Suppose aH and bH are not disjoint. Say x is in
the intersection of aH and bH.
Then aH = xH = bH by (3).
Consequently, aH and bH are either disjoint or equal,
as required.
565 566
Properties of Cosets Group Theory
567 568
Topic No. 72
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Proposition 6. |aH| = |bH|

Let H be a subgroup of G, Proof: Let ø: aH → bH be given by
and a in G. ø(ah) = bh for all h in H.
6. |aH| = |bH| We claim ø is one to one and onto.
7. aH = Ha iff H = aHa-1 If ø(ah1) = ø(ah2), then bh1 = bh2
8. aH ≤ G iff a belongs to H so h1 = h2. Therefore ah1 = ah2.
Hence ø is one-to-one.
ø is clearly onto.
It follows that |aH| = |bH| as required.
571 572
573 574
Properties of Cosets Lagrange’s Theorem
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Lagrange’s Theorem Lagrange’s Theorem
Lagrange’s Theorem Proof

Statement The right cosets of H in G form a partition of G, so G
If G is a finite group and H can be written as a disjoint union
is a subgroup of G, then G = Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ ·· ·∪ Hak
|H| divides |G|.
for a finite set of elements a1, a2, . . . , ak ∈ G.
The number of elements in each coset is |H|.
Hence, counting all the elements in the disjoint
union above, we see that |G| = k|H|.
Therefore, |H| divides |G|.
577 578
Lagrange’s Theorem Group Theory
Subgroups of ℤ12
|ℤ12|=12
The divisors of 12 are 1, 2, 3,
4, 6 and 12. Applications of
The subgroups of ℤ12 are Lagrange’s Theorem
H1={[0]}
H2={[0],[6]}
H3={[0],[4],[8]}
H4={[0],[3],[6],[9]}
H5={[0],[2],[4],[6],[8],[10]}
579 580
Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem
Corollary Proof
Every group of prime Let G be of prime order p, and let a be an element of
order is cyclic. G different from the identity.
Then the cyclic subgroup <a> of G generated by a
has at least two elements, a and e.
But the order m≥2 of <a> must divide the prime p.
Thus we must have m = p and <a>=G, so G is cyclic.
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Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem
Since every cyclic Theorem

group of order p is The order of an
isomorphic to ℤp, we element of a finite
see that there is only group divides the
one group structure, order of the group.
up to isomorphism, of
a given prime order p.
583 584
Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem Group Theory
Proof
Remembering that the
Indices of Subgroups
order of an element is
the same as the order
of the cyclic subgroup
generated by the
element, we see that
this theorem follows
directly from
Lagrange’s Theorem.
585 586
Indices of Subgroups Indices of Subgroups
Definition The index (G:H) just

Let H be a subgroup of defined may be finite or
a group G. infinite.
The number of left (or If G is finite, then
right) cosets of H in G obviously (G:H) is finite
is the index (G:H) of H and (G:H)=IGI/IHI, since
in G. every coset of H contains
IHI elements.
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Example Example
μ=(1,2,4,5)(3,6) Find the right cosets of
μ2=(2,5)(1,4) H = {e, g4, g8} in
μ3=(1,5,4,2)(3,6) C12 = {e, g, g2, . . . , g11}.
μ4=ε
<μ> < S6
(S6:<μ>)=|S6|/|< μ >|
=6!/4=6.5.3.2=180.
589 590
Solution
Theorem
H={e, g4, g8} itself is one coset.
Suppose H and K are
Another is Hg = {g, g5, g9}.
subgroups of a group
These two cosets have not exhausted all the G such that K ≤ H ≤ G,
elements of C12, so pick an element, say g2, which is and suppose (H:K) and
not in H or Hg.
(G:H) are both finite.
A third coset is Hg2 = {g2, g6, g10} and a fourth is Then (G:K) is finite, and
Hg3 ={g3, g7, g11}. (G:K)=(G:H)(H:K).
Since C12 = H ∪ Hg ∪ Hg2 ∪ Hg3, these are all the
cosets. Therefore, (C12:H)=12/3=4.
591 592
Group Theory Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem
Lagrange’s Theorem
shows that if there is
Converse of Lagrange’s a subgroup H of a finite
Theorem group G, then the
order of H divides the
order of G.
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Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem
Is the converse true? However, A4 can be

That is, if G is a group shown to have no
of order n, and m subgroup of order 6,
divides n, is there which gives a
always a subgroup of counterexample for
order m? nonabelian groups.
We will see next that
this is true for abelian
groups.
595 596
Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem Group Theory
A4 = {(1), (1, 2)(3, 4),

(1, 3)(2, 4),(1, 4)(2, 3),
An Interesting Example
(1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2),
(1, 3, 4), (1, 4, 3),
(1, 2, 4),(1, 4, 2),
(2, 3, 4), (2, 4, 3)}
597 598
An Interesting Example An Interesting Example
The composition of this

Example translation with a
translation g in the
A translation of the plane direction of (c, d) is the
R2 in the direction of the function
f g:R2 → R2, where
vector (a, b) is a function
f :R2 → R2 defined by f g(x, y) = f (g(x, y))
= f (x + c, y + d)
f (x, y) = (x + a, y + b).
= (x + c + a, y + d + b).
This is a translation in the
direction of (c + a, d + b).
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It can easily be verified A translation of the plane

that the set of all R2 in the direction of the
translations in R2 forms vector (0, 0) is an identity
an abelian group, under function 1R2:R2 → R2
composition.
defined by
1R2(x, y)=(x+0, y+0)=(x, y).
601 602
The inverse of the The inverse of the

translation of the plane translation in the
R2 in the direction of the direction (a, b) is the
vector (a, b) is an inverse translation in the
function f -1 :R2 → R2 opposite direction
defined by
(−a,−b).
f -1 (x, y) = (x - a, y - b)
such that
f f -1(x, y)=(x, y)=f-1 f(x, y).
603 604
Group Theory Homomorphism of Groups
Structure-Relating Maps
Let G and G' be groups.
Homomorphism of We are interested in
Groups maps from G to G' that
relate the group
structure of G to the
group structure of G'.
Such a map often gives
us information about one
of the groups from
known structural
properties of the other.
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Homomorphism of Groups Homomorphism of Groups
An isomorphism ϕ: G →
G', if one exists, is an We now consider more general structure-relating
example of such a maps, weakening the conditions from those of an
structure-relating map. If isomorphism by no longer requiring that the maps
we know all about the be one to one and onto. We see, those conditions
group G and know that ϕ are the purely set-theoretic portion of our definition
is an isomorphism, we of an isomorphism, and have nothing to do with the
immediately know all binary operations of G and of G'.
about the group structure
of G', for it is structurally
just a copy of G.
607 608
Definition  We often use the

If (G,・) and (H, ) are notation
two groups, the function f : (G, ・) → (H, )
f :G → H is called a group for such a homorphism.
homomorphism if
 Many authors use
f(a・b)=f(a)f(b) morphism instead of
for all a, b ∈ G. homomorphism.
609 610
Example
Definition
Let ϕ: G → G' be a group homomorphism of G onto
A group isomorphism is a G'. We claim that if G is abelian, then G' must be
bijective group abelian. Let a', b' ∊ G'. We must show that a' b' = b'
homomorphism. a'. Since ϕ is onto G', there exist a, b ∊ G such that
If there is an isomorphism ϕ(a)= a' and ϕ(b) = b', Since G is abelian,
between the groups (G,・) we have ab= ba. Using homomorphism property,
and (H,), we say that we have a'b' = ϕ(a) ϕ(b) = ϕ(ab)= ϕ(ba) =
(G,・) and (H,) are ϕ(b) ϕ(a) = b' a', so G' is indeed abelian.
isomorphic and write
(G,・)  (H,  ).
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Group Theory Homomorphism of Groups
Example
The function f : Z → Zn ,
Examples of Group defined by f (x) = [x] is
Homomorphisms the group
homomorphism,
for if i, j  ℤ, then
f(i+j)=[i+j]
=[i]+n[j]
=f(i)+nf(j).
613 614
Examples of Group Homomorphisms Examples of Group Homomorphisms
Example Now f is an isomorphism, for its inverse function

Let be R the group of all real numbers with g :R+ → R is ln x.
operation addition, and let R+ be the group of all Therefore, the additive group R is isomorphic to
the multiplicative group R+ .
positive real numbers with operation multiplication.
The function f : R → R+ , defined by f (x) = ex , is a Note that the inverse function g is also an
isomorphism:
homomorphism, for if x, y  R, then
g(x y) = ln(x y) = lnx + lny = g(x) + g(y).
f(x + y) = ex+y = ex ey = f (x) f (y).
615 616
Group Theory Examples of Group Homomorphisms
Example
Let Sn be the symmetric group on n letters, and let :
Examples of Group ϕ: Sn → ℤ2 be defined by
Homomorphisms ϕ(σ) = 0 if σ is an even permutation,
= 1 if σ is an odd permutation.
Show that ϕ is a homomorphism.
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Solution Checking the first case, if σ and µ can both be

We must show that ϕ(σ, µ) = ϕ(σ) + ϕ(µ) for all written as a product of an odd number of
choices of σ, µ ∊ Sn. Note that the operation on the transpositions, then σµ can be written as the
right-hand side of this equation is written additively product of an even number of transpositions. Thus
since it takes place in the group ℤ2. Verifying this ϕ(σ, µ) = 0 and ϕ(σ) + ϕ(µ) = 1 + 1 = 0 in ℤ2. The
equation amounts to checking just four cases: other cases can be checked similarly.
 σ odd and µ odd,
 σ odd and µ even,
 σ even and µ odd,
 σ even and µ even.
619 620
Group Theory Properties of Homomorphisms
Proposition
Let ϕ :G → H be a group
Properties of
morphism, and let eG
Homomorphisms and eH be the identities
of G and H, respectively.
Then
(i) ϕ (eG) = eH .
(ii) ϕ (a−1) = ϕ (a)−1 for
all a ∈ G.
621 622
Theorems on Group Homomorphisms Theorems on Group Homomorphisms
Proof Proof
(i) Since ϕ is a morphism, (ii) ϕ (a) ϕ (a−1)
ϕ (eG) ϕ (eG) = ϕ (a a−1)
= ϕ (eG eG) = ϕ (eG)
= ϕ (eG) = eH by (i).
= ϕ (eG)eH Hence ϕ (a−1) is the
Hence (i) follows by unique inverse of ϕ (a);
cancellation in H. that is ϕ (a−1) = ϕ (a)−1.
623 624
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Group Theory Properties of Homomorphisms
We tum to some
structural features of G
Properties of and G' that are
Homomorphisms preserved by a
homomorphism
ϕ: G → G'.
First we review set-
theoretic definitions.
625 626
Properties of Homomorphisms Properties of Homomorphisms
Definition Theorem
Let ϕ be a mapping of Let ϕ be a
a set X into a set Y, and homomorphism of a
let A ⊆ X and B ⊆ Y. The group G into a group G'.
image ϕ[A] of A in Y 1. If H is a subgroup of
under ϕ is {ϕ(a) |a∊A}. G, then ϕ[H] is a
The set ϕ[X] is the subgroup of G'.
range of ϕ. The inverse
image ϕ-1[B] of B in X is 2. If K' is a subgroup of
{x∊X|ϕ(x)∊B}. G', then ϕ-1[K'] is a
subgroup of G.
627 628
Proof Proof
(1) Let H be a subgroup of G, and let ϕ(a) and ϕ(b) (2) Let K' be a subgroup of G'. Suppose a and b are
in ϕ-1 [K']. Then ϕ(a)ϕ(b)∊K' since K' is a subgroup.
be any two elements in ϕ[H]. Then ϕ(a) ϕ(b) =
The equation ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a) ϕ(b) shows that
ϕ(ab), so we see that ϕ(a) ϕ(b) ∊ ϕ[H]; thus, ϕ[H] ab∊ϕ-1 [K']. Thus ϕ-1[K'] is closed under the binary
is closed under the operation of G'. The fact that operation in G.
ϕ(eG) = 𝑒𝐺 ′ and ϕ (a−1) = ϕ (a)−1 completes the
proof that ϕ[H] is a subgroup of G’.
629 630
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Properties of Homomorphisms Group Theory
Also, K' must contain the identity element 𝑒𝐺 ′ =

ϕ(eG), so eG ∊ ϕ-1[K']. If a ∊ ϕ-1[K'], then
Properties of
ϕ(a) ∊ K', so ϕ(a)-1 ∊ K'. But ϕ(a)-1 = ϕ(a-1), so we
must have a-1 ∊ ϕ-1[K']. Homomorphisms
Hence ϕ-1[K'] is a subgroup of G.
631 632
Proof
Theorem: Let h be a homomorphism from a group G
h -1[{h(a)}] = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} directly from the
into a group G’. Let K be the kernel of h. Then
definition of inverse image.
a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} = h -1[{h(a)}]
Now we show that: a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} :
and also
x in a K ⇔ x = a k, for some k in K
K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} = h -1[{h(a)}]
⇔ h(x) = h(a k) = h(a) h(k) = h(a) , for some k in K
⇔ h(x) = h(a)
Thus, a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}.
Likewise, K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}.
633 634
Properties of Homomorphisms Group Theory
Suppose: h: X  Y is any map of sets. Then h

defines an equivalence relation ~h on X by:
x ~h y ⇔ h(x) = h(y) Properties of
The previous theorem says that when h is a homomorphism Homomorphisms
of groups then the cosets (left or right) of the kernel of h are
the equivalence classes of this equivalence relation.
635 636
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Definition Corollary
If ϕ: G → G' is a group morphism, the kernel of ϕ , denoted by Ker ϕ, is Let ϕ: G → G' be a group morphism. Then, ϕ is injective if and only if
defined to be the set of elements of G that are mapped by f to the Ker ϕ = {e}.
identity of G'. That is, Ker f ={g ∈ G|f (g) = e' }.
637 638
Proof Definition
If Ker(ϕ) = {e}, then for every a ∊ G, the elements mapped into ϕ(a) To Show ϕ: G → G' is an
are precisely the elements of the left coset a { e} = {a}, which shows Isomorphism
that ϕ is one to one. Step 1 Show ϕ is a
Conversely, suppose ϕ is one to one. Now, we know that ϕ(e)=e', the homomorphism.
identity element of G'. Since ϕ is one to one, we see that e is the only Step 2 Show Ker(ϕ)=
element mapped into e' by ϕ, so Ker(ϕ)= {e}. {e}.
Step 3 Show ϕ maps G
onto G'.
639 640
Group Theory Normal Subgroups
Normal Subgrops
Let G be a group with subgroup H. The right cosets of H in G are
Normal Subgroups
equivalence classes under the relation a ≡ b mod H, defined by ab−1 ∈
H. We can also define the relation L on G so that a L b if and only if b−1a
∈ H. This relation, L, is an equivalence relation, and the equivalence
class containing a is the left coset aH = {ah|h ∈ H}. As the following
example shows, the left coset of an element does not necessarily equal
the right coset.
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Normal Subgroups Normal Subgroups
Example
Find the left and right Solution
cosets of H = A3 and K = We calculated the right cosets of H = A3.
{(1), (12)} in S3. Right Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132)}; H(12) = {(12), (13), (23)}
Left Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132}; (12)H = {(12), (23), (13)}
In this case, the left and right cosets of H are the
same.
643 644
Normal Subgroups Group Theory
However, the left and right cosets of K are not all the
same.
Right Cosets Normal Subgroups
K = {(1), (12)} ; K(13) = {(13), (132)} ; K(23) = {(23),
(123)}
Left Cosets
K = {(1), (12)};(23)K = {(23), (132)}; (13)K = {(13),
(123)}
645 646
Definition Proposition
A subgroup H of a Hg = gH, for all g ∈ G, if
group G is called a and only if H is a normal
normal subgroup of G if subgroup of G.
g−1hg ∈ H for all g ∈ G
and h ∈ H.
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Proof
Conversely, if H is normal, let hg ∈ Hg and
Suppose that Hg = gH.
g−1hg = h1 ∈ H.
Then, for any element h ∈
H, hg ∈ Hg = gH. Then hg = gh1 ∈ gH and Hg ⊆ gH.
Hence hg = gh1 for some Also, ghg−1 = (g−1)−1hg−1 = h2 ∈ H, since H is
h1 ∈ H and normal, so gh = h2g ∈ Hg. Hence, gH ⊆ Hg,
g−1hg = g−1gh1 = h1 ∈ H. and so Hg = gH.
Therefore, H is a normal
subgroup.
649 650
Group Theory Theorem on Normal Subgroup
If N is a normal
subgroup of a group G,
Theorem on Normal the left cosets of N in G
Subgroup are the same as the
right cosets of N in G, so
there will be no
ambiguity in just talking
about the cosets of N in
G.
651 652
Theorem on Normal Subgroup Theorem on Normal Subgroup
Theorem
Proof. The operation of multiplying two cosets, Ng1
If N is a normal subgroup and Ng2, is defined in terms of particular elements,
of (G, ·), the set of cosets g1 and g2, of the cosets. For this operation to make
G/N = {Ng|g ∈ G} forms a sense, we have to verify that, if we choose
group (G/N, ·), where the different elements, h1 and h2, in the same cosets,
operation is defined by the product coset N(h1 · h2) is the same as
(Ng1) · (Ng2) = N(g1 · g2). N(g1 · g2). In other words, we have to show that
This group is called the multiplication of cosets is well defined.
quotient group or factor
group of G by N.
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Theorem on Normal Subgroup Theorem on Normal Subgroup
Since h1 is in the same coset as g1, we have

• The operation is associative because (Ng1 · Ng2) ·
h1 ≡ g1 mod N. Similarly, h2 ≡ g2 mod N. Ng3 = N(g1g2) · Ng3 = N(g1g2)g3 and also Ng1 · (Ng2
We show that Nh1h2 = Ng1g2. · Ng3) = Ng1 · N(g2g3) = Ng1(g2g3) = N(g1g2)g3.
We have h1g 1−1 = n1 ∈ N and h2g 2−1 = n2 ∈ N, so • Since Ng · Ne = Nge = Ng and Ne · Ng = Ng, the
h1h2(g1g2)−1 = h1h2g 2−1g 1−1 = n1g1n2g2g2 −1 g 1−1 = identity is Ne = N.
n1g1n2g 1−1. • The inverse of Ng is Ng−1 because Ng · Ng−1 = N(g ·
Now N is a normal subgroup, so g1n2g 1−1 ∈ N and g−1) = Ne = N and also Ng−1 · Ng = N.
n1g1n2g 1−1 ∈ N. Hence h1h2 ≡ g1g2 mod N and • Hence (G/N, ·) is a group.
Nh1h2 = Ng1g2.
Therefore, the operation is well defined.
655 656
Group Theory Example on Normal Subgroup
Example
(Zn, +) is the quotient
Example on Normal group of (Z,+) by the
Subgroup subgroup
nZ = {nz|z ∈ Z}.
657 658
Example on Normal Subgroup Example on Normal Subgroup
Solution (Zn,+) is a cyclic group

Since (Z,+) is abelian, every subgroup is normal. The with 1 as a generator.
set nZ can be verified to be a subgroup, and the
relationship a ≡ b mod nZ is equivalent to a − b ∈ nZ When there is no
and to n|a − b. Hence a ≡ b mod nZ is the same confusion, we write the
relation as a ≡ b mod n. Therefore, Zn is the quotient
group Z/nZ, where the operation on congruence elements of Zn as 0, 1,
classes is defined by [a] + [b] = [a + b]. 2, 3, . . . , n − 1 instead
of [0], [1], [2], [3], . . . ,
[n − 1].
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Group Theory Morphism Theorem for Groups
Theorem
Let K be the kernel of the
Morphism Theorem for
group morphism
Groups
f :G → H. Then G/K is
isomorphic to the image
of f, and the isomorphism
ψ: G/K → Im f
is defined by
ψ(Kg) = f(g).
661 662
Morphism Theorem for Groups Morphism Theorem for Groups
ψ: G/K → Im f, ψ(Kg)=f(g).
This result is also known as the first isomorphism
theorem. If Kg’=Kg, then g’≡g mod K
Proof. The function ψ is defined on a coset by so g’g−1 = k ∈ K = Ker f.
using one particular element in the coset, so we Hence g’=kg and so
have to check that ψ is well defined; f(g’) = f(kg)
that is, it does not matter which element we use. = f(k)f(g)
= eHf(g) = f(g).
Thus ψ is well defined on
cosets.
663 664
Morphism Theorem for Groups Morphism Theorem for Groups
The function ψ is a If ψ(Kg) = eH, then

morphism because f (g) = eH and g ∈ K.
ψ(Kg1Kg2) Hence the only element
= ψ(Kg1g2) in the kernel of ψ is the
= f (g1g2) identity coset K, and
= f (g1)f (g2) ψ is injective.
= ψ(Kg1)ψ(Kg2).
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Morphism Theorem for Groups Group Theory
Finally, Im ψ = Im f, that is,

ψ-1(f(g))=Kg , by the
Application of
definition of ψ. Morphism Theorem
Therefore, ψ is the
required isomorphism
between G/K and Im f.
667 668
Application of Morphism Theorem Application of Morphism Theorem
Example Solution
Show that the quotient The set W= {eiθ ∊ C | θ ∊ R } consists of points on
group R/Z is the circle of complex numbers of unit modulus, and
isomorphic to the circle
group forms a group under multiplication.
W = {eiθ ∊ C | θ ∊ R }. Define the function f : R → W by f (x) = e2πix.
This is a morphism from (R,+) to (W, ·) because
f (x + y) = e2πi(x+y)
= e2πix · e2πiy
= f (x) · f (y).
669 670
Application of Morphism Theorem Group Theory
The morphism f : R → W
is clearly surjective,
Normality of Kernel of
and its kernel is a Homomorphism
{x ∈ R|e2πix = 1} = Z.
Therefore, the morphism
theorem implies that
R/Z  W.
671 672
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Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism
Proposition
Right Cosets
The relation a ≡ b mod H
Let (G, ·) be a group is an equivalence
with subgroup H. For a, relation on G.
b ∈ G, we say that a is The equivalence class
congruent to b modulo containing a can be
H, and write a ≡ b mod written in the form Ha =
H if and only if ab−1 ∈ H. {ha|h ∈ H}, and it is
called a right coset of H
in G. The element a is
called a representative
of the coset Ha.
673 674
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism
Proof
Theorem i) Ker is a subgroup of G
a,bKer, (a)=eG‘,
Let  be a (b)=eG‘.
homomorphism Then, (a*b)=(a)
function from group (b)=eG‘.
(G, *) to group (G‘,.). Therefore, a*bKer.
Then, (Ker,*) is a Inverse element:
normal subgroup of aKer, (a)=eG‘.
(G,*). Then,
(a-1)=(a)-1
=eG‘ Therefore, a-
1Ker.
675 676
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism Group Theory
ii) gG,aKer, (a)=eG‘.

Then,
(g-1*a*g) Example of Normal
= (g-1) (a)  (g) Group
=  (g)-1 eG‘  (g)
= eG‘
Therefore,
g-1*a*gKer.
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Example of Normal Group Example of Normal Group
Example
Definition
 Any subgroups of Abelian group are normal
A subgroup H of a group
subgroups
is a normal subgroup if
gH=Hg for gG.  S3={(1),(1,2,3), (1,3,2), (2,3), (1,3), (1,2)}.
 H1={(1), (2,3)}; H2={(1), (1,3)}; H3={(1), (1,2)};
 (1,3)H1={(1,3),(1,2)} H1(1,3)={(1,3),(1,2)}
 (1,2,3)H1={(1,2,3),(1,2)} H1(1,2,3)={(1,2,3),(1,3)}
679 680
Example of Normal Group Example of Normal Group
 H4={(1), (1,2,3), (1,3,2)} (1)Hg=gH, it does not

are subgroups of S3. imply hg=gh.
 H4 is a normal subgroup. (2) If Hg=gH, then there
exists h'H such that
hg=gh' for hH.
681 682
Example of Normal Group Group Theory
 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. When is

(a H) (b H) = a b H?
 This is true for abelian groups, but not always when G is Factor Group
nonabelian.
 Consider S3: Let H = {ρ0, μ1}. The left cosets are
{ρ0, μ1}, {ρ1, μ3}, {ρ2, μ2}.
If we multiply the first two together, then
{ρ0, μ1}, {ρ1, μ3} = {ρ0 ρ1, ρ0 μ3, μ 1 ρ1, μ 1 μ3}
= {ρ1, μ3, μ2, ρ 2}
This has four distinct elements, not two!
683 684
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Factor Group Factor Group
Definition
• The product of two sets is define as follow
Let (H,*) be a normal
SS’ = {xx’xS and x’S}
subgroup of the group
(G,*). (G/H,) is called • {aHaG, H is normal} is a group, denote by G/H and called it factor
quotient group, where the groups of G.
operation  is defined on • A mapping f: GG/H is a homomorphism, and call it canonical
G/H by homomorphism.
Hg1Hg2= H(g1*g2).
If G is a finite group, then
G/H is also a finite group,
and |G/H|=|G|/|H|.
685 686
Factor Group Factor Group

f
Consider S3: Let H = {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}. The left cosets are
{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}, {μ1, μ2 , μ3}
aH aH
If we multiply the first two together, then
{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} {μ1, μ2, μ3} = {ρ0 μ1, ρ0 μ2, ρ0 μ3, ρ1 μ1, ρ1 μ2, ρ1 μ3, ρ2 μ1,
ρ2 μ2, ρ2 μ3} = {μ1, μ2, μ3, μ3, μ1, μ2, μ2, μ3, μ1} = {μ1, μ2, μ3}
H
H This is one of the cosets. Likewise,
{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} = {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}
{μ1, μ2 , μ3}{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} = {μ1, μ2 , μ3}
{μ1, μ2 , μ3 }{μ1, μ2 , μ3} = {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}
Note that the cosets of {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} with this binary operation
form a group isomorphic to ℤ2.
G G/H 687 688
Factor Group Group Theory
Note that there is a

natural map from S3 to
{{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}, {μ1, μ2 , μ3}} Coset Multiplication
that takes any element to and Normality
the coset that contains it.
This gives a
homomorphism called
the cannonical
homomorphism.
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Coset Multiplication and Normality Coset Multiplication and Normality
Theorem Proof
Let H be a subgroup of a Suppose
group G. (a H )( b H) = (a b) H,
Then H is normal if and for all a, b in G.
We show that aH = H a,
only if
for all a in H.
(a H )( b H) = (a b) H,
We do this by showing:
for all a, b in G a H  H a and Ha aH,
for all a in G.
691 692
Coset Multiplication and Normality Coset Multiplication and Normality
a H  H a: First observe that aHa-1 (aH)(a-1H) For the converse, assume H is normal.
=(aa-1)H = H. (a H )( b H)  (a b) H: For a, b in G, x in (a H )( b H)
Let x be in a H. Then x = a h, for some h in H. Then implies that x = a h1 b h2, for some h1 and h2 in H.
x a-1 = a h a-1, which is in = a H a-1 , But h1 b is in H b, thus in b H. Thus h1 b = b h3 for
thus in H. Thus x a-1 is in H. Thus x is in H a.
some h3 in H. Thus x = a b h3 h2 is in a b H.
H a  a H: H a  H a H = (e H )( a H) = (e a) H = a H.
(a b) H  (a H )( b H): x in (a b) H ⇒ x = a e b h, for
This establishes normality.
some h in H.
Thus x is in (a H) (b H).
693 694
Group Theory Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism
Let h: G→G' be a
homomorphism and let
Examples on Kernel of e' be the identity
a Homomorphism element of G'. Now {e'}
is a subgroup of G', so
h-1[{e'}] is a subgroup K
of G. This subgroup is
critical to the study of
homomorphisms.
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Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Example
Let ℝn be the additive
Definition group of column vectors
Let h: G→G' be a with n real-number
homomorphism of components. (This group is
groups. The subgroup of course isomorphic to
h-1[{e'}]={x∊G| h(x)=e'} the direct product of ℝ
under addition with itself
is the kernel of h, for n factors.) Let A be an
denoted by Ker(h). m x n matrix of real
numbers. Let ϕ: ℝn→ℝm
be defined by ϕ(v)=Av for
each column vector v∊ℝn.
697 698

Example
Then ϕ is a Ker(h) is called the null
homomorphism, since v,
w∊ℝn, matrix algebra space of A. It consists of
shows that all v ∊ ℝn such that
ϕ(v+w)=A(v+w) Av = 0, the zero vector.
=Av+Aw=ϕ(v)+ϕ(w)
In linear algebra, such a
map computed by
multiplying a column
vector on the left by a
matrix A is known as a
linear transformation.
699 700
Example
Let GL(n, ℝ) be the
Examples on Kernel of
multiplicative group of
a Homomorphism all invertible n x n
matrices. Recall that a
matrix A is invertible if
and only if its
determinant, det(A), is
nonzero.
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Recall also that for matrices A, Homomorphisms of a

B ∊GL(n, ℝ) we have group G into itself are
det(AB)=det(A)det(B). This often useful for studying
means that det is a the structure of G. Our
homomorphism mapping GL(n, next example gives a
ℝ) into the multiplicative group nontrivial
ℝ* of nonzero real numbers. homomorphism of a
Ker(det) group into itself.
= {A∊ GL(n, ℝ)|det(A)=1}.
703 704

Example Note that ϕ0 is the trivial
Let r∊ℤ and let ϕr: ℤ→ℤ homomorphism, ϕ1 is
be defined by ϕr(n)=rn the identity map, and ϕ-1
for all n∊ℤ. For all m, maps ℤ onto ℤ. For all
n∊ℤ, we have other r in ℤ, the map ϕr
ϕr(m+n)=r(m + n) is not onto ℤ.
=rm+rn=ϕr (m)+ϕr(n) so Ker(ϕ0)= ℤ
ϕr is a homomorphism. Ker(ϕr)= {0} for r≠0
705 706
Example (Reduction
Modulo n)
Examples on Kernel of Let y be the natural map
a Homomorphism of ℤ into ℤn given by y(m)
= r, where r is the
remainder given by the
division algorithm when
m is divided by n. Show
that y is a
homomorphism. Find
Ker(y).
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Solution Consequently
We need to show that y(s+t)=y(s)+y(t) for s, t ∊ ℤ. Using y(s+t)=y(s)+y(t),
the division algorithm, we let
s=q1n+r1 (1) and so we do indeed have a
t=q2n+r2 (2) where 0≤ri<n for i=1, 2. homomorphism.
If r1+r2=q3n+r3 (3) for 0≤r3<n then adding Eqs. (1) and Ker(y)=nℤ
(2) we see that s + t = (q1 + q2 + q3)n + r3, so that
y(s+t)=r3. From Eqs. (1) and (2) we see that
y(s) =r1 and y(t)=r2. Equation (3) shows that
the sum r1+r2 in ℤn is equal to r3 also.
709 710
Group Theory Kernel of a Homomorphism

Theorem
Let h be a
homomorphism from a
Kernel of a
Homomorphism group G into a group G’.
Let K be the kernel of h.
Then
a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}] and also
K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}]
711 712
Kernel of a Homomorphism Kernel of a Homomorphism

h-1[{a'}] bK K xK h-1[{y'}]
Let K=Ker(h) for a homomorphism h:G→G'. We think

of h as "collapsing" K down onto e‘. Above Theorem
shows that for g ∊ G, the cosets gK and Kg are the G
same, and are collapsed onto the single element
h(g) by h. That is h-1[{h(g)}]=gK=Kg. We have h
attempted to symbolize this collapsing in Fig. below,
where the shaded rectangle represents G, the solid
vertical line segments represent the cosets of G'
a' h(b) e' h(x) y'
K= Ker(h), and the horizontal line at the bottom
represents G'. Cosets of K collapsed by h
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Kernel of a Homomorphism Group Theory
We view h as projecting the elements of G, which

are in the shaded rectangle, straight down onto
elements of G', which are on the horizontal line Kernel of a
segment at the bottom. Notice the downward Homomorphism
arrow labeled h at the left, starting at G and ending
at G'. Elements of K=Ker(h) thus lie on the solid
vertical line segment in the shaded box lying over e',
as labeled at the top of the figure.
715 716

Example
We have |z1z2|=|z1||z2| Since {1} is a subgroup of ℝ+, the complex numbers
for complex numbers z1 of magnitude 1 form a subgroup U of ℂ*. Recall
and z2. This means that that the complex numbers can be viewed as filling
the absolute value the coordinate plane, and that the magnitude of a
function | | is a complex number is its distance from the origin.
homomorphism of the Consequently, the cosets of U are circles with
group ℂ* of nonzero center at the origin. Each circle is collapsed by this
complex numbers under homomorphism onto its point of intersection with
multiplication onto the the positive real axis.
group ℝ+ of positive real
numbers under
multiplication.
717 718
Group Theory Kernel of a Homomorphism

Theorem
Let h be a
homomorphism from a
Kernel of a
Homomorphism group G into a group G’.
Let K be the kernel of h.
Then
a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}] and also
K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}]
719 720
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Above theorem shows that the kernel of a group
homomorphism h:G→G' is a subgroup K of G whose Example
left and right cosets coincide, so that gK=Kg for all g Let D be the additive group of all differentiable functions
mapping ℝ into ℝ, and let F be the additive group of all
∊ G. When left and right cosets coincide, we can functions mapping ℝ into ℝ Then differentiation gives
form a coset group G/K. Furthermore, we have us a map ϕ: D→F, where ϕ(f)=f' for f∊F. We easily see
that ϕ is a homomorphism, for
seen that K then appears as the kernel of a ϕ(f+g)=(f+g)'=f'+g'=ϕ(f)+ϕ(g); the derivative of a sum is
the sum of the derivatives.
homomorphism of G onto this coset group in a very
natural way. Such subgroups K whose left and right
cosets coincide are very useful in studying normal
group.
721 722
Kernel of a Homomorphism Group Theory
Now Ker(ϕ) consists of all functions f such that f'=0.

Thus Ker(ϕ) consists of all constant functions, which
form a subgroup C of F. Let us find all functions in G Examples of Group
mapped into x2 by ϕ, that is, all functions whose Homomorphisms
derivative is x2. Now we know that x3/3 is one such
function. By previous theorem, all such functions
form the coset x3/3+C.
723 724
Example (Evaluation Homomorphism) Composition of group homomorphisms is again a

Let F be the additive group of all functions mapping group homomorphism. That is, if
ℝ into ℝ, let ℝ be the additive group of real ϕ: G→G' and y: G'→G" are both group
numbers, and let c be any real number. Let homomorphisms then their composition
ϕ: F→ℝ be the evaluation homomorphism defined (y∘ϕ): G→G", where (y∘ϕ)(g) = y(ϕ(g)) for g ∊ G, is
by ϕc(f)= f(c) for f∊F. Recall that, by definition, the also a homomorphism.
sum of two functions f and g is the function f + g
whose value at x is f (x) + g(x). Thus we have
ϕc(f+g)=(f+g)(c)=f(c)+g(c)=ϕc(f)+ϕc(g), so we have a
homomorphism.
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Group Theory Examples of Group Homomorphisms
Example
Let G=G1 x ··· x Gi x ··· x Gn be a direct product of
Examples of Group
groups. The projection map πi: G→Gi where
Homomorphisms
πi(g1, ···, gi, ··· , gn) = gi is a homomorphism for
each i=1, ··· , n.
This follows immediately from the fact that the
binary operation of G coincides in the ith
component with the binary operation in Gi.
727 728
Example Each of the homomorphisms in the preceding two

Let F be the additive group of continuous functions examples is a many-to-one map. That is, different
with domain [0, 1] and let ℝ be the additive group of points of the domain of the map may be carried
real numbers. The map σ:F→ℝ defined by into the same point. Consider, for illustration, the
σ(f)=∫01f(x)dx for f ∊ F is a homomorphism, for homomorphism π1: ℤ2 x ℤ4→ℤ2 We have
σ(f+g)=∫01(f+g)(x)dx=∫01[f(x)+g(x)]dx= π1(0, 0)=π1(0, 1)= π1(0, 2)= π1(0, 3)=0, so four
elements in ℤ2 x ℤ4 are mapped into 0 in ℤ2 by π1.
∫01f(x)dx+∫01g(x)dx=σ(f)+σ(g) for all f, g ∊ F.
729 730
Group Theory Factor Groups from Homomorphisms
Let G be a group and let S be a set having the same

cardinality as G. Then there is a one-to-one
Factor Groups from correspondence ↔ between S and G. We can use ↔
Homomorphisms to define a binary operation on S, making S into a
group isomorphic to G. Naively, we simply use the
correspondence to rename each element of G by
the name of its corresponding (under ↔) element in
S. We can describe explicitly the computation of xy
for x, y ∊ S as follows:
if x ↔ g1 and y ↔ g2 and z↔ g1g2, then xy=z (1)
731 732
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Factor Groups from Homomorphisms Group Theory
The direction → of the one-to-one correspondence

s↔g between s∊S and g∊G gives us a one-to-one
function µ mapping S onto G. The direction ← of ↔ Factor Groups from
gives us the inverse function µ-1. Expressed in terms Homomorphisms
of µ, the computation (1)→of xy for x, y ∊ S becomes
if µ(x)=g1 and µ(y)=g2 and µ(z)=g1g2, then xy=z (2)
The map µ: S→G now becomes an isomorphism
mapping the group S onto the group G. Notice that
from (2), we obtain µ(xy)=µ(z)=g1g2=µ(x)µ(y), the
required homomorphism property.
733 734
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms Factor Groups from Homomorphisms
Let G and G' be groups,

let h: G→G' be a Remember that if x∊aK, so that x=ak for some k∊K,
homomorphism, and let then h(x)=h(ak)=h(a)h(k)=h(a)e'
K=Ker(h). The previous =h(a), so the computation of the element of h[G]
theorem shows that for
→
a∊G, we have corresponding to the coset
→ aK=xK is the same
whether we compute it as h(a) or as h(x ). Let us
h-1[{h(a)}]=aK =Ka. We denote the set of all cosets of K by G/K. (We read
have a one-to-one
correspondence aK G/K as "G over K" or as "G modulo K" or as "G mod
↔h(a) between cosets of K," but never as "G divided by K.")
K in G and elements of
the subgroup h[G] of G'.
735 736
We started with a homomorphism h: G→G' having Replacing S by G / H and replacing G by h[G] in

kernel K, and we finished with the set G/K of cosets that construction, we can consider G/K to be a
in one-to-one correspondence with the elements of group isomorphic to h[G] with that isomorphism µ.
the group h[G]. In our work above that, we had a set In terms of G/K and h[G], the computation (2) of
→
S with elements in one-to-one correspondence with → yK ∊ G/K becomes if
the product (xK)(yK) for xK,
a those of a group G, and we made S into a group µ(xK)=h(x) and µ(yK)=h(y) and µ(zK)=h(x)h(y), then
isomorphic to G with an isomorphism µ. (xK)(yK)=zK. (3)
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But because h is a homomorphism, we can easily Thus we have

find z∊G such that µ(zK)=h(x )h(y ); namely, we take
z=xy in G, and find that µ(zK)=µ(xyK)=h(xy)=h(x)h(y). (xk1)(yk2)=x(k1y)k2=x(yk3)k2=(xy)(k3k2) ∊ (xy)K,
This shows that the product (xK)(yK) of two cosets is so we obtain the same coset. Computation of the
the coset (xy)K that contains the product xy of x and product of two cosets is accomplished by choosing
→
y in G. While this computation of (xK)(yK) may seem →
an element from each coset and taking, as product
to depend on our choices x from xK and y from yK, of the cosets, the coset that contains the product in
our work above shows it does not. We demonstrate G of the choices. Any time we define something
it again here because it is such an important point. If
k1, k2 ∊ K so that xk1 is an element of xK and yk2 is an (like a product) in terms of choices, it is important to
element of yK, then there exists h3 ∊ K such that show that it is well defined, which means that it is
k1y= yk3 because Ky= yK by previous Theorem. independent of the choices made.
739 740
Theorem
Let h: G→G' be a group
homomorphism with kernel K.
Factor Groups from
Then the cosets of K form a
Homomorphisms factor group, G/K. where
→
(aK)(bK)=(ab)K. Also, the map µ:
G/H→h[G]
defined by µ(aK)=h(a) is an
isomorphism. Both coset
multiplication and µ are well
defined, independent of the
choices a and b from the cosets.
741 742
For example, taking n = 5, we see the cosets of 5ℤ are

Example 5ℤ={…, -10, -5, 0, 5, 10,…},
Consider the map y: ℤ→ℤn, where y(m) is the 1 +5ℤ = {…, -9, -4, 1, 6, 11,…},
remainder when m is divided by n in accordance 2 + 5ℤ = {…, -8, -3, 2, 7, 12,…},
with the division algorithm.
→
We know that y is a →
homomorphism. Of course, Ker(y) = nℤ. By above 3 +5ℤ = {…, -7, -2, 3, 8, 13,…}
Theorem, we see that the factor group ℤ/nℤ is 4+5ℤ = {…, -6, -1, 4, 9, 14,…}.
isomorphic to ℤn. The cosets of nℤ are the residue Note that the isomorphism µ: ℤ/5ℤ→ ℤ5 of previous
classes modulo n. Theorem assigns to each coset of 5ℤ its smallest
nonnegative element. That is, µ(5ℤ)=0, µ(1+ 5Z) = 1,
etc.
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It is very important that we

learn how to compute in a
Factor Groups from factor group. We can multiply
Homomorphisms (add) two cosets by choosing
any →two representative
elements, multiplying (adding)
them and finding the coset in
which the resulting product
(sum) lies.
745 746
Example The factor groups ℤ/nℤ in the preceding example

are classics. Recall that we refer to the cosets of nℤ
Consider the factor group ℤ/5ℤ with the cosets as residue classes modulo n. Two integers in the
shown in precious example. We can add same coset are congruent modulo n. This
(2+5ℤ)+(4+5ℤ) by choosing →
2 and 4, finding 2+4=6, terminology is carried over→ to other factor groups. A
and noticing that 6 is in the coset 1+5ℤ. We could factor group G/H is often called the factor group of
equally well add these two cosets by choosing 27 in G modulo H. Elements in the same coset of H are
2+5ℤ and -16 in 4+5ℤ; the sum 27+(-16)=11 is also often said to be congruent modulo H. By abuse of
in the coset 1+5ℤ. notation, we may sometimes write ℤ/nℤ=ℤn and
think of ℤn as the additive group of residue classes
of ℤ modulo n.
747 748
Group Theory Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups
So far, we have obtained

factor groups only from
Factor Groups from homomorphisms. Let G
Normal Subgroups be a group and let H be a
→ subgroup of G. Now H
has both left cosets and
right cosets, and in
general, a left coset aH
need not be the same set
as the right coset Ha.
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Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups
Suppose we try to define a binary operation on left Theorem

cosets by defining (aH)(bH)=(ab)H as in the Let H be a subgroup of a
statement of previous theorem. The above equation
attempts to define left coset multiplication by group G.
choosing representatives→a and b from the cosets. → Then H is normal if and
The above equation is meaningless unless it gives a only if
well-defined operation, independent of the
representative elements a and b chosen from the (a H )( b H) = (a b) H,
cosets. In the following theorem, we have proved for all a, b in G
that the above equation gives a well-defined binary
operation if and only if H is a normal subgroup of G.
751 752
Theorem
Above theorem shows
that if left and right If N is a normal subgroup
cosets of H coincide, of (G, ·), the set of cosets
then the equation
→ → G/N = {Ng|g ∈ G} forms a
(aH)(bH)=(ab)H, for all a,
group (G/N, ·), where the
b in G
operation is defined by
gives a well-defined
(Ng1)·(Ng2)=N(g1·g2).
binary operation on
cosets.
753 754
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups Group Theory
Example
Since ℤ is an abelian
group, nℤ is a normal Factor Groups from
subgroup. Above Normal Subgroups
→ theorem allows us to
construct the factor
group ℤ/nℤ with no
reference to a
homomorphism. As we
already observed, ℤ/nℤ is
isomorphic to ℤn.
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Example Every coset of <c> contains just one element of x

Consider the abelian such that 0 ≤ x < c. lf we choose these elements as
group ℝ under addition, representatives of the cosets when computing in
and let c ∊ ℝ+. The cyclic ℝ/ <c>, we find that we are computing their sum
→ →
subgroup <c> of ℝ modulo c in ℝc. For example, if c = 5.37, then the
contains as elements sum of the cosets 4.65+<5.37> and 3.42+<5.37>
··· -3c, -2c, -c, 0, c, 2c, is the coset 8.07+<5.37>, which contains 8.07-5.37
3c,···. = 2.7, which is 4.65+5.373.42.
757 758
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups Group Theory
Working with these coset elements x where 0 ≤ x <

c, we thus see that the group ℝc is isomorphic to
Kernel of an Injective
ℝ / <c> under an isomorphism µ where µ(x) =x+<c>
for all x ∊ ℝc. Of course, →ℝ / <c> is then also Homomorphism
isomorphic to the circle group U of complex
numbers of magnitude 1 under multiplication.
759 760
Kernel of an Injective Homomorphism Kernel of an Injective Homomorphism
Theorem Proof
A homomorphism Suppose h is injective,
h: G→G' is injective and let x ∊ Ker h.
if and only if Then h(x)=e'=h(e).
Ker h={e}. Hence x=e.
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Kernel of an Injective Homomorphism Group Theory
Conversely, suppose
Ker h={e}.
Then h(x)=h(y) Factor Groups from
⇒h(xy-1)=h(x)h(y -1) Normal Subgroups
=h(x)h(y)-1=e'
⇒xy-1∊ Ker h
⇒ xy-1=e
⇒x=y.
Hence, h is injective.
763 764
Theorem Proof
Let K be a normal Let g1, g2 ∊ G. Then
subgroup of G. y(g1g2)=(g1g2)K
Then y: G→G/K given by =(g1K)(g2K)=y(g1)y(g2),
y(g)=gK is a
homomorphism with so y is a homomorphism.
kernel K. Since g1K= K if and only if
g1∊ K, we see that the
kernel of y is indeed K.
765 766
We have proved that if We show these groups

h:G→G' is a and maps in the figure.
homomorphism with h We see that the
kernel K, then G h[G] homomorphism h can be
µ:G/K→h[G] where µ(gK) factored, h = µy,
y 𝜇
= h(g) is an isomorphism. where y is a
Above theorem shows G/K homomorphism and µ is
that y:G→G/K defined by an isomorphism of G/K
y(g)= gK is a with h[ G].
homomorphism.
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Group Theory Example on Morphism Theorem of Groups
Theorem
Let K be the kernel of the
Example on Morphism
group morphism
Theorem of Groups
h :G → G'. Then G/K is
isomorphic to the image
of h, h[G], and the
isomorphism
µ: G/K → Im h
is defined by
µ(Kg) = h[g].
769 770
Example on Morphism Theorem of Groups Example on Morphism Theorem of Groups
Solution
Example The projection map
Classify the group π1: ℤ4xℤ2→ℤ4 given by
(ℤ4xℤ2) /({0}x ℤ2) π1(x,y) = x is a
according to the homomorphism of ℤ4xℤ2
fundamental theorem of onto ℤ4 with kernel
finitely generated abelian {0}xℤ2. By fundamental
theorem of
groups. homomorphism, we
know that the given
factor group is
isomorphic to ℤ4.
771 772
Example on Morphism Theorem of Groups Group Theory
The projection map

π1: ℤ4xℤ2→ℤ4 given by
π1(x,y) = x. Normal Groups and
K=Ker π1={0}xℤ2 Inner Automorphisms
={(0,0),(0,1)}.
(1,0)+K={(1,0),(1,1)}
(2,0)+K={(2,0),(2,1)}
(3,0)+K={(3,0),(3,1)}
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Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms
We derive some Theorem

alternative The following are three
characterizations of equivalent conditions
normal subgroups, for a subgroup H of a
which often provide us group G to be a normal
with an easier way to subgroup of G.
check normality than
finding both the left 1. ghg-1∊H for all g∊G
and the right coset and h∊H.
decompositions. 2. gHg-1=H for all g∊G.
3. gH=Hg for all g∊G.
775 776
Condition (2) of above Proof

Theorem is often taken as Suppose that gH = Hg for all g ∊ G. Then gh = h1g, so
the definition of a normal ghg-1 ∊ H for all g ∊ G and all h ∊ H.
subgroup H of a group G.
Then gHg-1= {ghg-1 I h ∊ H} ⊆ H for all g ∊ G.
We claim that actually gHg-1 = H. We must show
that H ⊆ gHg-1 for all g ∊ G. Let h ∊ H. Replacing g by
g-1 in the relation ghg-1 ∊ H, we obtain
g-1h(g-1)-1 = g-1hg = h1 where h1 ∊ H.
Consequently, gHg-1 = H for all g ∊ G.
777 778
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms Group Theory
Conversely, if gHg-1 = H for all

g ∊ G, then ghg-1 = h1 so
gh = h1g ∊ Hg, and gH ⊆ Hg. Normal Groups and
But also, g-1Hg = H giving Inner Automorphisms
g-1hg = h2, so that hg = gh2
and Hg ⊆ gH.
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Example Example
Every subgroup H of an The map ig: G → G
abelian group G is defined by ig(x) = gxg-1 is
normal. a homomorphism of G
We need only note that into itself.
gh = hg for all h ∊ H and ig (xy)=gxyg-1
all g ∊ G, so, of course, = (gxg-1)(gyg-1)
ghg-1 = h ∊ H for all g ∊
G and all h ∊ H . =ig(x)ig(y)
781 782
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms Group Theory
We see that
ig(x)=ig(y)
⇒ gxg-1 = gyg-1 Inner Automorphisms
⇒ x = y,
so ig is injective.
Since for any x in G
ig(g-1xg) = g(g-1xg)g-1 = x,
we see that ig is onto G,
so it is an isomorphism
of G with itself.
783 784
Inner Automorphisms Inner Automorphisms
Definition Theorem
An isomorphism ϕ: G→G The following are three equivalent conditions for
of a group G with itself is a subgroup H of a group G to be a normal
an automorphism of G. subgroup of G.
The automorphism 1. ghg-1∊H for all g∊G and h∊H.
ig: G→G, where ig(x)=gxg-1 2. gHg-1=H for all g∊G. 3. gH=Hg for all g∊G.
for all x ∊ G, is the inner The equivalence of conditions (2) and (3) shows
automorphism of G by g, that gH=Hg for all g ∊ G if and only if ig[H]=H for all
denoted by Inn (G). g ∊ G, that is, if and only if H is invariant under all
Performing ig on x is inner automorphisms of G.
called conjugation of x
by g.
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Inner Automorphisms Group Theory
It is important to realize that ig[H] = H is an

equation in sets; we need not have ig(h) = h for all
h ∊ H. Inner Automorphisms
That is ig may perform a nontrivial permutation
of the set H.
We see that the normal subgroups of a group G
are precisely those that are invariant under all
inner automorphisms.
A subgroup K of G is a conjugate subgroup of H if
K = ig[H] for some g ∊ G.
787 788
Lemma Proof
The set of all inner (1) Let ia, ib ∊ Inn (G).
automorphisms of G Then ia( ib(x)) =a(ib(x))a-1 =abxb-1a-1
is a subgroup of =abx(ab)-1=iab ∊ Inn (G).
Aut(G). Hence the conjugation by b composed by
conjugation by a is conjugation by ab.
(2) The inverse of ia is conjugation by a’=a-1.
ia((ia’)(x))=ia(a’x(a’)-1)=aa’xa’-1a-1=aa’x(aa’)-1=x.
Thus Inn (G) is a subgroup.
789 790
Group Theory Inner Automorphisms
Example
Prove that
Example on Aut(ℤn)≅Un.
Automorphism
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Solution In this way, each element a of Un gives a

An automorphism ϕ:ℤn→ℤn is determined by distinct automorphism ϕa which is multiplication
ϕ(1) as for any integer k, by a, and these are all the automorphisms of ℤn.
ϕ(k)=ϕ(1+…+1)=ϕ(1)+…+ϕ(1)= kϕ(1). Furthermore, 𝜇: Aut(ℤn)→Un given by 𝜇(ϕa)=a is
a group isomorphism.
Since isomorphisms preserve order, ϕ(1) must
 𝜇(ϕab)=ab=𝜇(ϕa) 𝜇(ϕb)
be a generator of ℤn .
 𝜇(ϕa)=𝜇(ϕb)⇒a=b
We have proved that the generators of ℤn are
 𝜇(ϕa)=a
those integers k ∊ ℤn for which gcd(k, n) = 1.
But these k are precisely the elements of
Un={1, ω,…, ωn-1 | ω=e2πi/n}.
793 794
Group Theory Theorem on Factor Group
Theorem
A factor group of a
Theorem on Factor cyclic group is cyclic.
Group
795 796
Theorem on Factor Group Group Theory
Proof
Let G be cyclic with generator a, and let N be a
normal subgroup of G. We claim the coset aN Example on Factor
generates G / N. We must compute all powers Group
of aN. But this amounts to computing, in G, all
powers of the representative a and all these
powers give all elements in G. Hence the powers
of aN certainly give all cosets of N and G / N is
cyclic.
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Example on Factor Group Example on Factor Group
Example Here the first factor ℤ4

Let us compute the of ℤ4 x ℤ6 is left alone.
factor group The ℤ6 factor, on the
other hand, is
(ℤ4 x ℤ6)/((0, 2)). essentially collapsed by
Now (0, 2) generates a subgroup of order 3,
the subgroup giving a factor group in
H={(0,0), (0, 2),(0,4)} the second factor of
of ℤ4 x ℤ6 of order 3. order 2 that must be
isomorphic to ℤ2. Thus
(ℤ4 x ℤ6)/((0, 2)) is
isomorphic to ℤ4 x ℤ2.
799 800
Group Theory Factor Group Computations
Let N be a normal
subgroup of G. In the
Factor Group factor group G / N, the
subgroup N acts as
Computations
identity element. We may
regard N as being
collapsed to a single
element, either to 0 in
additive notation or to e
in multiplicative notation.
801 802
Factor Group Computations Factor Group Computations
This collapsing of N
together with the
algebraic structure of
G require that other G
subsets of G, namely,
the cosets of N, also
collapse into a single y
element in the factor
group. A visualization of
this collapsing is
provided by Figure. G/N
aN N bN (cb)N (ab)N cN
803 804
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Factor Group Computations Group Theory
Recall that y: G→G/N defined by y(a)=aN for

a Є G is a homomorphism of G onto G / N. We
can view the "line" G / N at the bottom of the Factor Group
figure as obtained by collapsing to a point each Computations
coset of N in another copy of G. Each point of
G / N thus corresponds to a whole vertical line
segment in the shaded portion, representing
a coset of N in G. It is crucial to remember that
multiplication of cosets in G / N can be
computed by multiplying in G, using any
representative elements of the cosets.
805 806
Additively, two elements Example

of G will collapse into the The trivial subgroup
same element of G/N if
they differ by an element N = {0} of ℤ is, of
of N. Multiplicatively, a course, a normal
and b collapse together if subgroup.
ab-1 is in N. The degree of Compute ℤ /{0}.
collapsing can vary from
nonexistent to
catastrophic. We illustrate
the two extreme cases by
examples.
807 808
Solution Example
Since N={0} has only Let n be a positive
one element, every integer. The set
coset of N has only one nℝ = {nr|r ϵ ℝ} is a
element. That is, the subgroup of ℝ under
cosets are of the form addition, and it is
{m} for m ϵ ℤ. There is normal since ℝ is
no collapsing at all, and abelian.
consequently, ℤ /{0} ≅
ℤ. Each m ϵ ℤ is simply Compute ℝ/nℝ.
renamed {m} in ℤ /{0}.
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Solution
Actually nℝ= ℝ,
because each xϵℝ is of Factor Group
the form n(x/n) and Computations
x/nϵℝ. Thus ℝ/nℝ has
only one element, the
subgroup nℝ. The
factor group is a trivial
group consisting only of
the identity element.
811 812
As illustrated in above We would like

Examples for any group knowledge of a factor
G, we have G/{e} ≅ G group G/N to give some
and G/G≅{e}, where information about the
{e} is the trivial group structure of G.
consisting only of the If N={e}, the factor
identity element e. group has the same
These two extremes of structure as G and we
factor groups are of might as well have tried
little importance. to study G directly.
813 814
If N = G, the factor If G is a finite group

group has no and N ≠{e} is a normal
significant structure to subgroup of G, then
supply information G/N is a smaller group
about G. than G, and
consequently may
have a more simple
structure than G.
815 816
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The multiplication of In next module, we give

cosets in G/N reflects example showing that
the multiplication in G, even when G/N has
since products of cosets order 2, we may be
can be computed by able to deduce some
multiplying in G useful results.
representative elements If G is a finite group and
of the cosets. G/N has just two
elements, then we
must have |G|=2|N|.
817 818
Note that every

subgroup H containing
just half the elements
Factor Group of a finite group G must
Computations be a normal subgroup,
since for each element
a in G but not in H,
both the left coset aH
and the right coset Ha
must consist of all
elements in G that are
not in H.
819 820
Example
Thus the left and right
cosets of H coincide Because |Sn|= 2|An|,
and H is a normal we see that An is a
subgroup of G. normal subgroup of Sn,
and Sn/An has order 2.
Let 𝜎 be an odd
permutation in Sn,
so that
Sn/An = {An, 𝜎An}.
821 822
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Renaming the element An "even" and the

Above example
element 𝜎An "odd," the multiplication in Sn/An
illustrates that while
shown in Table becomes
knowing the product of
(even)(even)=even, (even)(odd)=odd, two cosets in G/N does
(odd)(even)=odd, (odd)(odd)=even. not tell us what the
Thus the factor group reflects these product of two
multiplicative properties for all the permutations elements of G is, it may
in Sn. tell us that the product
A 𝜎A
n n
in G of two types of
An An 𝜎An
elements is itself of a
𝜎An 𝜎An An
certain type.
823 824
The theorem of Lagrange

states if H is a subgroup
Factor Group of a finite group G, then
Computations the order of H divides the
order of G.
We show that it is false
that if d divides the order
of G, then there must
exist a subgroup H of G
having order d.
825 826
Example
Then A4/H would have only two elements, H and 𝜎H
We show that A4, which
has order 12, contains no for some 𝜎ϵA4 not in H. Since in a group of order 2,
subgroup of order 6. the square of each element is the identity, we would
have HH=H and (𝜎H)(𝜎H)=H. Now computation in a
Suppose that H were a
subgroup of A4 having factor group can be achieved by computing with
order 6. representatives in the original group. Thus,
computing in A4, we find that for each αϵH we must
As observed before in
previous example, it have α2ϵH and for each βϵ𝜎H we must have β2ϵH.
would follow that H That is, the square of every element in A4 must be in
would be a normal H.
subgroup of A4.
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But in A4, we have

(1, 2, 3) = (1, 3, 2)2 and (1, 3, 2) = (1, 2, 3)2
so (1, 2, 3) and (1, 3, 2) are in H. Factor Group
A similar computation shows that (1, 2, 4), Computations
(1, 4, 2), (1, 3, 4), (1, 4, 3), (2, 3, 4), and (2, 4, 3)
are all in H.
This shows that there must be at least 8
elements in H, contradicting the fact that H was
supposed to have order 6.
829 830
We now turn to several examples that compute Example

factor groups. If the group we start with is finitely Let us compute the factor group (ℤ4xℤ6)/
generated and abelian, then its factor group will be (0, 1) . Here (0, 1) is the cyclic subgroup H of
also. Computing such a factor group means ℤ4xℤ6 generated by (0, 1). Thus
classifying it according to the fundamental
theorem of finitely generated abelian groups. H = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0. 2), (0, 3), (0, 4), (0, 5)}.
Since ℤ4xℤ6 has 24 elements and H has 6
elements, all cosets of H must have 6 elements,
and (ℤ4x ℤ6)/H must have order 4. Since ℤ4xℤ6 is
abelian, so is (ℤ4x ℤ6)/H. Remember, we compute
in a factor group by means of representatives
from the original group.
831 832
In additive notation, the cosets are

H=(0, 0)+H, (1,0)+H, (2, 0)+H, (3, 0)+H.
Since we can compute by choosing the Factor Group
representatives (0, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0), and (3, 0), it is Computations
clear that (ℤ4xℤ6)/H is isomorphic to ℤ4. Note that
this is what we would expect, since in a factor group
modulo H, everything in H becomes the identity
element; that is, we are essentially setting
everything in H equal to zero. Thus the whole second
factor ℤ6 of ℤ4xℤ6 is collapsed, leaving just the first
factor ℤ4.
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The last example is a special case of a general Theorem

theorem that we now state and prove. We should Let G = H x K be the direct product of groups H
acquire an intuitive feeling for this theorem in and K. Then Hഥ ={(h, e)| h ϵ H} is a normal
terms of collapsing one of the factors to the subgroup of G. Also G/H ഥ is isomorphic to K in a
identity element. ഥ ≃ H in a natural
natural way. Similarly, G / K
way.
835 836
Proof
Consider the map π2: H x K → K given by
π2(h, k) = k. The map π2 is homomorphism since Factor Group
π2(h1h2,k1k2)=k1k2= π2(h1,k1) π2(h2,k2). Computations
Because Ker(π2) = H ഥ , we see that H
ഥ is a normal
subgroup of H x K. Because π2 is onto K,
Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism tells us
that (H x K)/ Hഥ ≃ K.
837 838
Example Setting (2, 3) equal to zero does not make (2, 0)

Let us compute the factor group (ℤ4 x ℤ6)/ and (0, 3) equal to zero individually, so the
(2, 3) . Be careful! There is a great temptation to factors do not collapse separately.
say that we are setting the 2 of ℤ4 and the 3 of ℤ6 The possible abelian groups of order 12 are
both equal to zero, so that ℤ4 is collapsed to a ℤ4 x ℤ3 and ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ3, and we must decide to
factor group isomorphic to ℤ2 and ℤ6 to one which one our factor group is isomorphic. These
isomorphic to ℤ3, giving a total factor group two groups are most easily distinguished in that
isomorphic to ℤ2 x ℤ3. This is wrong! ℤ4 x ℤ3 has an element of order 4, and
Note that H = (2, 3) = {(0, 0), (2, 3)} is of order ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ3 does not.
2, so (ℤ4 x ℤ6)/ (2, 3) has order 12, not 6.
839 840
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We claim that the coset (1, 0) + H is of order 4 in

the factor group (ℤ4 x ℤ6)/H.
To find the smallest power of a coset giving the Factor Group
identity in a factor group modulo H, we must, by Computations
choosing representatives, find the smallest
power of a representative that is in the subgroup
H. Now, 4(1,0)=(1, 0)+(1,0)+(1,0)+(1,0)=(0,0) is
the first time that (1,0) added to itself gives an
element of H. Thus (ℤ4 x ℤ6)/ (2, 3) has an
element of order 4 and is isomorphic to ℤ4 x ℤ3
or ℤ12.
841 842
Example
Let us compute (that is, classify as in Fundamental
Theorem of Abelian Groups the group (ℤxℤ)/
(1, 1) . We may visualize ℤ x ℤ as the points in
the plane with both coordinates integers, as
indicated by the dots in Fig. below. The subgroup
(1, 1) consists of those points that lie on the
45° line through the origin, indicated in the figure.
The coset (1, 0) + (1, 1) consists of those dots on
the 45° line through the point (1, 0), also shown in
the figure.
843 844
Factor Group Computations Simple Groups
Continuing, we see that each coset consists of One feature of a factor

those dots lying on one of the 45° lines in the group is that it gives
figure. We may choose the representatives crude information about
···, (-3,0), (-2,0), (-1,0), (0,0), (1,0), (2,0), (3,0),··· the structure of the whole
of these cosets to compute in the factor group. group.
Since these representatives correspond precisely Of course, sometimes
to the points of ℤ on the x-axis, we see that the there may be no
factor group (ℤ x ℤ) / (1, 1) is isomorphic to ℤ. nontrivial proper normal
subgroups.
845 846
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Simple Groups Simple Groups
For example, Lagrange’s Definition

Theorem shows that a A group is simple if it is
group of prime order can nontrivial and has no
have no nontrivial proper proper nontrivial normal
subgroups of any sort. subgroups.
847 848
Simple Groups Group Theory
Example
The cyclic group G=ℤ/5ℤ of congruence classes
Simple Groups
modulo 5 is simple.
If H is a subgroup of this group, its order must be
a divisor of the order of G which is 5.
Since 5 is prime, its only divisors are 1 and 5, so
either H is G, or H is the trivial group.
849 850
Example
Example On the other hand, the
The cyclic group G=ℤ/pℤ group G = ℤ /12ℤ is not
of congruence classes simple.
modulo p is simple, The set H={0, 4, 8} of
where p is a prime congruence classes of 0,
4, and 8 modulo 12 is a
number. subgroup of order 3, and
it is a normal subgroup
since any subgroup of
an abelian group is
normal.
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Example Theorem
The additive group ℤ of The alternating group An
integers is not simple; is simple for n≥5.
the set of even integers
2ℤ is a non-trivial proper
normal subgroup.
853 854
Group Theory Simple Groups
Theorem
Simple Groups Let 𝜙: G → G' be a group
homomorphism. If N is a
normal subgroup of G,
then 𝜙[N] is a normal
subgroup of 𝜙[G]. Also, if
N' is a normal subgroup
of 𝜙[G], then 𝜙-1[N'] is a
normal subgroup of G.
855 856
Proof Proof
Let ϕ: G → G' be a group Also, if N' is a normal subgroup of ϕ[G], then
homomorphism. If N is a ϕ g n′ϕ g -1 ∈ N' for every ϕ g ∈ ϕ G
normal subgroup of G, and n′ ∈ N’.
then gng-1∈ N for all g∈G
and n∈N. It implies that By definition, there exist n ∈ N such thatϕ n = n′.
ϕ(gng-1)= Therefore, ϕ g n′ϕ g −1 = ϕ gng −1 .
ϕ(g)ϕ(n)ϕ g -1 ∈ ϕ[N]. Hence ϕ-1[N'] is a normal subgroup of G.
Therefore, ϕ[N] is a
normal subgroup of ϕ[G].
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Group Theory Simple Groups
The last Theorem should

be viewed as saying that
Simple Groups a homomorphism
ϕ: G → G' preserves
normal subgroups
between G and ϕ[G].
It is important to note
that ϕ[N] may not be
normal in G', even
though N is normal in G.
859 860
Simple Groups Group Theory
Example
For example, ϕ: ℤ2 → S3, where Maximal Normal
ϕ(0) = ρ0 and ϕ(1) = µ1 is a homomorphism, and Subgroups
ℤ2 is a normal subgroup of itself, but {ρ0, µ1} is not
a normal subgroup of S3.
(1 3)(2 3)=(2 1 3)
(2 3)(1 3)=(1 2 3)
861 862
Maximal Normal Subgroups Maximal Normal Subgroups
We characterize when
G/N is a simple group. Theorem
Definition M is a maximal normal
A maximal normal subgroup of G if and only
subgroup of a group G is if G / M is simple.
a normal subgroup M
not equal to G such that
there is no proper
normal subgroup N of G
properly containing M.
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Maximal Normal Subgroups Maximal Normal Subgroups
Proof Conversely, if N is a normal subgroup of G

Let M be a maximal normal subgroup of G. properly containing M, then y[N] is normal in
Consider the canonical homomorphism G/M. If also N≠G, then y[N]≠G/M and y[N]≠
y: G→G/M. Now y-1 of any nontrivial proper {M}.
normal subgroup of G/M is a proper normal Thus, if G/M is simple so that no such y[N] can
subgroup of G properly containing M. But M is exist, no such N can exist, and M is maximal.
maximal, so this can not happen. Thus G/M is
simple.
865 866
Group Theory The Center Subgroup
Definition
The Center Subgroup The center Z(G) is
defined by
Z(G)={z ∈ G| zg=gz for all
g ∈ G}.
867 868
The Center Subgroup The Center Subgroup
Exercise Solution
Show that Z( G) is a For each g ∈ G and
normal and an abelian z∈Z(G) we have
subgroup of G.
gzg-1=zgg-1=ze=z, we see
at once that Z(G) is a
normal subgroup of G. It
implies that gz=zg for g ∈
G and z∈Z(G).
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The Center Subgroup Group Theory
If G is abelian, then
Z(G) = G;
Example on Center
in this case, the center is Subgroup
not useful.
871 872
Example on Center Subgroup Example on Center Subgroup
(132)(123) = ρ0 = 123 132

Example 123 23 = 12 , (23)(123) = (13)
ρ0 (123) = (123)ρ0 132 13 = 12 , 13 132 = 23
ρ0 (132) = (132)ρ0 13 12 = 123 , (12)(13) = (132)
ρ0 (23) = (23)ρ0 Z(S3)={ρ0}, so the center of S3 is trivial.
ρ0 (13) = (13)ρ0
ρ0 (12) = (12)ρ0
873 874
Group Theory Example on Center Subgroup
The center of a group G

always contains the
Example on Center identity element e.
Subgroup It may be that Z(G)={e},
in which case we say that
the center of G is trivial.
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Example on Center Subgroup Example on Center Subgroup
Example
The center of S3 x ℤ5
S3 x ℤ5={(ρ0,0), (ρ0,1), (ρ0,2), (ρ0,3), (ρ0,4), must be {ρ0} x ℤ5, which
(ρ1,0), (ρ1,1), (ρ1,2), (ρ1,3), (ρ1,4), is isomorphic to ℤ5.
(ρ2,0), (ρ2,1), (ρ2,2), (ρ2,3), (ρ2,4),
(μ1,0), (μ1,1), (μ1,2), (μ1,3), (μ1,4),
(μ2,0), (μ2,1), (μ2,2), (μ2,3), (μ2,4),
(μ3,0), (μ3,1), (μ3,2), (μ3,3), (μ3,4)}
877 878
Group Theory The Commutator Subgroup
Every nonabelian
The Commutator group G has two
important normal
Subgroup subgroups,
the center Z(G) of G
and the commutator
subgroup C of G.
879 880
The Commutator Subgroup The Commutator Subgroup
Turning to the
commutator subgroup, Suppose, for example, that we are studying the
recall that in forming a structure of a nonabelian group G.
factor group of G modulo Since Fundamental Theorem of Abelian Groups
a normal subgroup N, we gives complete information about the structure
are essentially putting of all sufficiently small abelian groups, it might
every element in G that is be of interest to try to form an abelian group as
in N equal to e, for N much like G as possible, an abelianized version of
forms our new identity in G, by starting with G and then requiring that
the factor group. ab=ba for all a and b in our new group structure.
This indicates another use
for factor groups.
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To require that ab=ba is to say that aba-1b-1=e in

our new group. Theorem
An element aba-1b-1 in a group is a commutator Let G be a group.
of the group. The set of all
Thus we wish to attempt to form an abelianized commutators aba-1b-1
version of G by replacing every commutator of G for a, b ∈ G generates a
by e. subgroup C of G.
We should then attempt to form the factor group
of G modulo the smallest normal subgroup we
can find that contains all commutators of G.
883 884
Proof Definition
Let a, b ∈ G. Then, The set of all
(aba-1b-1)(aba-1b-1)-1 commutators aba-1b-1
for a, b ∈ G generates a
=aba-1b-1bab-1a-1 subgroup C of G is
=e ∈ C called the commutator
since e = eee-1e-1 is a subgroup.
commutator.
885 886
Group Theory Generating Sets
Let G be a group, and let

a ∈ G. We have
described the cyclic
Generating Sets subgroup <a> of G,
which is the smallest
subgroup of G that
contains the element a.
Suppose we want to find
as small a subgroup as
possible that contains
both a and b for another
element b in G.
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Generating Sets Generating Sets
We see that any For example, such an expression might be

subgroup containing a a2b4a-3b2a5.
and b must contain an
and bm for all m, n ∈ ℤ, Note that we cannot "simplify" this expression by
and consequently must writing first all powers of a followed by the powers
contain all finite of b, since G may not be abelian. However, products
products of such powers of such expressions are again expressions of the
of a and b. same type.
Furthermore, e = a0 and the inverse of such an
expression is again of the same type.
889 890
For example, the inverse of a2b4a-3b2a5 is

Example
a-5b-2a3b-4a-2.
This shows that all such products of integral powers The Klein 4-group V = {e,
of a and b form a subgroup of G, which surely must a, b, c} is generated by
be the smallest subgroup containing both a and b. {a,b} since ab=c.
We call a and b generators of this subgroup. It is also generated by
If this subgroup should be all of G, then we say that {a,c}, {b,c }, and {a,b,c}.
{a, b} generates G. If a group G is generated
We could have made similar arguments for three, by a subset S, then every
four, or any number of elements of G, as long as we subset of G containing S
take only finite products of their integral powers. generates G.
891 892
Group Theory Generating Sets
Example
The group ℤ6 is
Generating Sets generated by {1} and {5}.
It is also generated by
{2,3} since 2+3=5, so
that any subgroup
containing 2 and 3 must
contain 5 and must
therefore be ℤ6.
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We have given an
It is also generated by intuitive explanation of
{3,4}, {2,3,4}, {1,3}, and the subgroup of a group
{3,5}. G generated by a subset
But it is not generated of G.
by {2, 4} since What follows is a
detailed exposition of
<2> = {0, 2, 4} the same idea
contains 2 and 4. approached in another
way, namely via
intersections of
subgroups.
895 896
Generating Sets Group Theory
Definition
Let {Si|i ∈ I} be a collection of sets.
Generating Sets
Here I may be any set of indices.
The intersection ‫ځ‬i∈I Si of the sets Si is the set of
all elements that are in all the sets Si; that is,
‫ځ‬i∈I Si = {x| x ∈ Si for all i ∈ I}.
If I is finite, I= {1, 2,...,n}, we may denote ‫ځ‬i∈I Si by
S1 ‫ ځ … ځ‬Sn.
897 898
Proof
Theorem Let us show closure. Let a ∈ ‫ځ‬i∈I Hi and
The intersection of some b ∈ ‫ځ‬i∈I Hi , so that a ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I and
subgroups Hi of a group
G for i ∈ I is again a b ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I. Then ab ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I, since
subgroup of G. Hi is a group. Thus ab ∈ ‫ځ‬i∈I Hi.
Since Hi is a subgroup for all i ∈ I, we have e ∈ Hi
for all i ∈ I, and hence e ∈ ‫ځ‬i∈I Hi .
Finally, for a ∈ ‫ځ‬i∈I Hi , we have a ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I,
so a-1 ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I, which implies that
a-1 ∈ ‫ځ‬i∈I Hi.
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Generating Sets Group Theory
Let G be a group and let ai ∈ G for i ∈ I.

There is at least one subgroup of G containing all
the elements ai for i ∈ I, namely G is itself.
Generating Sets
The above theorem assures us that if we take the
intersection of all subgroups of G containing all ai
for i ∈ I, we will obtain a subgroup H of G.
This subgroup H is the smallest subgroup of G
containing all the ai for i ∈ I.
901 902
Definition
Definition
Let G be a group and
let ai ∈ G for i ∈ I. If there is a finite set
The smallest subgroup { ai|i ∈ I}
of G containing {ai| i ∈ that generates G, then
I} is the subgroup G is finitely generated.
generated by {ai|i ∈ I}.
If this subgroup is all of
G, then {ai|i ∈ I}
generates G and the ai
are generators of G.
903 904
Theorem
Note that this definition is consistent with our If G is a group and ai ∈ G
previous definition of a generator for a cyclic for i ∈ I, then the
group. subgroup H of G
Note also that the statement a is a generator of G generated by { ai| i ∈ I}
may mean either that G = <a> or that a is a has as elements precisely
member of a subset of G that generates G. those elements of G that
are finite products of
Our next theorem gives the structural insight
into the subgroup of G generated by {ai |i ∈ I} integral powers of the ai,
where powers of a fixed
that we discussed for two generators in the
ai may occur several
beginning of these modules.
times in the product.
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Proof For every element k in

Let K denote the set of all finite products of K, if we form from the
integral powers of the ai. Then K⊆H. product giving k a new
product with the order
We need only observe that K is a subgroup and of the a, reversed and
then, since H is the smallest subgroup containing the opposite sign on
ai for i ∈ I, we will be done. all exponents, we have
Observe that a product of elements in K is again k-1 which is thus in K.
in K. Since (ai)0=e, we have e ∈ K.
907 908
Theorem
Let G be a group.
The Commutator Then, the commutator
Subgroup subgroup C of G is a
normal subgroup of G.
909 910

Proof
We must show that C is By inserting e = gg-1 between each product of
normal in G. commutators occurring in x, we see that it is
sufficient to show for each commutator cdc-1d-1
The last theorem then that g-1 (cdc-1d-1)g is in C.
shows that C consists
precisely of all finite But g-1 (cdc-1d-1)g = (g-1cdc-1)(e)(d-1g)
products of commutators. = (g-1cdc-1)(gd-1dg-1)(d-1g)
For x ∈ C, we must show = [(g-1c)d(g-1c)-1d-1][dg-1d-1g], which is in C.
that g-1xg ∈ C for all g ∈ G, Thus C is normal in G.
or that if x is a product of
commutators, so is
g-1xg for all g ∈ G.
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Theorem
If N is a normal
The Commutator subgroup of G, then
Subgroup G/N is abelian if and
only if C≤N.
913 914
Proof Finally, if C ≤ N, then

If N is a normal (aN)(bN)=abN
subgroup of G and G/N =ab(b-1a-1ba)N
is abelian, then
= (abb-1a-1)baN
(a-1N)(b-1N)=(b-1N)(a-1N);
that is, aba-1b-1N=N, = baN
so aba-1b-1 ∈ N, and = (bN)(aN).
C ≤ N.
915 916
Example
For the group S3, we find that one commutator is
The Commutator ρ1μ1 ρ1-1μ1-1 = ρ1μ1 ρ2μ1= μ3μ2= ρ2.
Subgroup (12)(13)=(132)
We similarly find that
ρ2μ1 ρ2-1μ1-1 = ρ2μ1 ρ1μ1= μ2μ3= ρ1.
(13)(12)=(123)
917 918
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The Commutator Subgroup Group Theory
Thus the commutator

subgroup C of S3
contains A3. Since A3 Automorphisms
is a normal subgroup
of S3 and
S3/A3 is abelian, above
theorem shows that
C=A3.
919 920
Automorphisms Automorphisms
Recall that an We have seen that every

automorphism of a group g ∈ G determines an
G is an isomorphism of G automorphism ig of G
onto G. (called an inner
The set of all automorphism)given by
automorphisms of G is ig(x)=gxg-1. The set of all
denoted by Aut(G). inner automorphisms of
G is denoted by Inn(G).
921 922
Proof
Theorem
Clearly, Aut(G) is nonempty. Let σ, τ ∈ Aut(G).
The set Aut(G) of all Then for all x, y ∈ G, στ(xy)=σ ((τ(x) τ(y)) =
automorphisms of a (στ(x))(στ(y)).
group G is a group under Hence, στ ∈ Aut(G). Again,
composition of σ(σ −1 (x)σ −1 (y))=
mappings, and
σσ −1 (𝑥)σσ −1 (y)=xy.
lnn(G) ⊲ Aut(G).
Hence σ −1 (x)σ −1 (y)= σ −1 (xy). Therefore, σ −1 ∈
Moreover,
Aut(G). This proves that Aut( G) is a subgroup of
G/Z(G)≃Inn(G). the symmetric group SG and, hence, is itself a group.
923 924
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Group Theory Automorphisms
Theorem
The set Aut(G) of all
Automorphisms automorphisms of a
group G is a group under
composition of
mappings, and
lnn(G) ⊲ Aut(G).
Moreover,
G/Z(G)≃Inn(G).
925 926
Consider the mapping ϕ: G → Aut G given by Further, ia is the identity automorphism if and only
ϕ(a)=ia=axa-1 for all x∈ G. if axa-1= x for all x ∈ G. Hence, Ker ϕ = Z(G), and by
For any a, b ∈ G, iab(x)= the fundamental theorem of homomorphisms
abx(ab)-1= a(bxb-1)a-1 = iaib(x) G/Z(G)≃lnn(G).
for all x ∈ G. Finally, for any σ ∈ Aut(G),
Hence, ϕ is a (σi aσ -1 )(x) = σ(aσ −1(x)a-1)
homomorphism, and, = σ(a)x σ(a) -1
therefore, lnn(G)=Im ϕ is a = iσ(a) (x); hence σi aσ -1=iσ(a) ∈ Inn(G).
subgroup of Aut(G). Therefore, lnn(G) ⊲ Aut(G).
927 928
Automorphisms Group Theory
It follows from above theorem that if the center of a

group G is trivial, then G ≃ lnn(G). A group G is said
to be complete if Z(G) = {e} and every Examples on
automorphism of G is an inner automorphism; that Automorphisms
is, G ≃ lnn(G)=Aut(G).
When considering the possible automorphisms σ
of a group G, it is useful to remember that, for any
x ∈ G, x and σ(x) must be of the same order.
929 930
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Examples on Automorphisms Examples on Automorphisms
Example
Hence, for any σ ∈
The symmetric group S3 Aut(S3), σ(a)= a or a2,
has a trivial center {e}. σ(b)= b, ab, or a2b.
Hence, Inn(S3) ≃S3. We Moreover, when σ(a) and
have seen that σ(b) are fixed, σ(x) is
S3= {e,a,a2,b,ab,a2b} with known for every x ∈ S3.
the defining relations Hence, σ is completely
a3= e= b2, ba = a2b. The determined.
elements a and a2 are of
order 3, and b, ab, and
a2b are all of order 2.
931 932
Examples on Automorphisms Group Theory
Thus, there cannot be

more than six
Examples on
automorphisms of S3.
Automorphisms
Hence
Aut (S3)=Inn(S3) ≃ S3.
Therefore, S3 is a
complete group.
933 934
Solution
Example (m,n) = 1 ⇒ there exist
Let G be a finite abelian integers u and v such
group of order n, and let that mu + nv = 1 ⇒
m be a positive integer for all x ∈ G,
relative prime to n. Then xmu+nv=xmuxnv=xum since
the mapping σ: x→ xm is o(G)=n. Now for all x ∈ G,
an automorphism of G. x=(xu )m implies that
σ is onto. Further,
xm=e⇒ xmu=e ⇒ x = e,
showing that σ is 1-1.
935 936
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That σ is a
homomorphism follows
from the fact that G is Examples on
abelian. Hence, σ is an Automorphisms
automorphism of G.
937 938
Example When G is abelian, then

A finite group G having 𝜎 : x ↦ x-1 is an
more than two automorphism, and,
elements and with the clearly, 𝜎 is not an
condition that x2 ≠e for identity automorphism.
some x ∈ G must have a When G is not abelian,
nontrivial automorphism. there exists a nontrivial
inner automorphism.
939 940
Example Solution
Let G = <a|an=e> be a If (m,n) = 1, then it has
finite cyclic group of been shown in Example
order n. Then the of last module that 𝜎 is
mapping 𝜎 : a → am is an an automorphism. So let
automorphism of G iff us assume now that 𝜎 is
(m,n) = 1. an automorphism. Then
the order of 𝜎 (a) = am is
the same as that of a,
which is n.
941 942
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Further, if (m,n)=d, then

(am)n/d=(an)m/d = e. Thus,
the order of am divides Group Action on a Set
n/d; that is, n|n/d.
Hence, d = 1, and the
solution is complete.
943 944
Group Action on a Set Group Action on a Set
We define a binary More generally, for any

operation * on a set S to sets A, B, and C, we can
be a function mapping view a map *: A x B→C as
SxS into S. The function * defining a
gives us a rule for "multiplication," where
"multiplying" an element any element a of A times
s1 in S and an element s2 any element b of B has as
in S to yield an element s1 value some element c of
* s2 in S. C. Of course, we write a*
b = c, or simply ab= c.
945 946
In these modules, we will Definition

be concerned with the Let X be a set and G a
case where X is a set, G is group. An action of G on
a group, and we have X is a map *: G x X → X
a map *: G x X→ X. We such that
shall write *(g, x) as g * x 1. ex = x for all x ∈ X,
or gx. 2. (g1g2)(x) = g1(g2x) for all
x ∈ X and all g1, g2 ∈ G.
Under these conditions,
X is a G-set.
947 948
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Group Action on a Set Group Theory
Example
Let X be any set, and let Group Action on a Set
H be a subgroup of the
group Sx of all
permutations of X.
Then X is an H -set,
where the action of 𝜎 ∈
H on X is its action as an
element of Sx, so that
𝜎 x = 𝜎(x) for all x ∈ X.
949 950
Condition 2 is a Our next theorem will

consequence of the show that for every G-set
definition of permutation X and each g ∈ G, the
multiplication as function map σg: X→X defined by
σg= gx is a permutation of
composition, and X, and that there is a
Condition 1 is immediate homomorphism 𝜙: G→Sx
from the definition of the such that the action of G
identity permutation as on X is essentially the
the identity function. Note above Example action of
that, in particular, the image subgroup H =
𝜙 [G] of Sx on X.
{1, 2, 3, ···, n} is an Sn set.
951 952
So actions of subgroups Theorem

of Sx on X describe all
possible group actions on Let X be a G-set. For each
X. When studying the set g ∈ G, the function σg:
X, actions using X→X defined by σg(x) =
subgroups of Sx suffice. gx for x∈X is a
However, sometimes a permutation of X. Also,
set X is used to study G the map 𝜙: G→ Sx
via a group action of G on defined by 𝜙(g) = σg is a
X. Thus we need the
more general concept homomorphism with the
given by above Definition. property that 𝜙(g)(x) =
gx.
953 954
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Proof
To show that σg is a permutation of X, we must
show that it is a one-to-one map of X onto itself. Group Action on a Set
Suppose that σg(x1) = σg(x2) for x1, x2 ∈ X. Then gx1=
gx2 Consequently, g-1 (gx1) = g-1(gx2). Using
Condition 2 in Definition, we see that (g-1 g)x1= (g-1
g)x2, so ex1 = ex2. Condition 1 of the definition
then yields x1 = x2, so σg is one to one. The two
conditions of the definition show that for x ∈ X, we
have σg(g-1x) = g(g-1)x = (gg-1)x =ex= x, so σg maps X
onto X. Thus σg is indeed a permutation.
955 956
Theorem To show that ϕ: G→Sx defined by ϕ(g) = σg is a

Let X be a G-set. For each homomorphism, we must show that ϕ(g1g2) = ϕ(g1)
g ∈ G, the function σg: ϕ(g2) for all g1, g2 ∈ G. We show the equality of
X→X defined by σg(x) = these two permutations in Sx by showing they both
gx for x∈X is a carry an x ∈ X into the same element. Using the two
permutation of X. Also, conditions in above Definition and the rule for
the map 𝜙: G→ Sx function composition, we obtain
defined by 𝜙(g) = σg is a ϕ(g1g2)(x) = σg1 g2 (x) = (g1g2)x = g1(g2x) = g1 σg2 (x)
homomorphism with the = σg1 (σg2 (x))= (σg1 ο σg2 )(x) =(σg1 σg2 )(x)=
property that 𝜙(g)(x) = ( ϕ(g1) ϕ(g2) )(x).
gx.
957 958
Thus ϕ is a
homomorphism.
Group Action on a Set
The stated property of ϕ
follows at once since by
our definitions, we have
ϕ (g)(x) = σg(x) = gx.
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Definition Example
Let X be a set and G a Let G be the additive
group. An action of G on group ℝ, and X be the
X is a map *: G x X → X set of complex numbers z
such that such that |z| = 1. Then X
1. ex = x for all x ∈ X, is a G-set under the
2. g1(g2x)=(g1g2)(x) for all action γ*c = eiγ c, where
γ ∈ ℝ and c ∈ X. Here the
x ∈ X and all g1, g2 ∈ G.
Under these conditions, action of γ is the rotation
through an angle θ=γ
X is a G-set. radians, anticlockwise.
961 962
Example
Example
Let G=S5 , and Let G=D4 and X be the
x5 vertices 1, 2, 3, 4 of a
X={x1, x2, x3, x4, x5} be a
square. X is a G-set under
x1 set of beads forming a
x4 the action
circular ring. Then X is a
G-set under the action g * i = g(i), g ∈ D 4,
x3 x2 G*xi=xg(i) , g∈S5. i ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
963 964
Example
Let G be a group. Define
a*x =ax, a ∈ G, x ∈ G. Group Action on a Set
Then, clearly, the set G is a
G-set.
This action of the group G
on itself is called
translation.
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Example This proves G is a G-set.

Let G be a group. This action of the group G
Define on itself is called
a*x =axa-1, a∈G, x∈G. conjugation.
We show that G is a G-set.
Let a, b ∈ G. Then
(ab)*x=(ab)x(ab)-1
= a(bxb-1)a-1=a(b*x)a-1
=a*(b*x).
Also, e*x=x.
967 968
Example Example
Let G be a group and H<G. Let G be a group and
Then the set G/H of left H⊲G.
cosets can be made into a Then the set G/H of left
G-set defining cosets is a G-set if we
a*xH=axH, a∈G, xH∈G/H. define a*xH=axa-1H, a∈G,
xH∈G/H.
969 970
To see this, let a, b∈G and

xH∈G/H. Then
(ab)*xH=abxb-1a-1H Group Action on a Set
=a*bxb-1H =a*(b*xH).
Also, e*xH=xH.
Hence, G/H is a G-set.
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Theorem Proof
Let G be a group and let X (i) We define ϕ:G→SX by (ϕ(a))(x)=ax, a∈G, x∈X.
be a set. Clearly ϕ(a)∈SX, a∈G. Let a, b∈G. Then
(i) If X is a G-set, then the (ϕ(ab))(x)=(ab)x=a(bx)=a((ϕ(b))(x)) =
action of G on X induces a (ϕ(a))((ϕ(b))(x))=(ϕ(a)ϕ(b))x for all x∈X.
homomorphism Hence, ϕ(ab)= ϕ(a) ϕ(b).
ϕ:G→SX. (ii) Define a*x=(ϕ(a))(x); that is, ax=(ϕ(a))(x). Then
(ii) Any homomorphism (ab)x = (ϕ(ab))(x)=(ϕ(a)ϕ(b))(x)= ϕ(a)(ϕ(b)(x))=
ϕ:G→SX induces an action ϕ(a)(bx)=a(bx). Also, ex=(ϕ(e))(x)=x.
of G onto X. Hence, X is a G-set.
973 974
Group Theory Stabilizer
Definition
Let G be a group acting on
Stabilizer a set X, and let x ∈ X. Then
the set
Gx= {g ∈ G | gx = x},
which can be shown to be
a subgroup, is called the
stabilizer (or isotropy)
group of x in G.
975 976
Stabilizer Stabilizer
Example Example
Let G be a group. Define a*x =axa-1, a∈G, x∈G. Let G be a group and H<G. We define action of G on
This action of the group G on itself is called the set G/H of left cosets by
conjugation. a*xH=axH, a∈G, xH∈G/H.
Then, for x ∈ G, Gx = {a∈G|axa-1=x}=N(x), the Here the stabilizer of a left coset xH is the subgroup
normalizer of x in G. {g∈G | gxH=xH} = {g∈G | x-1gx∈H}
Thus, in this case the stabilizer of any element x in G = {g∈G | g∈xHx-1} = xHx-1
is the normalizer of x in G.
977 978
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Group Theory Stabilizer
Theorem
Let X be a G-set.
Stabilizer
Then Gx is a subgroup
of G for each x ∈ X.
979 980
Stabilizer Group Theory
Proof
Let x ∈ X and let g1, g2∈Gx. Then g1x=x and g2x=x.
Orbits
Consequently, (g1g2)x=g1(g2x)=g1x=x, so g1g2∈Gx,
and Gx is closed under the induced operation of G.
Of course ex=x, so e∈Gx.
If g∈Gx, then gx = x, so x=ex=(g-1g)x= g-1(gx)=g-1x,
and consequently g-1∈Gx.
Thus Gx is a subgroup of G.
981 982
Orbits Orbits
Theorem Proof
Let X be a G-set. For x1, For each x∈X, we have ex=x, so x∼x and ∼ is
x2∈X, let x1∼x2 if and reflexive.
only if there exists g∈G Suppose x1 ∼ x2, so gx1=x2 for some g∈G. Then
such that gx1=x2. Then ∼
is an equivalence g-1x2=g-1(gx1) =(g-1g)x1=ex1=x1, so x2∼x1, and ∼ is
relation on X. symmetric.
Finally, if x1∼x2 and x2∼x3, then g1x1=x2 and g2x2=x3
for some g1, g2∈G. Then (g2g1)x1= g2(g1x1)= g2x2=x3,
so x1∼x3 and ∼ is transitive.
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Orbits Orbits
Definition Example
Let G be a group acting Let G be a group. Define
on a set X, and let x ∈ X. a*x =ax, a ∈ G, x ∈ G.
Then the set The orbit of x∈G is
Gx = {ax | a ∈ G} Gx={ax|a ∈ G}=G.
is called the orbit
of x in G.
985 986
Orbits Group Theory
Example
Let G be a group.
Conjugacy and G-Sets
Define
a*x =axa-1, a∈G, x∈G.
The orbit of x∈G is
Gx ={axa-1|a∈G}, called
the conjugate class of x
and denoted by C(x).
987 988
Conjugacy and G-Sets Conjugacy and G-Sets
Proof
Theorem We define a one-to-one map 𝜓 from Gx onto the
Let X be a G-set and let x∈X. Then |Gx|=(G:Gx). collection of left cosets of Gx in G.
Let x1∈Gx. Then there exists g1∈G such that g1x=x1.
If |G| is finite, then |Gx| is a divisor of |G|. We define 𝜓(x1) to be the left coset g1Gx of Gx.
If X is a finite set, |X|=σx∈C(G: Gx ), We must show that this map 𝜓 is well defined,
where C is a subset of X containing exactly one independent of the choice of g1∈G such that g1x=x1.
element from each orbit. Suppose also that g1'x=x1. Then, g1x=g1'x, so
g1-1(g1x)= g1-1(g1’x), from which we deduce
x=(g1-1g1')x. Therefore g1-1g1'∈Gx, so g1'∈g1Gx, and
g1Gx=g1'Gx. Thus the map 𝜓 is well defined.
989 990
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Group Theory Conjugacy and G-Sets
Theorem
Let X be a G-set and let x∈X. Then |Gx|=(G:Gx).
Conjugacy and G-Sets
If |G| is finite, then |Gx| is a divisor of |G|.
If X is a finite set, |X|=σx∈C(G: Gx ),
where C is a subset of X containing exactly one
element from each orbit.
991 992
Conjugacy and G-Sets Conjugacy and G-Sets
To show the map 𝜓 is one to one, suppose x1, x2∈Gx, If |G| is finite, then the
and 𝜓(x1)=𝜓(x2). Then there exist g1, g2∈G such that equation
x1=g1x, x2=g2x, and g2∈g1Gx. Then g2=g1g for some
|G|=|Gx|(G:Gx) shows
g ∈Gx, so x2=g2x=g1(gx)=g1x=x1. Thus 𝜓 is one to one. that |Gx|=(G:Gx) is a
Finally, we show that each left coset of Gx in G is of divisor of |G|.
the form 𝜓(x1) for some x1∈Gx. Let g1Gx be a left Since X is the disjoint
coset. Then if g1x=x1, we have g1Gx= 𝜓(x1). union of orbits Gx, it
Thus 𝜓 maps Gx one to one onto the collection of follows that if X is finite,
left cosets so |Gx|=(G:Gx). then |X|=σx∈C(G: Gx ).
993 994
Group Theory Isomorphism Theorems
There are several

theorems concerning
Isomorphism isomorphic factor groups
Theorems that are known as the
isomorphism theorems of
group theory.
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Isomorphism Theorems Isomorphism Theorems
Theorem The first isomorphism

Let ϕ: G→G' be a theorem is diagrammed
homomorphism with in Figure below.
kernel K, and let
yK: G → G/K be the
𝛟
canonical homomorphism. G 𝛟[G]
There is a unique
isomorphism yK 𝜇
μ: G/K→ ϕ[G] such that
ϕ(x) = µ(yK(x)) for each G/K
x∈G.
997 998
Lemma Proof
Let N be a normal If L is a normal subgroup of G containing N, then
subgroup of a group G and ϕ(L)=y[L] is a normal subgroup of G/N.
let y: G → G/N be the Because N≤L, for each x∈L the entire coset xN in
canonical homomorphism. G is contained in L. Thus, y-1[ϕ(L)]=L.
Then the map ϕ from the Consequently, if L and M are normal subgroups of
set of normal subgroups of G, both containing N, and if ϕ(L)= ϕ(M) = H,
G containing N to the set then L=y-1[H]=M. Therefore ϕ is one to one.
of normal subgroups of
G/N given by ϕ(L)=y[L] is
one to one and onto.
999 1000
Isomorphism Theorems Group Theory
If H is a normal subgroup
of G/N, then y-1[H] is a
normal subgroup of G. Isomorphism
Because N∈H and Theorems
y-1[{N}]=N, we see that
N⊆y-1[H]. Then
ϕ(y-1[H])=y[y-1[H]]=H.
This shows that ϕ is onto
the set of normal
subgroups of G/N.
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If H and N are subgroups Of course H V N is also

of a group G, then we let the smallest subgroup of
HN={hn| h ∈ H, n ∈ N}. G containing both H and
N, since any such
We define the join H V N subgroup must contain
of H and N as the HN. In general, HN need
intersection of all not be a subgroup of G.
subgroups of G that
contain HN; thus H V N
is the smallest subgroup
of G containing HN.
1003 1004
Lemma Proof
If N is a normal subgroup We show that HN is a subgroup of G, from which
of G, and if H is any H V N=HN follows at once. Let h1, h2∈H and n1, n2∈N.
subgroup of G, then Since N is a normal subgroup, we have n1h2=h2n3 for
H V N=HN=NH. some n3∈N. Then (h1n1)(h2n2)=h1(n1h2)n2=h1(h2n3)n2=
Furthermore, if H is also (h1h2)(n3n2)∈HN, so HN is closed under the induced
normal in G, then HN is operation in G. Clearly e=ee is in HN. For h∈H and
normal in G. n∈N, we have (hn)-1=n-1h-1= h-1n4 for some n4∈N,
since N is a normal subgroup. Thus (hn)-1∈HN, so
HN ≤G.
1005 1006
Isomorphism Theorems Group Theory
A similar argument shows

that NH is a subgroup, so
NH=H V N=HN. Second Isomorphism
Now suppose that H is Theorem
also normal in G, and let
h ∈ H, n ∈ N, and g ∈ G.
Then
ghng-1=(ghg-1)(gng1)∈HN,
so HN is indeed normal in
G.
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Second Isomorphism Theorem Second Isomorphism Theorem
Theorem Proof
Let H be a subgroup of G Let y: G→G/N be the canonical homomorphism and
and let N be a normal let H≤G. Then y[H] is a subgroup of G/N. Now the
subgroup of G. Then action of y on just the elements of H (called y
(HN)/N≃H/(H ∩ N). restricted to H) provides us with a homomorphism
mapping H onto y[H], and the kernel of this restriction
is clearly the set of elements of N that are also in H,
that is, the intersection H∩N. By first isomorphism
theorem, there is an isomorphism
𝜇1: H/(H∩N)→y[H].
1009 1010
Second Isomorphism Theorem Group Theory
On the other hand, y restricted to HN also provides a

homomorphism mapping HN onto y[H], because y(n)
is the identity N of G/N for all n∈N. The kernel of y
restricted to HN is N. The first isomorphism theorem Isomorphism Theorems
then provides us with an isomorphism
μ2: (HN)/N→y[H].
Because (HN)/N and H/(H∩N) are both isomorphic to
y[H], they are isomorphic to each other. Indeed,
ϕ: (HN)/N→H/(H∩N) where ϕ=µ1-1µ2 will be an
isomorphism. More explicitly,
Φ((hn)N)=µ1-1(µ2((hn)N))= µ1-1(hN)=h(H∩N).
1011 1012
Example Solution
Let G be a group such that Let a, b∈Gn and x∈G. Then (ab-1)n=an(bn)-1=e, so ab-1∈
for some fixed integer Gn. Also, (xax-1)n=(xax -1)…(xax -1)=xanx-1 =e implies
n >1, (ab)n =anbn for all a, xax -1∈Gn. Hence, Gn⊲G.
b∈G. Let Gn={a∈G|an=e}
and Gn=(an |a∈G}. Let a, b, x∈G. Then an(bn)-1=(ab-1)n∈Gn.
Then Gn⊲G, Gn⊲G, and Also, xanx-1 =(xax -1)…(xax -1)= (xax-1)n∈Gn. Therefore,
G/Gn≃Gn. Gn⊲G.
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Group Theory Isomorphism Theorems
Example
Let G be a group such that
Isomorphism Theorems
for some fixed integer
n >1, (ab)n =anbn for all a,
b∈G. Let Gn={a∈G|an=e}
and Gn={an |a∈G}.
Then Gn⊲G, Gn⊲G, and
G/Gn≃Gn.
1015 1016
Define a mapping f: G→Gn Example

by f(a) = an. Let G=ℤx ℤxℤ,
Then, for all a, b ∈ G, H=ℤxℤx{0}, and
f(ab)=(ab)n=anbn=f(a)f(b). N={0}xℤxℤ. Then clearly
HN=ℤxℤxℤ and
Thus, f is a homomorphism. H∩N={0}xℤx{0}. We have
Now Ker f={a|an = e}=Gn. (HN)/N≃ ℤ and we also
Therefore, by the first have H/(H∩N)≃ ℤ.
isomorphism theorem
G/Gn≃Gn.
1017 1018
Group Theory Third Isomorphism Theorem
If H and K are two normal

subgroups of G and K≤H,
Third Isomorphism then H/K is a normal
Theorem subgroup of G/K.
The third isomorphism
theorem concerns these
groups.
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Third Isomorphism Theorem Third Isomorphism Theorem
Theorem Proof
Let H and K be normal Let ϕ:G→(G/K)/(H/K) be given by ϕ(a)= (aK)(H/K)
subgroups of a group G for a ∈ G.
with K≤H. Clearly ϕ is onto (G/ K)/(H/ K), and for a, b∈G,
Then G/H≃(G/K)/(H/K). ϕ(ab)=[(ab)K](H/K)
=[(aK)(bK)](H/K)
= [(aK)(H / K)][(bK)(H / K)]=ϕ(a) ϕ(b),
so ϕ is a homomorphism.
1021 1022
Third Isomorphism Theorem Group Theory
The kernel consists of

those x ∈ G such that
ϕ(x)=H/K. Third Isomorphism
These x are just the Theorem
elements of H.
Then first isomorphism
theorem shows that
G/H≃(G/K)/(H/K).
1023 1024
A nice way of viewing third

isomorphism theorem is to
regard the canonical map yH
G G/H
yH:G→G/H as being factored
via a normal subgroup K of yK Natural Isomorphism
G, K≤H≤G, to give
yH=yH/K yK, up to a natural G/K (G/K)/(H/K)
yH/K
isomorphism, as illustrated
in Figure.
1025 1026
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Another way of visualizing The larger the normal subgroup, the smaller the factor
this theorem is to use the group.
subgroup diagram in Figure,
where each group is a Thus we can think of G collapsed by H, that is, G/H, as
normal subgroup of G and is being smaller than G collapsed by K.
contained in the one above Third isomorphism theorem states that we can collapse
it. G all the way down to G/H in two steps.
G First, collapse to G/K, and then, using H/K, collapse this
to (G/ K)/(H/K). The overall result is the same (up to
H isomorphism) as collapsing G by H.
K
1027 1028
Group Theory Third Isomorphism Theorem
Theorem
Let H and K be normal
Third Isomorphism subgroups of a group G
Theorem with K≤H.
Then G/H≃(G/K)/(H/K).
1029 1030
Example Thus (ℤ/6ℤ)/(2ℤ/6ℤ) has

Consider two elements and is
K = 6ℤ<H=2ℤ<G=ℤ. isomorphic to ℤ2 also.
Alternatively, we see that
Then G/H=ℤ/2ℤ ≃ ℤ2. ℤ/6ℤ ≃ ℤ6, and 2ℤ/6ℤ
Now G/K=ℤ/6ℤ has corresponds under this
elements 6ℤ, 1+6ℤ, 2+6ℤ, isomorphism to the cyclic
3+6ℤ, 4+6ℤ, and 5+6ℤ. subgroup <2> of ℤ6.
Of these six cosets, 6ℤ, Thus (ℤ/6ℤ)/(2ℤ/6ℤ)
2+6ℤ, and 4+6ℤ lie in
2ℤ/6ℤ. ≃ ℤ6/<2>≃ ℤ2≃ ℤ/2ℤ.
1031 1032
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12/16/2018
Group Theory Sylow Theorems
The fundamental theorem

for finitely generated
Sylow Theorems abelian groups gives us
complete information
about all finite abelian
groups. The study of finite
nonabelian groups is
much more complicated.
The Sylow theorems give
us some important
information about them.
1033 1034
Sylow Theorems Sylow Theorems
We know the order of a subgroup of a finite group The Sylow theorems give a weak converse. Namely,
G must divide |G|. If G is abelian, then there exist they show that if d is a power of a prime and d divides
subgroups of every order dividing |G|. |G|, then G does contain a subgroup of order d.
We showed that A4, which has order 12, has no Note that 6 is not a power of a prime. The Sylow
subgroup of order 6.
theorems also give some information concerning the
Thus a nonabelian group G may have no subgroup number of such subgroups and their relationship to
of some order d dividing |G|; the "converse of the each other.
theorem of Lagrange" does not hold.
We will see that these theorems are very useful in
studying finite nonabelian groups.
1035 1036
Sylow Theorems Group Theory
Proofs of the Sylow

theorems give us another
application of action of a
group on a set. This time, Sylow Theorems
the set itself is formed
from the group; in some
instances the set is the
group itself, sometimes it
is a collection of cosets of
a subgroup, and
sometimes it is a
collection of subgroups.
1037 1038
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12/16/2018
There may be one-element orbits in X.

Let X be a finite G-set.
Recall that for x∈X, the Let XG={x∈X|gx=x for all g∈G}.
orbit of x in X under G is Thus XG is precisely the union of the one-element
Gx={gx| g∈G}. Suppose orbits in X.
that there are r orbits in X Let us suppose there are s one-element orbits,
under G, and let {x1, x2,···, where 0≤s≤r. Then |XG|=s, and reordering the xi if
xr} contain one element necessary, we may rewrite above equation as
from each orbit in X. Now |X|=|XG|+ σri=s+1 |Gxi|.
every element of X is in Most of the results of these modules will flow from
precisely one orbit, so above equation.
|X|=σri=1 |Gxi|·
1039 1040
Theorem Proof
Let G be a group of order pn Recall |X|=|XG|+ σri=s+1 |Gxi|.
and let X be a finite G-set.
Then In the notation of above Equation, we know that
|X| ≡ |XG| (mod p). |Gxi| divides |G|.
Consequently p divides |Gxi| for s + 1≤i≤ r. Above
equation then shows that |X|-|XG| is divisible by p,
so |X|≡|XG| (modp).
1041 1042
Sylow Theorems Group Theory
Definition
Let p be a prime. A group
G is a p-group if every Cauchy’s Theorem
element in G has order a
power of the prime p.
A subgroup of a group G is
a p-subgroup of G if the
subgroup is itself a p-
group.
1043 1044
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12/16/2018
Cauchy’s Theorem Cauchy’s Theorem
Our goal in these modules is Cauchy’s Theorem

to show that a finite group G
has a subgroup of every Let p be a prime. Let G be
prime-power order dividing a finite group and let p
|G|. divide |G|.
As a first step, we prove Then G has an element of
Cauchy's theorem, which
says that if p divides |G|, order p and,
then G has a subgroup of consequently, a subgroup
order p. of order p.
1045 1046
We claim p divides |X|. In

Proof forming a p-tuple in X, we
may let g1, g2,···, gp-1 be any
We form the set X of all p- elements of G, and gp is then
tuples (g1, g2, ···, gp) of uniquely determined as
elements of G having the
property that the product of (g1 g2… gp-1)-1.
the coordinates in G is e. Thus |X| = |G|p-1 and since
That is, p divides |G|, we see that p
X={(g1, g2, ···, gp) |gi∈ G and divides |X|. Let 𝜎 be the
g1g2 ···gp=e}. cycle (1, 2, 3,…, p) in Sp.
1047 1048
We let 𝜎 act on X by 𝜎(g1 , g2,…, gp)

Now |<σ>|= p, so we may apply above Theorem, and we
=(g𝜎(1), g𝜎(2), …, g𝜎(p)) =(g2 , g3,…, gp, g1 ).
know that |X|≡|X<𝜎>| (mod p). Since p divides |X|, it must
Note that (g2 , g3,…, gp, g1 )∈X, for g1(g2 g3…gp)=e implies that g1= be that p divides |X<𝜎>| also. Let us examine X<𝜎>·
(g2 g3…gp)-1, so (g2 g3…gp)g1=e also. Thus 𝜎 acts on X, and we
consider the subgroup < 𝜎>
Now (g1 , g2,…, gp) is left fixed by σ, and hence by <σ>, if and
of Sp to act on X by iteration in the natural way.
only if g1=g2=…= gp. We know at least one element in X<𝜎>,
namely (e, e, …, e). Since p divides |X<𝜎>|, there must be at
least p elements in X<𝜎>. Hence there exists some element
a∈G, a≠e, such that (a, a, ... ,a)∈X<𝜎> and hence ap = e, so a
has order p. Of course, <a> is a subgroup of G of order p.
1049 1050
175
12/16/2018
Group Theory Sylow Theorems
Corollary
Let G be a finite group.
Sylow Theorems
Then G is a p-group if
and only if |G| is a
power of p.
1051 1052
Let G be a group, and let Now GH={g∈G|gHg-1=H} is

𝒮 be the collection of all easily seen to be a
subgroups of G. subgroup of G, and H is a
normal subgroup of GH.
We make 𝒮 into a G-set Since GH consists of all
by letting G act on 𝒮 by elements of G that leave
conjugation. H invariant under
conjugation, GH is the
That is, if H ∈ 𝒮 so H≤G largest subgroup of G
and g ∈ G, then g acting having H as a normal
on H yields the conjugate subgroup.
subgroup gHg-1.
1053 1054
Definition Lemma
The subgroup Let H be a p-subgroup of a
finite group G. Then
GH ={g ∈ G | gHg-1=H}
(N[H]:H)≡(G:H) (mod p).
is the normalizer of H in
G and is denoted by
N[H].
1055 1056
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Proof Thus xH=h(xH) for all h∈H if and only if x-1hx

Let ℒ be the set of left cosets of H in G, and let H =x-1h(x-1)-1∈H for all h∈H, or if and only if x-1∈N[H],
act on ℒ by left translation, so that h(xH) = (hx)H. or if and only if x∈N[H]. Thus the left cosets in ℒH are
Then ℒ becomes an H-set. Note that |ℒ|=(G:H). those contained in N[H]. The number of such cosets
Let us determine ℒH, that is, those left cosets that is (N[H]:H), so |ℒH|= (N[H]:H).
are fixed under action by all elements of H. Since H is a p-group, it has order a power of p. Then
Now xH= h(xH) if and only if H=x-1hxH, or if and |ℒ| ≡ |ℒ H| (mod p), that is,
only if x-1hx ∈ H. (G:H) ≡ (N[H]:H) (mod p).
1057 1058
Group Theory First Sylow Theorem

Theorem
Let G be a finite group and
let |G|= pnm where n≥1
First Sylow Theorem and where p does not
divide m. Then
1. G contains a subgroup
of order pi for each i
where 1≤i≤n,
2. Every subgroup H of G
of order pi is a normal
subgroup of a subgroup of
order pi+1 for 1 ≤ i < n.
1059 1060
First Sylow Theorem First Sylow Theorem
Proof Let H be a subgroup of order pi. Since i < n, we see p

We know G contains a divides (G:H). We then know p divides (N[H]:H).
subgroup of order p by Since H is a normal subgroup of N[H], we can form
Cauchy's theorem. N[H]/H, and we see that p divides |N[H]/H|.
We use an induction By Cauchy's theorem, the factor group N[H]/H has a
subgroup K which is of order p.
argument and show that
the existence of a If y:N[H]→N[H]/H is the canonical homomorphism,
subgroup of order pi for then y-1[K]={x∈N[H]|y(x)∈K} is a subgroup of N[H]
and hence of G. This subgroup contains H and is of
i<n implies the existence order pi+1.
of a subgroup of order pi+1.
1061 1062
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12/16/2018
First Sylow Theorem First Sylow Theorem
2. We repeat the Definition

construction in part 1 and
note that H < y-1[K] ≤ N[H] A Sylow p-subgroup P of a
where |y-1[K]|= pi+1. group G is a maximal
Since H is normal in N[H], p-subgroup of G,
it is of course normal in that is,
the possibly smaller group
y-1[K]. a p-subgroup contained in
no larger p-subgroup.
1063 1064
Group Theory Second Sylow Theorem
Let G be a finite group,

where |G|=pnm as in first
Second Sylow Theorem Sylow theorem.
The theorem shows that
the Sylow p-subgroups of
G are precisely those
subgroups of order pn.
If P is a Sylow p-
subgroup, every
conjugate gPg-1 of P is
also a Sylow p-subgroup.
1065 1066
Second Sylow Theorem Second Sylow Theorem
The second Sylow Theorem

theorem states that Let P1 and P2 be Sylow p-
every Sylow p-subgroup subgroups of a finite
can be obtained from P group G.
in this fashion; that is,
any two Sylow p- Then P1 and P2 are
subgroups are conjugate. conjugate subgroups of G.
1067 1068
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Second Sylow Theorem Group Theory
Proof
Here we will let one of the subgroups act on left cosets of
the other. Let ℒ be the collection of left cosets of P1, and
let P2 act on ℒ by z(xP1)=(zx)P1 for z∈P2. Then ℒ is a P2-set. Third Sylow Theorem
We have |ℒP2 | ≡ |ℒ| (mod p), and |ℒ|= (G: P1) is not
divisible by p, so |ℒP2 |≠0. Let xP1 ∈ ℒ P2 .
Then zxP1=xP1 for all z∈P2, so x-1zxP1=P1 for all z∈P2. Thus x-
1zx∈P for all z∈P , so x-1P x≤P .
1 2 2 1
Since |P1|=|P2|, we must have P1=x-1P2x, so P1 and P2 are
indeed conjugate subgroups.
1069 1070
Third Sylow Theorem Third Sylow Theorem

Proof
The final Sylow theorem Let P be one Sylow p-subgroup of G. Let 𝒮 be the
gives information on the
number of Sylow p- set of all Sylow p-subgroups and let P act on 𝒮 by
subgroups. conjugation, so that x∈P carries T ∈ 𝒮 into xTx-1.
Theorem We have |𝒮|≡|𝒮P|(mod p). Let us find 𝒮P.
If G is a finite group and p If T∈ 𝒮P, then xTx-1=T for all x ∈ P. Thus P≤N[T].
divides |G|, then the
number of Sylow p- Of course T≤N[T] also.
subgroups is congruent to 1
modulo p and divides |G|. Since P and T are both Sylow p-subgroups of G, they
are also Sylow p-subgroups of N[T].
But then they are conjugate in N[T] by second Sylow
theorem.
1071 1072
Third Sylow Theorem Group Theory
Since T is a normal subgroup of N[T], it is its only

conjugate in N[T]. Thus T=P.
Then 𝒮P = {P}. Since |𝒮|≡|𝒮P|=1 (mod p), we see Sylow Theorems
the number of Sylow p-subgroups is congruent to 1
modulo p.
Now let G act on 𝒮 by conjugation. Since all Sylow
p-subgroups are conjugate, there is only one orbit in
𝒮 under G.
If P ∈ 𝒮 then |𝒮|=|orbit of P|= (G:GP). GP is, in fact,
the normalizer of P. But (G:GP) is a divisor of |G|, so
the number of Sylow p-subgroups divides |G|.
1073 1074
179
12/16/2018
Also, 3 divides 6, the order

Example of S3.
The Sylow 2-subgroups of We can readily check that
S3 have order 2.
iρ2 [{ρ0, μ1}]={ρ0, μ3} and
The subgroups of order 2 iρ1 [{ρ0, μ1}]={ρ0, μ2}
in S3 are
where iρj (x)=ρjxρj-1,
{ρ0, μ1}, {ρ0, μ2}, {ρ0, μ3}.
illustrating that they are all
Note that there are three conjugate. For instance,
subgroups and that iρ2 (μ1)=ρ2μ1ρ2-1=ρ2μ1ρ1=
3 ≡ 1 (mod 2). (1,3,2)(2,3)(1,2,3)=(1,2)=
μ3.
1075 1076
Example
But for each g∈G, the
Let us use the Sylow theorems to show that no group of inner automorphism ig of
order 15 is simple. Let G have order 15. G with ig(x)=gxg-1 maps P
We claim that G has a normal subgroup of order 5. onto a subgroup gPg-1,
By first Sylow theorem G has at least one subgroup of again of order 5.
order 5, and by third Sylow theorem the number of Hence we must have
such subgroups is congruent to 1 modulo 5 and divides gPg-1=P for all g ∈ G, so P
15. Since 1, 6, and 11 are the only positive numbers less is a normal subgroup of G.
than 15 that are congruent to 1 modulo 5, and since
among these only the number 1 divides 15, we see that Therefore, G is not simple.
G has exactly one subgroup P of order 5.
1077 1078
Group Theory Application of Sylow Theory
Let X be a finite G-set

where G is a finite group.
Application of Sylow Let XG={x∈X|gx=x for all
Theory g∈G}. Then
|X|=|XG|+ σri=s+1 |Gxi|,
where xi is an element in
the ith orbit in X.
1079 1080
180
12/16/2018
Application of Sylow Theory Application of Sylow Theory
Consider now the special case of above equation, Definition

where X=G and the action of G on G is by The equation
conjugation, so g ∈ G carries x ∈ X = G into gxg-1. |G|=c+nc+1+…+nr , where
Then XG={x ∈ G| gxg-1=x for all g ∈ G} c=|Z(G)| and ni is the
= {x ∈ G| xg=gx for all g ∈ G}=Z(G), the center of G. number of elements in
the ith orbit of G under
If we let c=|Z(G)| and ni=|Gxi| in above equation, conjugation by itself, is
then we obtain |G|=c+nc+1+…+nr , where ni is the the class equation of G.
number of elements in the ith orbit of G under Each orbit in G under
conjugation by itself. conjugation by G is a
Note that ni divides |G| for c+1≤ i ≤ r since we know conjugate class in G.
|Gxi|=(G: Gxi ), which is a divisor of |G|.
1081 1082
Example
Theorem
iρ1 (ρ0)=ρ1ρ0ρ1-1=ρ0 iμ1 (ρ1)=μ1ρ1μ1-1=ρ2
The center of a finite
iμ1 (ρ2)=μ1 ρ2μ1 1 ρ2μ1 =ρ1
-1=μ
nontrivial p-group G is
iρ1 (μ1)=ρ1μ1ρ1-1=(1,2,3)(2,3)(1,3,2)=(1,3)=μ2 nontrivial.
iρ1 (μ2)=ρ1μ2ρ1-1=μ3 iρ1 (μ3)=ρ1μ3ρ1-1=μ1
Therefore, the conjugate classes of S3 are
{ρ0}, {ρ1, ρ2}, {μ1, μ2, μ3}.
The class equation of S3 is 6 = 1+2+3.
1083 1084
Application of Sylow Theory Group Theory
Proof
We have |G|=c+nc+1+…+nr , where ni is the number
of elements in the ith orbit of G under conjugation Application of Sylow
by itself. Theory
For G, each ni divides |G| for c+1≤i≤r, so p divides
each ni, and p divides |G|. Therefore p divides c.
Now e∈Z(G), so c≥1. Therefore c≥p, and there exists
some a∈Z(G) where a≠e.
1085 1086
181
12/16/2018
Lemma Proof
Let G be a group We start by showing that hk=kh for k∈K and h∈H.
containing normal Consider the commutator
subgroups H and K such hkh-1k-1=(hkh-1)k-1=h(kh-1k-1).
that H∩K = {e} and
Since H and K are normal subgroups of G, the two
H V K = G. Then G is groupings with parentheses show that hkh-1k-1 is
isomorphic to H X K. in both K and H.
Since K∩H={e}, we see that hkh-1k-1=e, so hk=kh.
1087 1088
Application of Sylow Theory Group Theory
Let ϕ: H x K→G be defined by ϕ(h,k) = hk.

Then ϕ((h, k)(h', k'))=ϕ(hh', kk')=hh'kk'= hkh'k'
Application of Sylow
=ϕ(h, k) ϕ(h', k’), so ϕ is a homomorphism. Theory
If ϕ(h, k)=e, then hk=e, so h = k-1, and both h and k
are in H ∩ K. Thus h=k=e, so Ker(ϕ)={(e, e)} and ϕ is
one to one.
We know that HK=H V K, and H V K = G by
hypothesis.
Thus ϕ is onto G, and H x K≃G.
1089 1090
Theorem Proof
For a prime number p, If G is not cyclic, then every element except e must
every group G of order p2 be of order p.
is abelian. Let a be such an element. Then the cyclic subgroup
<a> of order p does not exhaust G.
Also let b∈G with b∉<a>. Then <a>∩={e}, since
an element c in <a>∩ with c≠e would generate
both <a> and , giving <a>=, contrary to
construction.
1091 1092
182
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Application of Sylow Theory
From first Sylow theorem, <a> is normal in some

subgroup of order p2 of G, that is, normal in all of G.
Likewise is normal in G.
Now <a> V is a subgroup of G properly
containing <a> and of order dividing p2.
Hence <a> V must be all of G.
Thus the hypotheses of last lemma are satisfied, and
G is isomorphic to <a> x and therefore abelian.
1093
183

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12/16/2018

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