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SANRAL Geometric Design Guide
SANRAL Geometric Design Guide
Glossary
1 Introduction
2 Design Philosophy
3 Design Controls
4 Design Elements
5 Alignment Design
6 Intersections
7 Interchanges
8 Roadside Safety
9 RRR
10 Grade Separations
11 Toll Plazas
Bibliography
Covers
Glossary
Acceleration lane. An auxiliary lane used by an space mean speed whereas time mean speed is
entering vehicle to accelerate before entering simply the average of all recorded speeds.
i
Glossary
being so great as to cause unreasonable delay Collector-Distributor road. A road used at an
or restrict the driver’s freedom to manoeuvre interchange to remove weaving from the
under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. through lanes and to reduce the number of
entrances to and exits from the through lanes.
direction only – hence dual carriageway as an curves in the same direction without intervening
Catchwater drain. Located above a cut face to Criterion. A yardstick according to which some
ensure that storm water does not flow down the or other quality of the road can be measured.
cut face causing erosion and deposition of silt Guideline values are specific numerical values
the road centreline, typically on either side of the a specific upgrade on which a loaded truck can
highest points on crest curves and the lowest operate without an unreasonable reduction in
points on sag curves where the centreline gradi- speed. Very often, a speed reduction of 15 km/h
ii
Glossary
Culvert. A structure, usually for conveying water Design hour. The hour in which the condition
under a roadway but can also be used as a being designed for, typically the anticipated flow,
pedestrian or stock crossing, with a clear span is expected to occur. This is often the thirtieth
of less than six metres. highest hour of flow in the design year.
Cut. Section of highway or road below natural Design speed. The speed selected as the basis
ground level. Sometimes referred to in other for establishing appropriate geometric elements
been designated by road markings, striping and A compilation of the 85th percentile values of the
signing as being exclusively for the use of various parameters of the vehicle type being
an open space or barrier and located either the road or any other facility, often taken as
within the road reserve or an independent twenty years although, for costly structures such
iii
Glossary
F Gradient. The slope of the grade between two
Footway. The rural equivalent of the urban side- adjacent Vertical Points of Intersection (VPI),
Frontage road. A road adjacent and parallel to Guideline. A design value establishing an
but separated from the highway for service to approximate threshold, which should be met if
abutting properties and for control of access. considered practical. It is a recommended
Sometimes also referred to as a service road. value whereas a standard is a prescriptive value
allowing for no exceptions.
G H
Gap. The elapsed time between the back of
High occupancy vehicle ( HOV) lane. A lane
one vehicle passing a point on the road or high-
designated for the exclusive use of buses and
way and the nose of the following vehicle pass-
other vehicles carrying more than two passen-
ing the same point. A lag is the unexpired por-
gers.
tion of a gap, i.e. the elapsed time between the
arrival of a vehicle on the minor leg of an inter-
High-speed. Typically where speeds of 80 km/h
section and the nose of the next vehicle on the
or faster are being considered.
major road crossing the path of the entering
vehicle.
Horizontal sight distance. The sight distance
determined by lateral obstructions alongside the
Gore area. The paved triangular area between
road and measured at the centre of the inside
the through lanes and the exit or entrance
lane.
ramps at interchanges plus the graded areas
immediately beyond the nose (off-ramp) or
I
Geometric Design Guide
Grade. The straight portion of the grade line which are at different levels at their crossing
Grade separation. A crossing of two highways Intersection sight distance. The sight distance
or roads, or a road and a railway, at different required within the quadrants of an intersection
iv
Glossary
J, K verse natural slopes are severe and changes in
Kerb. Concrete, often precast, element adja- elevation abrupt. Many trucks operate at crawl
cent to the travelled way and used for drainage speeds over substantial distances.
K-value. The distance over which a one per highway passes over the major highway.
Level of Service (LOS). A qualitative concept, road and the travelled way of parallel lanes
from LOS A to LOS F, which characterises serving a local function if these lanes are con-
acceptable degrees of congestion as perceived tained within the reserve of the major road. If
by drivers. Capacity is defined as being at LOS E. they fall outside this reserve, reference is to a
frontage road.
Median. The portion of a divided highway sep- (but usually only two) quadrants. A Par-Clo A
arating the two travelled ways for traffic in oppo- Interchange has the loops in advance of the
site directions. The median thus includes the structure and Par-Clo B Interchange has the
Modal transfer station. The public facility at a vehicle to the passenger cars in the traffic
which passengers change from one mode of stream. Usually quoted as the number of pas-
transport to another, e.g. rail to bus, passenger senger cars required to offer a similar level of
v
Glossary
to an object height of 1,3 metres, necessary for R
a passenger car to overtake a slower moving Ramp. A one-way, often single-lane, road pro-
vehicle. It is measured from the point at which viding a link between two roads that cross each
the initial acceleration commences to the point other at different levels.
where the overtaking vehicle is once again back
in its own lane. Relative gradient. The slope of the edge of the
travelled way relative to the gradeline.
PC (Point of curvature). Beginning of horizontal
curve, often referred to as the BC. Reverse Camber (RC). A superelevated section
of roadway sloped across the entire travelled
PI (Point of intersection). Point of intersection of way at a rate equal to the normal camber.
two tangents.
PVI (Point of vertical intersection). The point Road bed. The extent of the road between
where the extension of two grades intersect. shoulder breakpoints.
The initials are sometimes reversed to VPI.
Road prism. The lateral extent of the earth-
Geometric Design Guide
ramps (which could be a two-lane two-way road) the allowance (typically 0,5 metres) for rounding
vi
Glossary
Rolling terrain. The natural slopes consistently Single point urban interchange. A diamond
rise above and fall below the highway grade interchange where all the legs of the inter-
with, occasionally, steep slopes presenting change meet at a common point on the crossing
some restrictions on highway alignment. In road.
general, rolling terrain generates steeper gradi-
ents, causing truck speeds to be lower than Speed profile. The graphical representation of
those of passenger cars. the 85th percentile speed achieved along the
length of the highway segment by the design
Rural road or highway. Characterised by low- vehicle.
volume high-speed flows over extended dis-
tances. Usually without significant daily peaking Standard. A design value that may not be trans-
but could display heavy seasonal peak flows. gressed, e.g. an irreducible minimum or an
absolute maximum. In the sense of geometric
S design, not to be construed as an indicator of
Shoulder. Usable area immediately adjacent to quality, i.e. an ideal to be strived for.
the travelled way provided for emergency stop-
ping, recovery of errant vehicles and lateral sup- Stopping sight distance. The sum of the dis-
port of the roadway structure. tance travelled during a driver’s
perception/reaction time and the distance trav-
Shoulder breakpoint. The hypothetical point at elled thereafter while braking to a stop.
which the slope of the shoulder intersects the
line of the fill slope. Sometimes referred to as Superelevation. The amount of cross-slope pro-
the hinge point. vided on a curve to help counterbalance, in
combination with side friction, the centrifugal
Side friction (f). The resistance to centrifugal force acting on a vehicle traversing the curve.
force keeping a vehicle in a circular path. The
designated maximum side friction (fmax) repre-
Superelevation runoff. (Also referred to as
sents a threshold of driver discomfort and not
superelevation development) The process of
the point of an impending skid.
rotating the outside lane from zero crossfall to
Geometric Design Guide
reverse camber (RC), thereafter rotating both
Sidewalk. The portion of the cross-section
lanes to the full superelevation selected for the
reserved for the use of pedestrians.
curve.
vii
Glossary
Tangent runoff. See crown runoff V
Value engineering. A management technique in
Traffic composition. The percentage of vehicles which intensive study of a project seeks to
other than passenger cars in the traffic stream, achieve the best functional balance between
e.g. 10 per cent trucks, 5 per cent articulated cost, reliability and performance.
vehicles (semi-trailers) etc.
W
Travelled way. The lanes of the cross-section. Warrant. A guideline value indicating whether or
The travelled way excludes the shoulders. not a facility should be provided. For example,
a warrant for signalisation of an intersection
Trumpet interchange. A three-legged inter- would include the traffic volumes that should be
change containing a loop ramp and a direction- exceeded before signalisation is considered as
al ramp, creating between them the appearance a traffic control option. Note that, once the war-
of the bell of a trumpet. ranting threshold has been met, this is an indi-
cation that the design treatment should be con-
Turning roadway. Channelised turn lane at an sidered and evaluated and not that the design
at-grade intersection. treatment is automatically required.
viii
Glossary
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The geometric design of a highway or of one of demands from different sections of the commu-
its many elements is only one step in a multifac- nity as they endeavour to design safe and oper-
eted process from concept to construction. ationally efficient roads.
However, the constraints, which the physical
A major objective of any road design guide is to
elements ultimately place on the function and
ensure that designs achieve value for money
form of a highway, pervade every step in the
without any significant deleterious effect on
process. Knowledge of the parameters, which
safety. The design philosophy, systems and
govern planning and design together with their
techniques developed elsewhere in this docu-
practical application, is thus essential. These
ment have been based on the Design Speed
guidelines seek to meet that need.
approach and related geometric parameters
which will result in a much greater flexibility to
The emphasis previously of Geometric Design
achieve economic design in varied and some-
Manuals was on design standards for new con-
times difficult circumstances.
struction. The South African primary road net-
work is, however, substantially complete and In line with this, the standards in this guideline
new road works are largely limited to urban will address a spectrum of road types, varying
developments. This Manual thus deals not only from multi-lane freeways carrying traffic vol-
with new works but also pays attention to reha- umes of over 100 000 vehicles per day, to single
bilitation, reconstruction and upgrading projects. carriageway roads carrying volumes of the order
A feature of these projects is that the designer’s of 500 vehicles per day. In respect of this latter
freedom of choice is often restricted by develop- class of road design, recommendations have
ments surrounding the road to be rehabilitated. been considerably extended to allow greater
In consequence, adherence to rigidly applied flexibility in design, with particular emphasis on
standards is not possible, in addition to the fact the co-ordination of design elements to improve
that blind adherence has never been construed safety and overtaking conditions.
as a thinking designer’s approach to the prob-
Geometric Design Guide
lem at hand. The guidelines distinguish between roads in
rural areas and those in urban areas and also
These geometric design guidelines are intended
caters for situations where National Roads tra-
for use on National Roads – or on any other
verse the CBDs of smaller municipalities.
roads falling within the domain of the S A
National Roads Agency Limited. For this rea- Overall, the greater flexibility in design intro-
son, the guidelines address a wide range of duced in these guidelines will enable more eco-
functional uses and requirements. They will also nomic designs, reducing both the construction
need to cater for a multiplicity of users, and costs and the impact of new roads and road
designers will be faced with competing improvements on the environment.
1-1
Chapter 1: Design philosophy and techniques
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF FIGURES
- Intersection layouts that are simple ing and grouping of a set of components to cre-
2-1
Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
Another historic emphasis was on design for mulation of these laws states that "The change
mobility and accessibility. Design was specifi- of motion is proportional to the motive force
cally for passenger cars with some attention impressed; and is made in the direction of the
being paid to the requirements of other vehicles, right line in which that force is impressed" and
particularly at intersections. However, geomet- also that "To every action there is always
ric designers must now recognize that the road opposed an equal reaction: or, the mutual
network, particularly in dense settlements, actions of two bodies upon each other are
serves other functions in addition to mobility and always equal, and directed to contrary parts".
accessibility. Community needs, including Professor Newton clearly understood the impli-
social interaction, relaxation and commerce, are cations of these laws for he goes on to say "The
becoming ever more important. In urban areas power and use of machines consists only in this,
there is a trend towards mixed land usage. A that by diminishing the velocity we may aug-
consequence of this change is that trip lengths ment the force, and the contrary."
are shorter and modes of transport other than
By applying the laws of motion, together with
passenger cars and buses become a practical
judicious experimentation, we are able to gain a
option. Walking and cycling can be expected to
reasonable understanding of the interaction
become more pervasive in the urban environ-
between the vehicle and the roadway, as they
ment. The design process will have to make
are essentially deterministic. In essence, this
provision for these mobility options as part of the
understanding describes what a vehicle moving
total package available to the traveller.
along a road can do and not necessarily what
As there is a need to consider: the driver wishes to do. Therefore, to properly
describe a highway operating system these
• network reconstruction and rehabilita- laws must be integrated with the human factor,
tion; which includes the perceptions, reactions, toler-
• the findings of the Moving South Africa ances and failures of a wide spectrum of indi-
project; viduals under continuously changing circum-
• the whole-life economy of the road net- stances.
work;
Geometric Design Guide
The laws of motion govern the interaction of the A vehicle moving along a roadway is a highly
vehicle and the roadway. Isaac Newton's for- complex system with an infinite range of possi-
2-2
Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
bilities and outcomes. There are numerous crit- that many drivers manage to make the same
ical elements, each with its own probability of mistake at the same point along the road. While
failure. When these are factored together, the it is necessary to reconsider the role of the
sheer number of elements ensures that the Newtonian models on which geometric stan-
probability of failure of the system as a whole is dards are based, human factors require careful
very high indeed. We measure these failures as evaluation.
crashes.
2.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
According to Hauer, roads designed to pub- Commonly advocated design philosophies tend
lished standards are neither safe nor unsafe and towards the simplistic and are inclined to ignore
the linkage between standards and safety is the issues discussed in Section 2.1. In search of
largely unpremeditated. He illustrates his con- safety they place inordinate reliance on models
tention by reference to the vector diagram that derived exclusively from Newtonian dynamics.
describes the forces operating on a vehicle tra- Current philosophy is, in short, based on the
versing a superelevated curve. This is assumption that any design that accords with
Newtonian dynamics and, if it offered a proper established geometric design policies is safe
explanation of the situation, curves should theo- and that those that do not are unsafe. This is
retically have no accidents at all or, at worst, taken for granted by designers and often is
should have exactly the same accident rate as accepted by the courts when making decisions
the tangents that precede and follow them.
on questions of liability.
Furthermore, vehicles leaving the road should
be equally distributed between the inside and Despite many decades of research the complex
the outside of the curve. The reality of the situ- relationship between vehicle, roadway, driver;
ation is that the accident rate on curves is high- and operational safety is not always well under-
er than on tangents and most vehicles leaving stood. Although numerous researchers have
the road do so on the outside of the curve. investigated the relationships between accident
rates and specific geometric design elements,
Clearly, the vector diagram is not a complete or
the results were often not sufficiently definitive
sufficient exposition of the problem. For exam-
for practical use. This is due to the narrow focus
ple, drivers sometimes steer into a curve only
of this research, which, in examining the rela-
Geometric Design Guide
after they have passed its starting point and are
tionship between accidents and individual
thus obliged to follow a path with a smaller
design elements, fails to consider the interactive
radius than that provided by the designer. If the
effects of other parameters, which could lead to
designed curve is at minimum radius, the sub-
bias and mask important relationships.
minimum path actually being followed could
have unanticipated consequences. A panic From this rather unhappy state of affairs we can
reaction under these circumstances could only conclude that a new design philosophy is
cause the vehicle to swerve out of control. warranted.
While reference is made to human error as the A design philosophy should encompass two lev-
prime cause for most crashes, it is noteworthy els. In the first instance, the focus should be on
2-3
Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
Geometric Planning, which has seldom, if ever, malised expressions of particular objectives and
been discussed in Geometric Design Manuals. include:
Geometric Planning explicitly addresses the
matters discussed in Section 2.1. In a sense, it • Flexibility in highway design;
is these issues that dictate how user-friendly the • Interactive highway design;
ultimate design will be to both the road user and • Design domain concept;
the community. • Safety audits;
• Economic analysis; and
Detailed Design is about operational safety, • Value engineering.
which is the second level of geometric design.
This is the level on which Manuals typically 2.4.1 Flexibility In highway design
focus and the effectiveness and the safety of
road elements enjoy equal attention. It is pro- A review of the standards and warrants in this
posed that, in the new philosophy, safety should manual will quickly reveal that it allows some
be the prime consideration. Sacrificing safety in degree of design flexibility. The degree to which
the interests of efficiency and economy is not an this flexibility is employed in the design process
acceptable practice. is in fact, nothing more than the application of
the art and science of engineering.
A more holistic philosophy should thus be
founded on the concept of reducing the proba- In an attempt to formalise the process and to
bility of failure to the lowest possible level and, guide the designer towards appropriate choices,
furthermore, should seek to minimise the con- the United States Department of Transportation
sequences of those failures that do occur. To published a report in 1997 entitled "Flexibility in
achieve this goal, designs must begin with a Highway Design". It consists of three main sec-
clear understanding of purpose and functionali- tions: an introduction to the highway design
ty. From this foundation comes the selection of process, general guidelines referring to the
appropriate design elements followed by their major elements of highway design, and exam-
integration into the landform and its current and ples of six design projects presented as case
future use. The hallmark of professionalism in studies. The concepts described are now more
Geometric Design Guide
road design is the ability to foresee and optimize commonly referred to as "context sensitive
the conflicting objectives that are inherent in any design".
project.
The most important concept to keep in mind
2-4
Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
must consider with each project. For each later in the process. Public input can also help
potential project, designers are faced with the to assess the characteristics of the area and to
task of balancing the need for improvement of determine what physical features are most val-
the highway with the need to safely integrate the ued by the community and, thus, have the great-
design into the surrounding natural and human est potential for impact. Awareness of these val-
environments. ued characteristics at an early state will help
designers to avoid changing them during the
To accomplish this, highway designers must project, reducing the need for mitigation and the
exercise flexibility. There are a number of likelihood of controversy.
options available to aid in achieving a balanced
road design and to resolve design issues. After working with the community to define the
Among these are the following: basic project need and to assess the physical
character of the area, public involvement is nec-
• Use the flexibility available within the
essary to obtain input on design alternatives.
design standards;
Working with the affected community to solve
• Recognise that design exceptions may
be required where environmental impact design challenges as they arise is far more
consequences are great; effective than bringing the public into the
• Be prepared to re-evaluate decisions process only after major design decisions have
made earlier in the project planning and been made. The public needs to be involved at
environmental impact assessment all points in the project where there are the
phase;
greatest opportunities for changes to be made
• Lower the design speed where appropri-
in the design.
ate;
• Maintain the road's existing horizontal
and vertical geometry and cross section One of the major and continuing sources of con-
where possible; flict between highway agencies and the commu-
• Consider developing alternative design nities they serve relates to the topic of function-
standards, especially for scenic or his- al classification. In particular, the need to iden-
toric roads; and
tify the "correct" functional classification for a
• Recognise the safety and operational
particular section of highway, and a regular re-
Geometric Design Guide
impacts of various design features and
examination of functional classification as
modifications.
changes in adjacent land use take place, would
In addition to exercising flexibility, a successful resolve many potential design conflicts before
highway design process should include the pub- they take place.
lic. To be effective, the public view should be
canvassed at the outset, even before the need There are a number of other fundamental
for the project has been defined. If the primary design controls that must be balanced against
purpose and need for the improvement has not one another. These include:
been agreed on, it would be extremely difficult to • The design speed of the facility;
reach consensus on alternative design solutions • The design-year peak-hour level of
2-5
Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
service on the facility; The Design Consistency Module
• The physical characteristics of the
design vehicle; This module evaluates the operating-speed
• The capabilities of the typical driver on that estimates 85th percentile speeds on each
the facility (i.e., local residents using element along an alignment. The module gen-
• The existing and future traffic demands percentile speeds and the design speed
A suite of computer modules within the CAD The module will consist of a speed-profile model
environment is currently under development by and consistency rating measures that have
the U.S. Federal Highway Administration. When been validated and are applicable to most two-
completed, designers will have a powerful tool lane, free flowing highways in the United
with which to assess the safety effects of their States.
geometric design decisions.
The Driver/Vehicle Module
As currently planned, IHSDM will be applicable This will consist of a Driver Performance Model
to two lane highways. It is composed of six linked to a Vehicle Dynamics Model. Driver per-
modules. formance is influenced by cues from the road-
way/vehicle system (i.e., drivers modify their
The Crash Prediction Module behaviour based on feedback from the vehicle
This module will estimate crash potential for a and the roadway). Vehicle performance is, in
design alternative, including all roadway seg-
Geometric Design Guide
2-6
Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
appropriate, threshold or reference values for ance with policy will be identified, and an expla-
comparison purposes: nation of the policy violated will be provided. In
response to this information, the user may cor-
• Lateral acceleration in comparison with
rect any deficiencies, analyse the design further
discomfort, skid, and rollover threshold
using other IHSDM modules, and/or prepare a
values;
• Friction demand in comparison with the request for design exception. A summary of the
skid threshold; policy review will be provided, including a listing
• Rolling moment in comparison with the of all design elements that do not comply with
rollover threshold; policy. The categories of design elements to be
• Estimated vehicle speed in comparison verified include: horizontal alignment, vertical
with threshold speeds for discomfort,
alignment, cross section, intersections, sight
skidding, and rollover; and
distance, and access control/management.
• Vehicle path (lateral placement) relative
to the lane lines.
The Policy Review Module will notify designers
The Intersection Diagnostic Review
of any design elements that deviate from mini-
Module
ma/maxima set by the AASHTO Green Book,
This module will be used to evaluate the geo- the "Roadside Design Guide," and the "Guide
metric design of at-grade intersections on two- for the Development of Bicycle Facilities." The
lane highways and to identify possible safety Module will also have the capability of reviewing
Module will incorporate qualitative guidance design policies, such as State Department of
Book) and other design policies, design guide- with a traffic simulation model to provide infor-
lines based on past research and design guide- mation on speed, travel time, delay, passing
lines based on expert opinion. The primary rates, percentage following in platoons, traffic
conflicts and other surrogate safety measure-
Geometric Design Guide
focus is to identify combinations of geometric
design elements that suggest potential design ments. TWOPAS, a traffic simulation model for
deficiencies, even when each element consid- two-lane highways, will form the basis for this
2-7
Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
design domain would achieve an acceptable for assessment of safety and operational.
though varying, level of performance in average These improvements, as well as initiatives in the
conditions in terms of safety, operation, and assessing and auditing of scheme layouts, have
economic and environmental consequences. considerably improved the design process.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the concept. It is now practical to estimate the changes in the
level of service, cost and safety when the design
While values within the lower region of the is changed within the design domain. Where
design domain for a particular parameter are data are not available, guidance is available to
Cost or
benefit
Absolute
upper
limit
Practical lower
Absolute limit
lower
limit
Guideline
generally less safe and less operationally effi- the designer in the literature on the sensitivity of
cient, they are normally less costly than those in safety to changes in the parameter under con-
Geometric Design Guide
the upper region. In the upper region of the sideration within the design domain. These
domain, resulting designs are generally "safer" evaluations are however limited in comparison
and more efficient in operation, but may cost to the evaluation of operational adequacy or
more to construct. In fact, the design domain construction costs.
sets the limit within which parameters should be
selected for consideration within the value engi- The benefits of the design domain concept are:
neering concept. • It is directly related to the true nature of
the road design function and process,
During recent years there have been many since it places emphasis on developing
appropriate and cost-effective designs,
advances in road design and in the procedures
2-8
Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
rather than on those which simply meet Application of the concept of a design domain in
"standards"; practice presents practical challenges. In some
• It directly reflects the continuous nature cases, the concept of a design domain with
of the relationship between service, cost
upper and lower bounds, and a continuous
and safety and changes in the values of
range of values in between, may not be practi-
design dimensions. It thus reinforces
cal or desirable. Lane widths provide a good
the need to consider the impacts of
trade-offs throughout the domain and example of such a case. In these instances, it
not just when a "standards" threshold may only be necessary to consider a series of
has been crossed, and; discrete values for the dimension in question. In
• It provides an implicit link to the concept other instances, there may be no upper limit to
of "Factor of Safety" - a concept that a design domain other than what is practical or
isused in other civil engineering design
economic. In these cases, the upper boundary
processes where risk and safety are
of the design domain generally reflects typical
important.
upper level values found in practice, or the gen-
The illustration in Figure 2.2 is an example of eral threshold of cost-effective design.
how different costs and benefits may vary within
the design domain for a specific parameter - in The designer must respect controls and con-
this case shoulder width. The application of this straints to a greater or lesser degree, depending
concept to all design parameters will lead to an on their nature and significance. Often, the
optimal project design. designer is faced with the dilemma of being
2-9
Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
unable to choose design dimensions or criteria considered in the design process. If a design
that will satisfy all controls and constraints, and involves compromise, it may be more appropri-
a compromise must be reached. These are ate to vary several elements by a small amount
engineering decisions that call for experience, than to alter one element excessively. It is
insight and a good appreciation of community important that a design be balanced.
values.
2.4.4 Road safety audits
Some design criteria such as vertical clearance
at structures are inviolate. Others are less rigid
As the term implies, road safety auditing is a
and some are little more than suggestions.
structured process that brings specialised and
Some of those chosen are for safety reasons,
explicit safety knowledge to bear on a highway
some for service or capacity, while others are
project so that it can be quantitatively consid-
based on comfort or aesthetic values. The
ered. It is a formal examination of a future or
choice of design criteria is very important in the
existing project in which an independent, quali-
design process and it is essential for the design-
fied examination team reports on the accident
er to have a good understanding of their origin
potential and safety performance of the project.
and background. A design carefully prepared by
a designer who has a good understanding, not
The benefits of road safety audits include:
only of the criteria, but also of their background • A reduction in the likelihood of accidents
and foundation, and who has judiciously applied on the road network;
the community values, will probably create the • A reduction in the severity of accidents
desired level of service, safety and economy. on the road network;
• An increased awareness of safe design
practices among traffic engineers and
For many elements, a range of dimensions is
road designers;
given and the designer has the responsibility of
• A reduction in expenditure on remedial
choosing the appropriate value for a particular
measures; and
application. A designer with economy upper- • A reduction in the life-cycle cost of a
most in mind may be tempted to apply the mini- road.
mum value, reasoning that so long as the value
Geometric Design Guide
is within an accepted range, the design is "sat- Australian and New Zealand experience has
isfactory". This may or may not be the case. shown that road safety audits do not add more
than four per cent to the cost of a road project.
The designer might find it appropriate to reduce
It is, however, necessary to equate this cost to
values of design criteria, which is not necessar-
the potential benefits of the road safety audit,
ily a poor decision. However, the consequences
e.g.:
need to be thoroughly understood, particularly
• A saving in time and cost by changing
as they impacts on safety and also on the costs
project details at the planning and
and benefits. Ameliorating measures, such as
design stage rather than by changing or
the use of traffic control devices, may need to be
removing a road element once installed;
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Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
• A reduction in the likelihood of accidents By spending more money on construction, other
and therefore in accident costs; and costs may be reduced (e.g. travel time or crash-
• A reduction in the cost of litigation. es). However, additional expenditure must cre-
ate increases in benefits or reductions in other
The objectives of a road safety audit are; costs. Economic analyses can evaluate the
trade-offs between costs and benefits.
• To identify and report on the accident
potential and safety of a road project;
The analysis when applied to a road can be
• To ensure that road elements with an
highly complex, depending on the scope of the
accident potential are removed; or
project. Many formal or informal evaluations
• That the risk of crashes is reduced.
may have been carried out and decisions made,
before the geometric designer gets involved. In
Road safety can be audited at any of the follow-
extreme cases, the designer may be so con-
ing six stages, however, the sooner the better:
strained by decisions already made, that there
Stage 1 Road safety audit: Preliminary
is little or no opportunity to judge many of the
design stage
potential costs and benefits. It is, however, the
Stage 2 Road safety audit: Draft design
designer's task to incorporate those judgements
stage
into planning and design wherever that freedom
Stage 3 Road safety audit: Detailed
exists. The designer should also identify situa-
design stage
tions where policy decisions may unreasonably
Stage 4 Road safety audit: Preconstruct-
constrain a satisfactory design. When present-
ion stage
ed effectively, arguments made by designers
Stage 5 Road safety audit: Pre-opening
may affect the timing and scope of projects and
stage
also influence changes to existing policy.
Stage 6 Road safety audit: Existing facility
Economic analyses form an intrinsic part of any every point on the road. In addition, special Geometric Design Guide
civil engineering project where the "value for planning is required at every location where
Roads are essential for mobility of people and selecting design dimensions and layouts, the
goods. The benefits of mobility are attained at a designer can directly affect some of the benefits,
cost. Roads cost money to build and maintain; costs and impacts of the road, as well as allow
they consume space and affect the environ- for future expansion.
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Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
cussions of design decisions on the benefits, ment technique based on an intensive, system-
costs and impacts of the road. atic and, especially, creative study of the project
to seek the best functional balance between its
For most, if not all, road projects, the designer cost, reliability and performance.
will have some scope for value judgements,
although this will vary from place to place and In a road design context, this means that a value
from project to project, governed by policy deci- engineering exercise should be more than
sions already made. Factors that the designer merely a way of minimizing construction costs,
may be able to influence include: but that equal and explicit attention should also
be given to the important aspects of safety,
• Mobility; operational performance and quality. In fact,
• Environmental impacts; value engineering can, and sometimes does,
• Safety;
result in increased construction costs to reduce
• Capital costs;
the life-cycle costs.
• Aesthetics;
• Maintenance costs and
More and more authorities are using the con-
• Vehicle operating costs.
cept of value engineering to a more cost-effec-
In influencing these factors, the designer will be tive design. If properly applied, this approach is
guided by jurisdictional policy decisions, such as a valuable input to the design process where
the relative importance of maintenance cost ver- functional balances are evaluated explicitly and
sus capital cost or of fuel consumption and air quantitatively for the full range of life cycle costs
2.4.6 Value engineering sequences and practices. Only in this way can
the true benefits of the value engineering
designers are placed under considerable pres- team often do value engineering. However, the
Geometric Design Guide
While economy and fiscal efficiency is a key should embody value engineering in its design
goal of all designs and should continue to be so, process. If this is done, the independent value
it is essential that changes in design should be engineering process will become less neces-
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Chapter 2: Design philosophy and techniques
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Five Axle Vehicles and Multi Vehicle Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Figure 3.2: Stopping distance corrected for gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
Figure 3.3: Horizontal restrictions to stopping sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
Figure 3.4: Relationship of functional road classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33
Chapter 3
DESIGN CONTROLS
3.1 INTRODUCTION and behavioural characteristics is thus a vital
The design of a road is that of a three-dimen- input into the design task.
sional structure which should ideally be safe,
efficient, functional and economical for traffic Road users do not all behave in the same way
operations, and which should also be aestheti- and designs should cater for substantial differ-
cally pleasing in its finished form. However, the ences in the range of human characteristics and
designer uses dimensions and related criteria a wide range of responses. However, if the per-
within a design context that recognizes a series ceptual clues are clear and consistent, the task
of design controls constraining what can be of adaptation is made easier and the response
achieved. These limitations are imposed by the of drivers will be more appropriate and uniform.
characteristics of vehicle and driver perform- For roadway design this translates into some
3-1
Chapter 3: Design Controls
components of the road traffic system (the road Continuation expectancy. This is the expecta-
and the vehicle). These include inadequate or tion that the events of the immediate past will
insufficient input available for the task at hand continue. It results, for example, in small head-
(e.g. during night time driving, as a result of poor ways, as drivers expect that the leading vehicle
sight distance, or because of complex intersec- will not suddenly change speed. One particu-
tion layouts). When they become overloaded, larly perverse aspect of continuation
drivers shed part of the input to deal with that expectance is that of subliminal delineation, e.g.
judged to be more important. Most importantly, a line of poles or trees or lights at night which
drivers are imperfect decision-makers and may suggests to the driver that the road continues
make errors, including in the selection of what straight ahead when, in fact, it veers left or right.
input to shed. These indications are subtle, but should always
be looked out for during design.
The designer must provide all the information
the driver needs to make a correct decision
Event expectancy. This is the expectation that
timeously, simultaneously ensuring that the
events that have not happened will not happen.
information is provided at a tempo that does not
It results, for example, in disregard for "at grade"
exceed the driver's ability to absorb it. In the
railway crossings and perhaps for minor inter-
words of the American Association of State
sections as well, because drivers expect that no
Highway and Transportation Officials: (AASH-
hazard will present itself where none has been
TO)
seen before. A response to this situation is
‘A common characteristic of many high-acci- more positive control, such as an active warning
dent locations is that they place large or device at railway crossings that requires that the
unusual demands on the information-pro- driver respond to the device and not to the pres-
cessing capabilities of drivers. Inefficient ence of a hazard.
operation and accidents usually occur where
the chance for information-handling errors is
Temporal expectancy. This is the expectation
high. At locations where the design is defi-
that, where events are cyclic (e.g. traffic sig-
cient, the possibility of error and inappropriate
nals), the longer a given state prevails, the
driver performance increases.'
Geometric Design Guide
Prior experience develops into a set of This, of course, is a perfectly reasonable expec-
expectancies that allows for anticipation and for- tation, but it can result in inconsistent respons-
ward planning, and these enable the driver to es. For example, some drivers may accelerate
and successful ways. If these expectancies are ingly likely that it will change, whereas others
violated, problems are likely to occur, either as a may decelerate. A response to this is to ensure,
result of a wrong decision or of an inordinately to the extent possible, that there is consistency
long reaction time. There are three types of throughout the road traffic system to encourage
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
The combined effect of these expectancies is brakes. Recognition that complex decisions are
that: time-consuming leads to the axiom in highway
• drivers tend to anticipate upcoming situ- design that drivers should be confronted with
ations and events that are common to only one decision at a time, with that decision
the road they are travelling;
being binary, e.g. "Yes" or "No" rather than com-
• the more predictable the roadway fea-
plex, e.g. multiple choice. Anything up to 10
ture, the less likely will be the chance for
seconds of reaction time may be appropriate in
errors;
complex situations.
• drivers experience problems when they
are surprised;
• in the absence of evidence to the con- Design Response
trary, drivers assume that they will only
have to react to standard situations; Designers should strive to satisfy the following
• the roadway and its environment
criteria:
upstream create an expectation of
• Driver's expectations are recognized,
downstream conditions; drivers experi-
and unexpected, unusual or inconsistent
ence problems in transition areas and
design or operational situations avoided
locations with inconsistent design or
or minimized.
operation, and
• Predictable behaviour is encouraged
• expectancies are associated with all lev-
through familiarity and habit (e.g. there
els of driving performance and all
should be a limited range of intersection
aspects of the driving situation and
and interchange design formats, each
include expectancies relative to speed,
appropriate to a given situation, and
path, direction, the roadway, the envi-
similar designs should be used in similar
ronment, geometric design, traffic oper-
situations).
ations and traffic control devices.
• Consistency of design and driver behav-
iour is maintained from element to ele-
Driver Reaction ment (e.g. avoid significant changes in
It takes time to process information. After a per- design and operating speeds along a
son's eyes detect and recognize a given situa- roadway).
tion, a period of time elapses before muscular • The information that is provided should
reaction occurs. Reaction time is appreciable decrease the driver's uncertainty, not
Geometric Design Guide
increase it (e.g. avoid presenting sever-
and differs between persons. It also varies for
al alternatives to the driver at the same
the same individual, being increased by fatigue,
time).
drinking, or other causes. The AASHTO brake
• Clear sight lines and adequate sight dis
reaction time for stopping has been set at 2,5 s tances are provided to allow time for
to recognize all these factors. This value has decision-making and, wherever possi-
been adopted in South Africa. ble, margins are allowed for error and
recovery.
Often drivers face situations much more com-
plex than those requiring a simple response With the major response to drivers' require-
such as steering adjustments or applying the ments being related to consistency of design, it
3-3
Chapter 3: Design Controls
is worthwhile considering what constitutes con- between -0,04 and 0,01 results in a fair design.
sistency. Consistency has three elements that A value of less than -0,04 is not acceptable. A
are the criteria offered for the evaluation of a negative value for the difference between side
road design: friction assumed for design and the side friction
Criterion I Design consistency - which cor- demanded means that drivers are demanding
responds to relating the design speed to actual more side friction than is assumed to be avail-
driving behaviour which is expressed by the able - a potentially dangerous situation.
85th percentile speed of passenger cars under
free-flow conditions; 3.2.2 Other road users
Criterion II Operating speed consistency
which seeks uniformity of 85th percentile Pedestrians
speeds through successive elements of the The interaction of pedestrians and vehicles
road and should be carefully considered in road design,
Criterion III Consistency in driving dynam- principally because 50 per cent of all road fatal-
ics - which relates side friction assumed with ities are pedestrians.
respect to the design speed to that demanded at
the 85th percentile speed. Pedestrian actions are less predictable than
those of motorists. Pedestrians tend to select
In the case of Criterion 1, if the difference paths that are the shortest distance between
between design speed and 85th percentile two points. They also have a basic resistance to
speed on an element such as a horizontal curve changes in gradient or elevation when crossing
is less than 10 km/h, the design can be consid- roadways and tend to avoid using underpasses
ered good. A difference of between 10 km/h and or overpasses that are not convenient.
20 km/h results in a tolerable design and differ-
ences greater than 20 km/h are not acceptable. Walking speeds vary from a 15th percentile
speed of 1,2 m/s to an 85th percentile of 1,8
In the case of Criterion 2, the focus is on differ- m/s, with an average of 1,4 m/s. The 15th per-
ences in operating speed in moving from one centile speed is recommended for design pur-
element, e.g. a tangent, to another, e.g. the fol- poses.
Geometric Design Guide
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
Pedestrian safety is enhanced by the provision • Driver capability, driver culture and driv-
of: er behaviour;
• median refuge islands of sufficient width • Vehicle operating capabilities;
at wide intersections, and • The physical characteristics of the road
• lighting at locations that demand multi and its surroundings;
ple information gathering and process • Weather;
ing. • Presence of other vehicles, and
• Speed limitations (posted speed limits).
Cyclists
Bicycle use is increasing and should be consid- Speeds vary according to the impression of con-
ered in the road design process. Improvements straint imparted to the driver as a result of these
such as:
factors.
• paved shoulders;
• wider outside traffic lanes (4,2 m mini-
The objective of the designer is to satisfy the
mum) if no shoulders exist;
• bicycle-safe drainage grates; road users' demands for service in a safe and
• adjusting manhole covers to the grade, economical way. This means that the facility
and should accommodate nearly all reasonable
• maintaining a smooth, clean riding sur- demands (speed) with appropriate adequacy
face (safety and capacity) but should not fail com-
can considerably enhance the safety of a street pletely under severe load, i.e. the extremely
or highway and provide for bicycle traffic: high speeds maintained by a small percentage
At certain locations it may be appropriate to sup- of drivers. Roads should, therefore, be
plement the existing road system by providing designed to operate at a speed that satisfies
specifically designated cycle paths. The design most, but not necessarily all, drivers.
elements of cycle paths are discussed in
Chapter 4. Various studies have shown that the 85th per-
centile speed generally exceeds the posted
3.3 SPEED speed limit by a margin of at least 10 km/hr
when weather and traffic conditions are
3.3.1 General
favourable. For this reason, design speed is
Geometric Design Guide
Drivers, on the whole, are concerned with min- typically equated to the 85th percentile speed.
tion of alternate routes to gain time savings. speed is interactive. While the designer shapes
The attractiveness of a specific road or route is the elements of the road by the anticipated
generally judged by its convenience in travel speed at which they will be used, taking into
time, which is directly related to travel speed. account the inherent economic trade-offs
between construction and environmental costs
Various factors influence the speed of vehicles of alternative alignments (vertical and horizon-
on a particular road. These include: tal) to match desired travel speed, the speed at
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
which they will be used depends to a large rather than for geometric design consid-
extent on the chosen design features. erations and is aimed at encouraging
drivers to travel at appropriate speeds
3.3.2 Speed classification for all prevailing conditions.
The term "speed" is often used very loosely 3.3.3 Design speed
when describing the rate of movement of road
traffic. Road design recognizes various defini-
The most important factor in geometric design is
tions or classifications of speed, all of which are
the design speed. This was previously defined
interrelated. The sub-divisions are:
as the highest continuous speed at which indi-
• Desired Speed - the speed at which a
vidual vehicles can travel with safety on the road
driver wishes to travel, determined by a
when weather conditions are favourable, traffic
combination of motivation and comfort.
volumes are low and the design features of the
• Design Speed - the speed selected as a
safe basis to establish appropriate geo- road are the governing condition for safety. The
metric design elements for a particular current definition is simply states that the design
section of road and which should be a speed is the speed selected as the basis for
logical one with respect to topography, establishing appropriate geometric elements for
anticipated operating speed, the adja-
a section of road. These elements include hori-
cent land use and the functional classifi-
zontal and vertical alignment, superelevation
cation of the road.
and sight distance. Other elements such as
• Operating Speed - observed speeds
during free flow conditions. For an indi- lane width, shoulder width and clearance from
vidual driver, operating speed is gener- obstacles are indirectly related to design speed.
ally lower than desired speed since
operating conditions are not usually The chosen design speed should be a logical
ideal. one consistent with the road function as per-
• Running Speed - the average speed
ceived by the driver and also one that takes into
maintained over a given route while a
account the type of road, the anticipated operat-
vehicle is in motion. The running time is
ing speed, and the terrain that the road travers-
the length of the road section divided by
the time required for the vehicle to trav- es. Where a difficult condition is obvious, driv-
Geometric Design Guide
el through the section. Thus, in deter- ers are more apt to accept a lower speed than
mining the running speed, the times en where there is no apparent reason for it.
route when the vehicle is at rest are not
taken into account in the calculations. Other relevant factors include traffic characteris-
Running speeds are generally used in
tics, land costs, speed capabilities of vehicles,
road planning and capacity and service
aesthetics, economics and social or political
level analyses. The difference between
impacts. A highway of higher functional classifi-
running speed and design speed is
strongly affected by traffic volumes. cation may justify a higher design speed than a
• Posted Speed - is a speed limitation set less important facility in similar topography, par-
for reasons of safe traffic operations ticularly where the savings in vehicle operation
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
and other operating costs are sufficient to offset always possible that the signpost may be
the increased costs of right-of-way and con- obscured, illegible, removed or even simply not
struction. A low design speed, should not be perceived by the driver. Isolated design speed
assumed where the topography is such that changes are, therefore, to be avoided.
drivers are likely to travel at high speeds.
The need for a multilane cross-section suggests
When carefully selected, these factors should that traffic volumes are high. A design speed of
result in a design speed which is acceptable to at least 120 km/h should be used if the topogra-
all but a very few drivers. Above minimum phy permits. Major roads, even if two-lane two-
design values should be used where feasible way roads, should also be designed to this
though consistency is essential. speed if possible. Rolling terrain may, however,
necessitate a reduction to 100 km/h in the
When a substantial length of road is being design speed and, in the case of mountainous
designed, it is desirable to adopt a constant terrain, it may even be necessary to reduce the
design speed to maintain consistency. Changes design speed to 80 km/h.
in terrain and other physical controls may, how-
ever, dictate a change in design speed on cer- Secondary and tertiary roads may have lower
tain sections. Each section, however, should be design speeds than those advocated for the pri-
relatively long, compatible with the general ter- mary road network. However, where traffic is
rain or development through which the road likely to move at relatively high speeds on these
passes. The justification for introducing a roads, higher design speeds should be select-
reduced design speed should be obvious to the ed.
driver. A case in point is where a road leaves
relatively level terrain and starts traversing hilly There is still debate as to whether speeds
or mountainous terrain. Moreover, the introduc- greater than 120 km/h should be used for
tion of a lower or higher design speed should design purposes on freeways. Higher design
not be effected abruptly but over sufficient dis- speeds not only safeguard against early obso-
tance to encourage drivers to change speed lescence of the highway, but also provide an
gradually. increased margin of safety for those driving at
Geometric Design Guide
high speeds. That there is some validity in this
Where design speeds exceed 90 km/h the vari- statement is reflected by the fact that the design
ation between successive speeds should be lim- speed of high-type roads is now at least 120
ited to 10 km/h and, below 80 km/h, this varia- km/h as compared with 56 km/h in 1927, a
tion should be limited to 20 km/h. Where it is change brought about by the continuing
necessary to change the design speed, the new increase in vehicle performance.
design speed should apply to an extended sec-
tion of road. Even if properly signposted, isolat- The choice of a design speed for a dual car-
ed design speed variations are hazardous as riageway is much less influenced by construc-
they do not match driver expectations and it is tion cost than that for other rural roads. In prac-
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
tice, lower design speeds are often accepted on 120 km/h for unhindered vehicles on a four-lane
single carriageway roads in order to keep con- divided roadway. Use of a design speed of 130
struction costs within certain limits. There is km/h should therefore satisfy driver demands in
danger in this philosophy since, although drivers most areas.
will obviously accept lower speeds in what are
clearly difficult locations, repeated studies have
The selected design speed should be logical
shown that they do not adjust their speeds to the
and in harmony with the topography and the
importance of the facility. Instead they endeav-
functional classification of a road. Careful con-
our to operate at speeds consistent with the traf-
sideration should also be given to its relation-
fic on the facility and its physical limitations.
ship to other defined speeds. While no hard
relationships have been established, choice of
Ideally, then, design speed should be chosen to
design speed can simultaneously accommodate
reflect the 85th percentile desired speed that is
and influence desired, operating, running and
likely to materialize. This is often achievable for
posted speeds.
roads for which the primary function is mobility
and where severe physical constraints do not
exist. Limited studies in South Africa have Table 3.1 provides an indication of typical
shown that the 85th percentile speed exceeds design speeds for different classes of roads.
Geometric Design Guide
3-8
Chapter 3: Design Controls
3.3.4 Operating speed factors, the driver's initial response is to react to
the anticipated situation rather than to the actu-
Operating speed is measured under free flow al situation. In most instances, the two are sim-
conditions. The term "spot speed" is sometimes ilar enough not to create conflicts. If the initial
used to denote operating speed. For an individ- response is incorrect, operation and safety may
ual driver, operating speed is generally lower be severely affected.
than desired speed since operating conditions
are not usually ideal. When reference is made Some agencies conduct speed surveys to deter-
to the operating speed of all vehicles in the traf- mine operating speeds at various points along a
fic stream, this is taken as being the 85th per- section of roadway. The results can be com-
centile of all observed speeds. pared with the design speed, and may lead to a
policy change in the selection of design speeds.
Operating speed has a variety of uses. It is gen-
erally used as a measure of level of service at 3.3.5 Application of design speed
uninterrupted flows. It can also be used to mon-
itor the effect of flow constrictions, such as inter- Consistency of design is fundamental to good
sections or bridges. Since operating speeds at driver performance, based on satisfying the dri-
ideal sections of road are indicative of speeds ver's expectations. Design consistency exists
desired by motorists, they can be used to guide when the geometric features of a continuous
the selection of design speed on improved or section of road are consistent with the opera-
new facilities. tional characteristics as perceived by the driver.
The traditional approach to achieving design
When the design speed is less than the desired consistency has been through the application of
speed, drivers should be warned to modify their the design speed process. Once selected, the
speed, as studies have shown that crash rates design speed is used to determine values for
increase as the operating speed of a particular the geometric design elements from appropriate
vehicle deviates from the mean operating speed design domains.
of the other vehicles on the roadway.
However, application of this procedure alone
Geometric Design Guide
The typical driver can recognize or sense a log- does not guarantee design consistency. There
ical operating speed for a given roadway based are several limitations of the design speed con-
on knowledge of the system, posted speed lim- cept that should be considered during design:
its, appraisal of the ruggedness of the terrain, 1. Selection of dimensions to accommo-
traffic volumes and the extent, density and size date specified design speed does not necessar-
of development. Studies have shown that char- ily ensure a consistent alignment design.
acteristics, such as the number of access Design speed is significant only when physical
points, nearby commercial development, road road characteristics limit the speed of travel.
width and number of lanes, have a significant Thus, a road can be designed with a constant
influence on vehicle speeds. Based on these design speed, yet have considerable variation in
3-9
Chapter 3: Design Controls
speeds achievable and therefore to a driver where the design speeds are less than 100
appear to have a wide variation in character. For km/h at horizontal curves on rural two-lane high-
example, the radii of curves within a section ways.
should be consistent, not merely greater than 5. In addition, different alignment elements
the minimum value. may have quite different levels of perceived haz-
2. For horizontal alignments, design speed ard. Entering a horizontal curve too fast will
applies only to curves, not to the connecting tan- almost certainly result in loss of control, so driv-
gents. Design speed has no practical meaning ers adjust their speed accordingly. However,
on tangents. As a result, the operating speed on the possibility of a curtailed sight distance con-
a tangent, especially a long one, can often sig- cealing a hazard is considered as a remote
nificantly exceed the design speed of the road occurrence. Unfortunately drivers do not gener-
as a whole. ally adjust their speed to compensate for sight
3. The design speed concept does not distance restrictions.
ensure sufficient coordination among individual
geometric features to ensure consistency. It To help overcome these weaknesses in the use
controls only the minimum value of the maxi- of design speed to design individual geometric
mum speeds for the individual features along an elements, speed profiles are used. A speed pro-
alignment. For example, a road with an 80 km/h file is a graphical depiction (which can be mod-
design speed may have only one curve with a elled) showing how the 85th percentile operat-
design speed of 80 km/h and all other features ing speed varies along a length of road. This
with design speeds of 120 km/h or greater. As profile helps to identify undesirably large differ-
a result, operating speeds approaching the crit- entials in the 85th percentile operating speed
ical curve are likely to exceed the 80 km/h between successive geometric elements, e.g. a
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
using a road are positive controls in design and with full trailers. Buses include single unit
define several geometric design elements, buses, articulated buses and intercity buses. In
including intersections, on- and off-street park- establishing the design dimensions for the vari-
ing, site access configurations and specialized ous vehicle classes, this guide focuses on vehi-
applications such as trucking facilities. It is nec- cles in regular operation only.
essary to identify all vehicle types using the
facility, establish general class groupings and Vehicles defined in the Road Traffic Act include:
select hypothetical representative design vehi- • Passenger cars and minibuses (kom-
cles, within each design class. The dimensions bis);
used to define design vehicles are not averages • Standard single unit buses;
• Articulated buses ("Bus Train");
or maxima, nor are they legal limiting dimen-
• Two axle trucks, with and without trail-
sions. They are, in fact, typically the 85th per-
ers;
centile or 15th percentile value of any given • Three and four axle vehicles;
dimension. The design vehicles are therefore • Three, four and five axle articulated
hypothetical vehicles, selected to represent a trucks;
particular vehicle class. • Five and six axle articulated trucks, and
• Multi vehicle combinations.
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
* Distance between SU rear wheels and trailer front wheels
encroachment on adjacent lanes is permissible In terms of regulation 355 (a) of the Road Traffic
Geometric Design Guide
depending on the frequency of occurrence. Act, all vehicles must be able to describe a min-
imum turning radius not exceeding 13,1m.
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
passenger car is also an object that has to be for the purpose of measuring critical turning
seen by the driver in the cases of passing and dimensions.
intersection sight distance. Commercially available templates and computer
software define the turning envelope of vehicles
Driver Eye Height
in forward motion and also support plotting of
The passenger car is taken as the critical vehi-
the turning envelope of reversing non-articulat-
cle for driver eye height and a figure of 1,05
ed vehicles. Prediction of the reversing behav-
metres is recommended. For buses and single
iour of articulated vehicles is, however, very
unit vehicles a typical value is 1,8 metres and for
complex, mainly because this behaviour is
semi-trailer combinations the height of the eye
inherently unstable, and additional turning con-
can vary between 1,9 metres and 2,4 metres.
trols come into play.
the front overhang and the path of the inner rear used as the design vehicle for cross section ele-
wheel. This turn assumes that the outer front ments, with the car as the design vehicle for the
wheel follows the circular arc defining the mini- horizontal and vertical alignment. For most
mum turning radius as determined by the vehi- major intersections along arterial roads or with-
cle steering mechanism. in commercial areas, it is common practice to Geometric Design Guide
accommodate the semi trailer. The occasional
It is assumed that the turning movements critical larger vehicle may encroach on adjacent lanes
to the design of roadway facilities are done at while turning but not on the sidewalk.
low speeds. At these speeds, the turning
behaviour of vehicles is mainly determined by Many authorities designate and signpost specif-
their physical characteristics. The effects of fric- ic truck routes. The intersections of two truck
tion and dynamics can safely be ignored. It is routes or intersections where trucks must turn to
also assumed that groups of evenly spaced remain on a truck route should be designed to
axles mounted on a rigid bogie act in the turn as accommodate the largest semi-trailer combina-
a single axle placed at the centre of the group tion expected to be prevalent in the turning traf-
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
fic stream. Where local residential roads inter- It is also necessary to consider the terrain or
sect truck routes or arterials, the intersections obstructions on the inside of horizontal curves
should be specifically designed not to accom- when evaluating adequate sight distance.
modate trucks easily, in order to discourage
them from travelling through the residential 3.5.2 Deceleration rates
area.
Although research in North America has shown
On major haulage routes, large tractor-trailer that drivers can choose (or apply) a deceleration
combination trucks are prevalent and these of greater than 5 m/sec2, there is a large degree
routes should be designed to accommodate of variability in driver and vehicle capabilities
them. Raised channelising islands are typically and the 90th percentile deceleration is of the
omitted in recognition of low pedestrian volumes order of 3,4 m/sec2. The Institute of
and other constraints such as right of way and Transportation Engineers' Traffic Engineering
construction costs. The absence of raised Handbook states that decelerations of up to 3,0
islands also allows more manoeuvring area for m/sec2 are reasonably comfortable for passen-
large trucks. ger car occupants. This deceleration rate has
been adopted for these guidelines.
3.5 SIGHT DISTANCE
3.5.3 Object height
3.5.1 General
• Centre line barrier sight distance. stopping before reaching a small obstruction.
3-14
Chapter 3: Design Controls
A driver will usually attempt to take evasive 3.5.4 Stopping sight distance
action rather than to stop for small objects on
The minimum sight distance on a roadway
the roadway. Although not recommended as a
should be sufficient to enable a vehicle travelling
design parameter, the time available to manoeu-
at the design speed on a wet pavement to stop
vre is a useful measure when examining varia-
before reaching a stationary object in its path.
tions of geometry in restricted situations or
reconstruction projects. In this case, the appro-
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two dis-
priate object is the pavement surface.
tances:
0,15 m or less is infinitesimally small. For pass- and stopping distance, respectively.
ing sight distance, an object height of 1,30 m will These two components, using a reaction time of
allow the driver to discern the top of an oncom- 2,5 seconds and a deceleration rate of 3,0 m/s2,
ing car. A zero object height is recommended result in the relationship
where road washouts are a serious risk. It is s = v (0,694 + 0,013v)
also recommended for pavement markings in where: s = stopping sight distance, m
situations such as at intersections or inter- v = initial speed, km/h
changes, where these provide essential guid-
ance.
3-15
Chapter 3: Design Controls
Stopping sight distances calculated using this ously stated. The brake reaction time is
equation are given in Table 3.5, rounded up for assumed to be the same as for level conditions.
design purposes. Also shown in the table for The stopping sight distance for design speeds
general interest are the values of stopping sight from 30 to 130 km/h as corrected for gradient is
distance adopted in the 2000 AASHTO Policy illustrated in Figure 3.2.
on the Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, the "Green Book 2000". The sight distance at any point on the highway
is generally different in each direction, particu-
In the measurement of stopping sight distance, larly on straight roads in rolling terrain. As a
the driver's eye height is taken as being at 1,05 general rule, the sight distance available on
m and the object height is as defined in Table downgrades is longer than on upgrades, more
3.4. or less automatically providing the necessary
Geometric Design Guide
in which G is the percentage gradient divided by The recommended minimum stopping sight dis-
100, with upgrades being positive and down- tance model directly reflects the operation of
grades negative and the other terms as previ- passenger cars and trucks with antilock braking
3-16
Chapter 3: Design Controls
systems. Trucks with conventional braking sys- maximum efficiency under load;
tems require longer stopping distances from a • Uneven load between axles;
given speed than do passenger cars. However, • Propensity of truck drivers not to obey
AASHTO suggests that the truck driver is able to posted speed limits;
see the vertical features of the obstruction from • Inefficient brakes of articulated trucks,
substantially further because of the higher driv- and
er eye height. In addition, posted speed limits • Effect of curvature. where some of the
for trucks in South Africa are considerably lower friction available at the road/tyre inter-
than for passenger vehicles. Separate stopping face is used to hold the vehicle in a cir-
sight distances for trucks and passenger cars cular path.
are, therefore, not generally used in highway
design. To balance between the costs and benefits in
designing for trucks, truck stopping sight dis-
There is, however, evidence to suggest that the tances should be checked at potentially haz-
sight distance advantages provided by the high- ardous locations. In general, the deceleration
er driver eye level in trucks do not always com- rate for trucks is 1,5 m/s2. The driver's eye
pensate for their inferior braking. Some reasons height is taken as being at 1,8 m and the object
for the longer truck braking distances include: height is as defined in Table 3.4.
3-17
Chapter 3: Design Controls
if stopping sight distance is found to be inade- It should be pointed out that there are a variety
quate for trucks and it is not possible to improve of models defined for the overtaking manoeu-
the geometric design. However, it is empha- vre. The distances usually given are those
sized that provision of signage is not a substi- required to enable an overtaking driver to com-
tute for appropriate design practices. plete or abort a manoeuvre already com-
3.5.7 Passing sight distance menced, with safety. In addition to this distance,
the Austroads approach introduces a distance
On a two-lane rural road, the passing manoeu- that is needed for the driver to identify a length
vre is one of the most significant yet complex of road as a potential overtaking zone. This
and important driving tasks. The process is rel- "establishment" distance is considerably longer
atively difficult to quantify, primarily because of than the overtaking manoeuvre distance.
the many stages involved, the relative speed of
vehicles and the lengthy section of road needed Table 3.6 shows the minimum overtaking sight
to complete the manoeuvre. Road safety, distances generally used for various design
capacity and service levels are all affected by speeds. Passing manoeuvres involving trucks,
the passing ability of faster vehicles. This abili- particularly in South Africa, require longer dis-
Geometric Design Guide
ty is influenced by a variety of factors, including tances than those indicated. Designers must
traffic volumes, speed differentials, road geom- take this into account for roads where significant
etry and human factors. The minimum sight dis- percentages of heavy vehicles are expected in
tance required by a vehicle to overtake safely on the traffic stream.
two-lane single carriageway roads is the dis-
tance which will enable the overtaking driver to As mentioned above, the designer should seek
pass a slower vehicle without causing an opportunities to introduce passing lanes on two-
oncoming vehicle to slow below the design speed. lane roads, particularly where the terrain limits
3-18
Chapter 3: Design Controls
sight distance. A report on a review and evalu- Limiting sight distances to those provided for
ation of research studies concluded that passing stopping may also preclude drivers from per-
and climbing lane installations reduce collision forming evasive manoeuvres, which are often
rates by 25 per cent compared to untreated two- less hazardous and otherwise preferable to
lane sections. They provide safer passing stopping. Even with an appropriate complement
opportunities for drivers who are uncomfortable of standard traffic control devices, stopping sight
in using the opposing traffic lane and for those distances may not provide sufficient visibility for
who become frustrated when few passing drivers to corroborate advance warning and to
opportunities exist, owing to terrain or traffic perform the necessary manoeuvres. It is evi-
density. dent that there are many locations such as exits
from freeways, or where lane shifts or weaving
Sections with adequate passing sight distance manoeuvres are performed where it would be
The appropriate frequency is related to operat- these circumstances, decision sight distance
ing speed, traffic volumes and composition, ter- provides the greater length that drivers need. If
rain and construction cost. As a general rule, if the driver can see what is unfolding far enough
passing sight distance cannot be economically ahead, he or she should be able to handle
merit. This three-lane cross-section has two anticipatory sight distance, is the distance
lanes in one direction and a single lane in the required for a driver to:
opposing direction. At about two to three kilo- • detect an unexpected or otherwise diffi-
cult-to-perceive information source or
metre intervals, the second lane is allocated to
hazard in a roadway environment that
movement in the opposite direction. A minimum
may be visually cluttered;
shoulder width is required as discussed in
• recognize the hazard or its potential
Chapter 4. threat;
• select an appropriate speed and path;
3.5.8 Decision sight distance and
Geometric Design Guide
• initiate and complete the required safety
manoeuvre safely and efficiently.
Stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to
allow reasonably competent and alert drivers to
Because decision sight distance gives drivers
stop under ordinary circumstances. However,
additional margin for error and affords them suf-
these distances are often inadequate when:
• Drivers must make complex decisions; ficient length to manoeuvre their vehicles at the
• Information is difficult to perceive, or same or reduced speed rather than to just stop,
• Unexpected or unusual manoeuvres are it is substantially longer than stopping sight dis-
required. tance.
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
Drivers need decision sight distances whenever traffic control devices for advance warning.
there is likelihood for error in either information Although a sight distance is offered for the right
reception, decision-making, or control actions. side exit, the designer should bear in mind that
Critical locations where these kinds of errors are exiting from the right is in total conflict with driv-
likely to occur, and where it is desirable to pro- er expectancy and is highly undesirable. The
vide decision sight distance include: only reason for providing this value is to allow
• Approaches to interchanges and inter for the remote eventuality that a right side exit
sections; has to be employed.
• Changes in cross-section such as at toll
plazas and lane drops;
In measuring decision sight distances, the 1 050
• Design speed reductions, and
mm eye height and 0 mm object height have
• Areas of concentrated demand where
there is apt to be "visual noise", e.g been adopted.
where sources of information, such as
roadway elements, opposing traffic, traf- 3.5.9 Headlight sight distance
fic control devices, advertising signs and
construction zones, compete for attention. Headlight sight distance is typically used in
establishing the rate of change of grade for sag
The minimum decision sight distances that vertical curves. At speeds above 80 km/h, only
should be provided for specific situations are large, light coloured objects can be perceived at
shown in Table 3.7. If it is not feasible to provide the generally accepted stopping sight distances.
these distances because of horizontal or vertical A five-fold light increase is necessary for a 15
curvature or if relocation is not possible, special km/h increase in speed and a 50 per cent reduc-
attention should be given to the use of suitable tion in object size.
Geometric Design Guide
3-20
Chapter 3: Design Controls
For night driving on highways without lighting, ensure that two opposing vehicles travelling in
the length of visible roadway is that which is the same lane should be able to come to a stop
directly illuminated by the headlights of the vehi- before impact. A logical basis for the determi-
cle. This length is typically shorter than the min- nation of the barrier sight distance is that it
imum sight distance. should at least equal twice the stopping dis-
tance. Values given in the South Africa Road
When headlights are operated on low beam, the Traffic Signs Manual approximate this
reduced candlepower at the source and the approach.
downward projection angle significantly restrict
the visible length of roadway surface. Barrier sight distance is measured to an object
height of 1,3 metre from an eye height of 1,05
For crest vertical curves, the area beyond the
m. . The object height is the height of an
headlight beam point of tangency with the road-
approaching passenger car.
way surface is shadowed and receives only indi-
rect illumination. Also, a general limit of 120 to
Hidden dip alignments are poor design practice,
150 metres sight distance is all that can be safe-
but are found on many rural roads. They typi-
ly assumed for visibility of an unilluminated
cally mislead drivers into believing that there is
object on a bitumen surfacing. This corre-
more sight distance available than actually
sponds to a satisfactory stopping sight distance
exists. In checking vertical alignment, designers
for 80 to 90 km/h or a decision time of about 5
should pay attention to areas where this defi-
seconds at 100 km/h.
ciency exists, and ensure that drivers are made
aware of any such inadequacies.
Since the headlight mounting height (typically
about 600 mm) is lower than the driver eye
3.5.11 Obstructions to sight distance
height (1 050 mm for design), sight distance is
on horizontal curves
controlled by the height of the vehicle headlights
and a one degree upward divergence of the light
Physical features, such as a concrete barrier
beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.
wall, a bridge pier, a tree, foliage, or the back
Any object within the shadow zone must be high
slope of a cutting, can affect available sight dis-
Geometric Design Guide
enough to extend into the headlight beam to be
tance. Accordingly, designs need to be checked
directly illuminated.
in both the horizontal and vertical planes for
Barrier sight distance is not a geometric design Minimum radii of horizontal curvature are deter-
factor, but is rather an operational guide to the mined by application of vehicle dynamics and
driver to promote safety on two-lane roads. not through sight distance controls. It is, there-
fore, possible that the selected radius may not
Barrier sight distance is the limit below which be adequate to ensure the safe stopping sight
overtaking is legally prohibited, in order to distance requirements. If the obstructions to
3-21
Chapter 3: Design Controls
sight distance are immovable, re- alignment L = lane width (m)
may be necessary. s = stopping sight distance
for specific gradient
The problem is illustrated in Figure 3.3. The dri- and design speed (m)
ver's eye is assumed to be at the centre of the from Figure 3.1.
nearside lane. The chord AB is the sight line
and the curve ACB is the stopping sight dis- Given the nature of the relationship, a trial-and-
tance. A zero gradient is assumed. It follows error approach to the solution is required.
that selection of a radius for a given distance of
obstruction from the inner lane centre line will 3.6 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
constitute an under-design if the inner lane is on
a downgrade. A road is a key element in the modern environ-
Geometric Design Guide
3-22
Chapter 3: Design Controls
ures such as screening berms or sound fences. ing landform best by avoiding disruption
In carrying out their mandate to plan and design of major topographical features;
road systems, road designers should consider • To find an alignment that uses the exist-
ing landform to good effect and which
on the one hand, making facilities aesthetically
minimizes the scale of earthworks;
pleasing and being "good neighbours" in the
• To design profiles which reflect existing
community and, on the other, providing safe and
natural slopes;
efficient transportation links to users. • To retain the least road footprint, by the
return of land to its former use;
3.6.1 Land use and landscape integra • To use existing landform to minimize
tion noise and visual intrusion: for example,
placing a road in a cutting or behind rising
With regard to environmental factors, the objec- ground to protect settlements;
tive of route selection should be to choose a • To develop new landforms, including
route that has both the minimum effect on land- mounds and false cuttings, to screen the
form and requires the smallest number of large road from settlements, and
earthworks. Integration with the existing land- • To achieve a balance between horizon-
tal and vertical alignment.
form can best be achieved by grading out cut-
tings and embankments to slopes that reflect
the surrounding topography. This in turn may 3.6.2 Aesthetics of design
affect adjacent sites of conservation or heritage
interest and, in such cases, a balance needs to
Design aesthetics and attention to landform are
be struck. A major consideration is that non-
very closely related topics. Aesthetic improve-
renewable resources, such as wetlands, should
ments can often be achieved without incurring
be avoided wherever possible.
additional costs, provided the designer
approaches the subject in a sensitive manner.
Designs should aim to achieve the best possible
In fact, alignments that are visually pleasing are
use of excavated materials, thus minimizing the
usually less hazardous than other alignments.
need for off-site spoil or borrow pits. If off-site
works are necessary, they should be subject to
On any roadway, creating pleasing appearance
the same good design principles as those used
Geometric Design Guide
is a worthwhile objective. Scenic values can be
on site, achieved by liaison with the appropriate
considered along with safety, utility, economy,
planning authority. Earthworks can only be inte-
and all the other factors considered in planning
grated successfully if the new landform and its
and design. This is particularly true of the many
soil structure allow effective strategic rehabilita-
portions of the National Road system situated in
tion. Restoration to agricultural use can be a
areas of natural beauty. The location of the
particularly effective strategy.
road, its alignment and profile, the cross section
design, and other features should be in harmo-
Design objectives should be:
To choose the route least damaging to ny with the setting. Economy consistent with
•
the landscape and which respects exist- traffic needs is of paramount importance,
3-23
Chapter 3: Design Controls
although a reasonable additional expenditure either by absorbing the noise or deflecting it
can be justified to enhance the beauty of the upwards. Strategies addressing noise levels
highway. include, for example, depressing and some-
times covering the roadway or by installing
This topic is addressed in detail in Chapter 5. sound barriers of earth or masonry. However,
these may also trap air pollutants.
3.6.3 Noise abatement
Special sound barriers may be justified at cer-
Noise is defined as an unwanted sound, a sub-
tain locations, particularly along ground level or
jective result of sounds that intrude on or inter-
elevated roads through noise-sensitive areas.
fere with activities such as conversation, think-
Concrete, wood, metal, or masonry walls are
ing, reading or sleeping. Motor vehicle noise is
very effective in deflecting noise. One of the
generated by the functioning of equipment with-
more aesthetically pleasing barriers is the earth
in the vehicle, by its aerodynamics, by the action
berm that has been graded to achieve a natural
of tyres on the roadway and, in metropolitan
form that blends with the surrounding topogra-
areas, by short-duration sounds such as braking
phy. The feasibility of berm construction should
squeal, exhaust backfires, hooters and sirens.
be planned as part of the overall grading plan for
The decrease in sound intensity with distance the roadway. There will be instances where an
from the source is influenced by several factors. effective earth berm can be constructed within
Measurements taken near roads show that dou- the normal right-of-way or with a minimal addi-
bling the distance results in a lowering of 3 dBA tional right-of-way purchase. If the right-of-way
over clean, level ground and 4,8 dBA over lush is insufficient to accommodate a three metre
A design objective is to keep noise at or below The highway air-pollution problem has two
acceptable levels and this can be achieved dimensions: the area-wide effects of primarily
3-24
Chapter 3: Design Controls
reactive pollutants; and the high concentrations If at all possible, major routes should not tra-
of largely non-reactive pollutants at points or verse such areas but should rather be located
corridors along or near roads. The motor vehi- on the higher ground surrounding inversion-
cle is a primary contributor to both forms, prone valleys, with relatively low-volume road
accounting for an estimated 70 per cent of the links serving developments in the valley areas.
CO, 50 per cent of the HC, and 30 per cent of Attention should also be paid to prevailing wind
the NOx. directions so that routes bypassing local com-
munities are located downwind of these settle-
Area-wide conditions are exacerbated when
ments.
temperature inversions trap pollutants near the
ground surface and there is little or no wind, so
3.6.5 Weather and geomorphology
that concentrations of pollutants increase. For
some individuals, eyes burn and breathing is dif-
Land shape, on a broad scale, as well as pre-
ficult. It is alleged that lives can be shortened
vailing weather conditions, which could influ-
and some deaths have actually resulted from
ence the design, are factors over which the
these exposures. Also, certain kinds of vegeta-
designer does not have any control. Certain
tion are killed, stunted, or the foliage burned.
areas of the country are prone to misty condi-
The quantity of air pollutants can be reduced by tions and others subject to high rainfall. Both
judicious design. Exhaust emissions are high are factors that have to be taken into account in
climbing a steep hill. Smooth traffic flow at con- Where these are a regular occurrence, they
stant speeds, such as in "green wave" condi- tend to lie in belts, sometimes fairly narrow,
tions on a signalised route, reduces exhaust across the landscape. Designers should
emissions in addition to leading to a reduction in acquire local knowledge about the quirks of the
noise levels. By way of contrast, speed humps, weather patterns and seek ways to reduce their
which are popular as speed-reducing devices in effect.
residential areas, have the dual penalty of
Geometric Design Guide
increased pollution and increased noise levels. Where it is not possible to avoid a mist belt, the
In rural areas, vertical alignments should be designer should pay particular attention to the
designed with a minimum of "false rises". concept of the "forgiving highway", by providing
flat side slopes and avoiding alignments where
In addition to being able to modify the quantity short radius curves follow each other in quick
of pollutants in the atmosphere, the designer succession. Steep downgrades followed by
can influence the extent to which emissions short radius horizontal curves are particularly to
impact on local communities. Temperature be avoided. A real effort should also be put into
inversions that trap polluted air are typically avoiding high fills. In conditions of heavy mist,
associated with closed or bowl-shaped valleys. vehicles will tend to move very slowly but, even
3-25
Chapter 3: Design Controls
at speeds significantly below the design speed If hourly flows are ordered from highest to low-
of the road, the restricted visibility will lead to est, it is customary, in rural areas, to design for
high levels of stress. Drivers are more likely to the thirtieth highest hourly flow, i.e that flow
make incorrect decisions when under stress and which is exceeded in only 29 hours of the year.
designers should thus do everything possible to This is because rural roads have very high sea-
keep stress levels within manageable limits. sonal peaks and it is not economical to have a
road congestion-free every hour throughout the
3.7 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS year. In urban areas, seasonal peaks are less
pronounced and the 100th highest hourly flow is
3.7.1 General considered a realistic flow level for design pur-
poses.
Factual information on expected traffic volumes
is an essential input to design. This indicates To predict hourly flows, it is necessary to know
the need for improvements and directly affects the ADT and the peaking factor, ß. The param-
the geometric features and design. eter, ß, is a descriptor of the traffic flow on a
given road and depends on factors such as the
Traffic flows vary both seasonally and during the percentage and incidence of holiday traffic, the
day. The designer should be familiar with the relative sizes of the daily peaks, etc. The peak-
extent of these fluctuations to enable him or her ing factor can fluctuate between -0,1 and -0,4. A
to assess the flow patterns. The directional dis- value of -0,1 indicates minimal seasonal peak-
tribution of the traffic and the manner in which its ing. This value of ß should be used in urban
composition varies are also important parame- designs. A value of -0,4 suggests very high
ters. A thorough understanding of the manner in seasonal peaks and would normally be applied
which all of these behave is a basic requirement to roads such as the N3. As a general rule, a
of any realistic design. value of -0,2 could be used as being a typical
value. Equation 3.1 below can be used to esti-
3.7.2 Traffic volumes mate flows between the highest and 1030th
highest hour. Although not a particularly good
Traffic flow is measured by the number of vehi- model, flows beyond the 1030th hour can be
Geometric Design Guide
cles passing a particular station during a given estimated by using a straight line relationship
period of time. Typically, the flow of interest is from the 1030th flow to zero veh/hr at the
the Average Daily Traffic (ADT). Flows may also 8760th or last hour of the year.
be reported per hour, such as the "hourly QN = 0,072ADT(N/1030)ß
observed traffic volume" or the "thirtieth-highest where QN = two-directional flow in
hour" or "hundredth-hour", which are commonly N-th hour of year (veh/h)
used for design purposes. Very short duration ADT = average daily traffic
flows, such as for a five-minute period, are typi- (veh/day)
cally applied to studies of signalised intersec- N = hour of year
tions. ß = peaking factor.
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Chapter 3: Design Controls
It is interesting to note that the peak hour factor, towards the central business district (with rela-
K, quoted in the Highway Capacity Manual is tively low outward-bound flows), whereas the
often assumed for design purposes to be 0,15. afternoon peak is in the reverse direction. It is
Reference is commonly made to the 30th high- important to realize that the design flow is actu-
est hour of the year as being the design hour. ally a composite and not a single value. A road
Applying a value of -0,2 to ß, and assuming N to must be able to accommodate the major flow in
be 30, QN according to Equation 3.1 is 0,146 x both directions.
ADT for the thirtieth highest hour.
The actual distribution to be used for design pur-
Designers need to estimate future traffic flows poses should be measured in the field. If an
for a road section. It is recommended that a existing road is to be reconstructed, the field
design period of 20 years be used for forward studies can be carried out on it beforehand. For
planning. The 30th or 100th highest flow used new facilities, measurements should be made
in the design is that occurring in the design year, on adjacent roads from which it is expected the
typically twenty years hence. Staged construc- traffic will be diverted and modelling techniques
tion or widening of roads over this period can be applied.
a feature of an economical design.
Directional distribution is relatively stable and
The capacity of rural road sections is influenced does not change materially from year to year.
by the following key characteristics: Relationships established from current traffic
• Road configuration - e.g. two-lane two- movements are normally also applicable to
way, multi-lane divided or undivided; future movements.
• Operating speed;
• Terrain;
3.7.4 Traffic composition
• Lane and shoulder width;
• Traffic composition, and
Vehicles of different sizes and mass have differ-
• Gradients.
ent operating characteristics. Trucks have a
higher mass/power ratio and occupy more road-
In the case of two-lane two- way roads, the fol-
way space than passenger cars. Consequently,
lowing additional factors are important:
Geometric Design Guide
they constitute a greater impedance to traffic
• Directional distribution of traffic flow; and
• Passing opportunities - sight distance, flow than passenger vehicles, with the overall
overtaking lanes, climbing lanes or slow vehicle effect that one truck is equivalent to several pas-
turnout lanes. senger cars. For design purposes, the percent-
age of truck traffic during the peak hours has to
3.7.3 Directional distribution be estimated.
Directional distribution of traffic is an indication For design of a particular highway, data on the
of the tidal flow during the day. In urban areas, composition of traffic should be determined from
the morning peak traffic is typically inbound traffic studies. Truck traffic is normally
3-27
Chapter 3: Design Controls
expressed as a percentage of total traffic during It is difficult to define the life of a "road" because
the design hour in the case of a two-lane road; major segments may have different lengths of
and as a percentage of total traffic in the pre- physical life. Each segment is subject to varia-
dominant direction of travel in the case of a tions in estimated life expectancy because of
multi-lane road. influences not readily subject to analysis such
as obsolescence and unexpected changes in
It is not practical to design for a heterogeneous land use, resulting in changes in traffic volumes,
traffic stream and, for this reason, trucks are pattern and load. Regardless of the anticipated
converted to equivalent Passenger Car Units physical life of the various elements of the road,
(PCUs). The number of PCU's associated with it is customary to use a single value as the
a single truck is a measure of the impedance "design life". In essence, the road is expected
that it offers to the passenger cars in the traffic to provide an acceptable level of service for this
stream. This topic is exhaustively addressed in period. Whether or not any of its various com-
the Highway Capacity Manual and is not dis- ponents have a longer physical life expectancy
cussed further here. than this design life is irrelevant. For example,
the alignment and, in some instances, the sur-
Passenger car unit equivalents have, in general, facing of roads built during Roman times are still
been derived from observations as illustrated in in use today without there being any reference
Table 3.8. The values offered serve only as a to a design life of 2 000 years.
Geometric Design Guide
3-28
Chapter 3: Design Controls
given circumstances. Factors to be taken into Physical features having considerable influence
account are the physical features of the road are the type of intersection, i.e. whether plain,
itself and the prevailing traffic conditions
channelised, roundabout or signalised, the num-
ber of intersecting traffic lanes and the adequa-
Prevailing road conditions
cy of speed-change lanes.
Capacity figures for uninterrupted flow on high-
ways have to be modified if certain minimum
Unlike the physical features of the highway,
physical design features are not adhered to.
which are literally fixed in position and have def-
Poor physical features that tend to cause a
inite measurable effects on traffic flows, the pre-
reduction in capacity are:
vailing traffic conditions are not fixed but vary
• Narrow traffic lanes. Lane widths of
from hour to hour throughout the day. Hence,
3.65 m are accepted as being the mini-
mum necessary for heavy volumes of the flows at any particular time are a function of
mixed traffic, i.e. before capacity of the the speeds of vehicles, the composition of the
lane is reduced. traffic streams and the manner in which the
• Inadequate shoulders. The narrowness, vehicles interact with each other, as well as of
or lack of, shoulders alongside a road the physical features of the roadway itself.
cause vehicles to travel closer to the
centre of the carriageway, thereby
increasing the medial traffic friction. In Capacity
addition, vehicles making emergency The term "capacity" was introduced in the USA
stops must, of necessity, park on the in the Highway Capacity Manual, in which it is
carriageway. This causes a substantial defined as "the maximum number of vehicles
reduction in the effective width of the that can pass a given point on a roadway or in a
road, thereby reducing capacity.
designated lane during one hour without the
• Side obstructions. Vertical obstructions
traffic density being so great as to cause unrea-
such as poles, bridge abutments, retain
sonable delay, hazard, or restriction to the driv-
ing walls or parked cars that are located
ers' freedom to manoeuvre under the prevailing
within about 1,5 m of the edge of the
carriageway contribute towards a reduc- roadway and traffic conditions". This definition
tion in the effective width of the outside gives a reasonable method of approach but, in
traffic lane. practice, it is necessary to choose one or more
Geometric Design Guide
• Imperfect horizontal or vertical curva- arbitrary criteria of what constitutes restriction of
ture. Long and/or steep hills and sharp traffic movement, or "congestion".
bends result in restricted sight distance.
As drivers then have reduced opportuni-
The Highway Capacity Manual procedure must
ties to pass, the capacity of the facility
however be used for specific road capacity
will be reduced.
designs.
3-29
Chapter 3: Design Controls
ations it is recommended that the capacity of a Classification of roads by design types based on
two-lane rural road be taken on average as the major geometric features (e.g. freeways) is
being between 10 000 and 12 000 vehicles per the most helpful one for road location and
day while, for freeways, consideration could be design purposes. Classification by route num-
given to changing from a four-lane to a six-lane bering is the most helpful for road traffic opera-
freeway when the traffic flow is of the order of 35 tional purposes, whilst administrative classifica-
000 to 40 000 vehicles per day. tion is used to denote the level of government
responsible for, and the method of, financing
The principal purposes of road classification are As a result of growing awareness of the interde-
to:- pendency of the various modes of transport as
Geometric Design Guide
each class, and areas, the general public is more dependent on,
• Establish a basis for developing long- and understands, a route numbering or func-
range programmes, improvement priori tional classification than on an administrative
ties and financial plans. classification of roads within the area.
3-30
Chapter 3: Design Controls
Although these guidelines are based on a Another and less comprehensive form of func-
design type classification, the three different tional classification was developed for the pur-
approaches mentioned above are briefly poses of road signing as shown in the South
described in order to provide a picture of the African Road Traffic Signs Manual. As stated in
road system hierarchy in South Africa. SARTSM,
"There are definite limits to the number of ways
3.8.2 Functional classification concept in which GUIDANCE signs and specifically
DIRECTION signs can be made to indicate with
For transportation planning purposes, road are sufficient immediate recognition potential, the
most effectively classified by function. The func- different classes into which the road network is
tional classification system adopted for the divided for signing purposes."
South African road network is illustrated in Table
3.9. This was used for the South African Rural Classification for signing thus differentiates
Road Needs Study carried out during the early mainly between numbered and unnumbered
1980s. routes and, in respect of numbered routes, also
draws a distinction between freeways and other
roads.
3-31
Chapter 3: Design Controls
Roads have two functions: to provide mobility arate levels of government each have a roads
and to provide land access. However from a function mandated to them. Despite this sepa-
design standpoint, these functions are incom- ration of authority for various classes or roads, it
patible. For mobility, high or continued speeds is essential to bear in mind that roads act as a
are desirable and variable or low speeds unde- total system or network and that the subdivision
sirable; for land access, low speeds are desir- of roads into administrative classes bears no
able and high speeds undesirable. For exam- relation to the functional type of a road under the
ple, freeways provide a high degree of mobility, control of a specific authority. The administra-
with access provided only at spaced inter- tive classification approach thus divides the
changes to preserve the high-speed, high-vol- South African road network into:
ume characteristics of the facility. The opposite • National,
3-32
Chapter 3: Design Controls
• Arterial roads other than freeways, and Design designations of these specific National
• Collector roads. Roads are as follows;
For each classification, specific design stan- Class I Primary Roads
dards and criteria and access and other policies Class IA Primary Freeways in rural
have been developed and are applied. areas
• Illustrative threshold ADT (with more
For use in the present document the following than 12% heavy vehicles) = 15 000
service or design classifications are proposed, veh/d.
3-33
Chapter 3: Design Controls
• Average travel distance on links indicat
ed by majority of trips being less than 2
hours in duration
• Form integral element of Metropolitan
Road Network
• Generally extension of Rural Freeways
(Class IA roads)
• Minimum design speed 130 km/h
Class II Primary Arterials, 4 lane sin-
gle carriageway roads
Class IIA Primary Rural Arterials
• Generally provided when 2 lane single
carriageway road reaches capacity and
freeway not financially affordable
• Ilustrative threshold ADT : 8 000 - 10
000 veh/d, with bottom end of scale
applicable where percentage of truck
traffic exceed 15 per cent
• Minimum design speed 120 km/h
Class IIB Primary Metropolitan Arterial
• Design in context in which it operates.
Class III Secondary Rural Arterial
• Provided to address inter-regional trav-
el demands, or providing access to
tourist or National resource areas
• Provided to address inter-regional trav-
el demands, or providing access to
tourist or National resource areas
• Provided to address inter-regional trav-
el demands, or providing access to
tourist or National resource areas
Geometric Design Guide
3-34
Chapter 3: Design Controls
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table 4.1: Minimum radii for various values of emax (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Table 4.2: Design domain for emax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Table 4.3: Values of superelevation for above min radii of curvature (%): emax = 4 % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Table 4.4: Values of superelevation for above min radii of curvature (%): emax = 6 % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
Table 4.5: Values of superelevation for above min radii of curvature (%): emax = 8 % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
Table 4.6: Values of superelevation for above minradii of curvature (%): emax = 10 %. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
Table 4.7: Maximum relative gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
Table 4.8: Lane adjustment factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Table 4.9: Maximum radii for use in spiral transition curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
Table 4.10: Lengths of grade for 15 km/h speed reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24
Table 4.11: Maximum gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24
Table 4.12: Minimum values of k for crest curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
Table 4.13: Minimum k-values for barrier sight distance on crest curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
Table 4.14: Minimum k-values for sag curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29
Table 4.15: Warrant for climbing lanes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35
Table 4.16: Shoulder widths for undivided rural roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-42
Table 4.17: Warrants for pedestrian footways in rural areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49
Table 4.18: Cycle lane widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-51
Table 4.19: Typical widths of roadside elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-53
Table 4.20: Scour velocities for various materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-57
LIST OF FIGURES
Regardless of the philosophy brought to bear on The horizontal alignment comprises three ele-
the design of a road or the classification of the ments: tangents, circular curves and the transi-
road in the network, the final design comprises tions between tangents and curves.
of super elevation is an element. The cross- have the properties of bearing (direction or
section is heavily disaggregated, comprising a heading) and length. Circular curves also have
large group of elements. Geometric design thus two properties; radius and deflection (or devia-
4-1
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
for the most critical conditions. The concept of 1 000 metres. If a curve radius is such that the
consistency of design, on the other hand, sug- curve either has a normal camber or a crossfall
gests that the difference between design speed of 2 per cent, the limitation on curve length falls
and operating speed should ideally be held to a away and the curve can be dealt with as though
maximum of 10 km/h, with a 20 km/h difference it were a tangent.
still representing tolerable design. This could be
construed as a recommendation that minimum Broken-back (also referred to as "flat back")
curvature represents the ideal, which is wholly curves are a combination of two curves in the
at variance with the historic approach to selec- same direction with an intervening short tan-
tion of curve radius. What is actually intended gent. These should be avoided on the twin
however is that the designer should seek to grounds of aesthetics and safety. Not only are
employ the highest possible value of design broken-back curves unsightly but drivers do not
speed for any given circumstance. always recognize the short intervening tangent
and select a path corresponding to the radius of
For small deflection angles, curves should be the first curve approached, hence leaving the
sufficiently long to avoid the appearance of a road on the inside and part way along the tan-
kink. A widely adopted guideline is that, on gent. On roads in areas with restrictive topog-
minor roads, curves should have a minimum raphy, such as mountain passes, the designer
length of 150 metres for a deflection angle of 5O may have no option but to accept the use of bro-
and that this length should be increased by 30 ken-back curves but should, nevertheless, be
metres for every 1O decrease in deflection aware of their undesirability. Where the inter-
angle. On major roads and freeways, the mini- vening tangent is longer than 500 metres, the
mum curve length in metres should be three appellation "broken-back" is no longer appropri-
times the design speed in km/h. The increase in ate.
length for decreasing deflection angle also
applies to these roads. In the case of a circular Reverse curves are also a combination of two
curve without transitions, the length in question curves but in opposite directions with an inter-
is the total length of the arc and, where transi- vening short tangent. These curves are aes-
tions are applied, the length is that of the circu- thetically pleasant but it is important to note that
Geometric Design Guide
lar curve plus half the total length of the transi- the intervening tangent must be sufficiently long
tions. to accommodate the reversal of superelevation
between the two curves.
South African practice recommends an upper
limit to the length of horizontal curves. Curves Although compound curves afford flexibility in
to the left generally restrict passing opportuni- fitting the road to the terrain and other ground
ties and, furthermore, dependant on their radius, controls, their use should be avoided outside
operation on long curves tends to be erratic. intersection or interchange areas. Once they
For this reason, it is desirable to restrict the are on a horizontal curve, drivers expect the
length of superelevated curves to a maximum of radius to remain unaltered hence supporting a
4-2
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
constant speed across the length of the curve. Obviously this would be of fairly limited duration
A compound curve is thus a violation of driver in terms of the season and the likelihood of a
expectancy and can be expected to have a cor- prolonged gradient of this magnitude, whereas
respondingly high crash rate. the east-west bearing would be a problem all
year round and over an extended period of time
4.2.2 Tangents during the day. The designer should be aware
Two fundamentally different approaches can be of this problem and, if possible, avoid selecting
adopted in the process of route determination. bearings that reduce visibility. If the dazzle
In a curvilinear approach, the curves are located problem cannot be avoided, warning signage
driver to be dazzled by the sun. The most obvi- e.g. lengths of twenty kilometres or more, have
ous example is the east-west bearing where the accident rates similar to those on minimum
vehicle would be moving towards the rising or length tangents, the lowest accident rate occur-
setting sun. No direction of travel is completely ring in a range of eight to twelve kilometres.
exempt from this problem. For example, when This range is recommended for consideration in
travelling at midday in mid-winter in a northerly fixing the maximum length of tangent on any
direction up a gradient steeper than about eight route. This maximum is based on the assump-
per cent, the sun can present a problem. tion of a design speed of 120 km/h or more. At
4-3
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
lower design speeds, it is necessary to consider constitute poor design so that, at a greater level
maximum lengths considerably shorter than of precision than the proposed rule of thumb,
eight to twelve kilometres as discussed below. three possibilities arise. These are:
• Case 1 - The length of tangent is less
As a rough rule of thumb (which is adequate for than or equal to the distance, Tmin,
planning purposes) the maximum length of tan- required to accelerate from the operat
ing peed appropriate to one curve to that
gent in metres should not exceed ten to twenty
appropriate to the next curve;
times the design speed in kilometres/hour. If the
• Case 2 - The length of tangent allows
achievable maximum length of tangent across
acceleration to a speed higher than that
the length of the route is regularly greater than appropriate to the next curve but not as
this guideline value, thought should be given to high as the desired speed remote from
consideration of a higher design speed. Rules inhibiting curves, and
of thumb have their limitations and, in this case, • Case 3 - The length of tangent, Tmax,
application should be limited to design speeds allows acceleration up to desired speed.
These cases are intended to be applied
of 100 km/h or less. At a design speed of 120
in areas where curves are to design
km/h or higher, a maximum tangent length of
speeds of 100 km/h or less.
1 200 to 2 400 metres would clearly be mean-
ingless.
To apply the guideline values of allowable speed
thumb, a design speed of 80 km/h would sug- estimate the operating speeds on the curves
gest that the maximum length of tangent should preceding and following a tangent. In the
be in the range of 800 to 1 600 metres. In this absence of information specific to South African
range, drivers would tend to maintain a fairly conditions, the international value of V85 given
constant speed of about 80 km/h. At greater in Equation 4.1 will have to be employed.
lengths of tangent, drivers would accelerate to V85 = 105,31 + 1,62 x 10-5 x B2 - 0,064 x B
lowing curve. This oscillation in speed is inher- where V85 = 85th percentile speed
below.
= 57 300/R (degrees/km)
4-4
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
where L = LCl1 + LCr + LCl2 where C = average passenger car
with LCl1 and LCl2 being the lengths of the pre- speed (km/h)
ceding and succeeding transition curves and Q = flow (veh/h)
LCr the length of the circular curve. G = gradient (per cent)
D = directional split as a
The length of tangents is to be compared with decimal fraction
the values of Tmin and Tmax that, as suggest- PT = number of trucks in the
ed, are a function of the speeds achievable on traffic stream as a dec
the curves preceding and following these tan- imal fraction
gents. The values are calculated using an PS = number of semi trailers
acceleration or deceleration rate of 0,85 m/s2 in the traffic stream as
(determined by car-following techniques and a decimal fraction.
which also corresponds to deceleration without
braking) In the absence of significant volumes of traffic
TMIN = 2
V851 - V852 2 and on a level grade, the average speed would,
(4.3)
22,03 according to this equation, be of the order of 120
km/h, suggesting that the 85th percentile speed
and estimated by Eq. 4.1 is very conservative.
TMax = 2(V85Tmax)2-(V851)2-(V852)2
22,03 (4.4) If the tangent length is shorter than TMin the tan-
gent is non-independent and it is only necessary
where V85Tmax = 85th percentile speed for the operating speeds of the two adjacent
on long tangent, i.e. curves to be within the difference ranges
V85, (km/h) described above to constitute good or tolerable
V851 = 85th percentile speed design. In essence, acceleration to the operat-
on preceding curve ing speed of the following curve could take
(km/h) place on this curve itself. Where it is necessary
V852 = 85th percentile speed to decelerate to the operating speed of the fol-
on following curve lowing curve, it will be necessary for the driver to
Geometric Design Guide
(km/h) brake in order to achieve the appropriate speed
A tangent has a bendiness of zero so that V85 at the start of the curve. It follows that, on a two-
for TMax is, according to Eq. 4.1, 105,31 km/h. lane two-way road, tangent lengths shorter than
South African research has derived an expres- TMin are potentially dangerous.
sion for average speed as given in Eq. 4.5.
Where the tangent length is just equal to TMax
C = 143,96 - 10,39 ln Q - 0,04 (G2 - the vehicle will be able to accelerate from the
5,20) - 18,08 D -33,89 PT - operating speed of the preceding curve to the
54,15 PS (4.5) desired speed and then immediately decelerate
to the operating speed of the following curve. In
4-5
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
this case, the difference between operating ceeding curves. These define, in effect, the rel-
speeds on each curve and the desired speed ative design domain of horizontal curvature on
has to be within the allowable range. any given road, i.e. the possible range of values
of radius of any curve given, the radius of the
In the case of a tangent length falling in the preceding curve.
range TMin < T < TMax , it will be necessary to
calculate the highest operating speed that can The safety of any curve is dictated not only by
be reached by accelerating at a rate of 0,85 the external factors described above but also by
m/s2 from the operating speed of the first curve, factors internal to it, namely radius, supereleva-
allowing for a deceleration at the same rate to tion, transitions and curve widening. Of these
the operating speed of the second. It is the dif- factors, the most significant is radius as
ference between this maximum operating speed research carried out in Washington State shows
and the speeds on the adjacent curves that is consistently that crash frequency increases as
critical. The maximum operating speed on a the curve radius decreases. At present, the best
tangent of this length is calculated as model shows that
A = (0,96 L + 0,0245/R - 0,012S) 0,978(3.3 x W - 30)
V85 = [11,016(T - TMin) + V8512]0,5 (4.7)
for V851 > V852 (4.6) where A = crashes/million vehi-
cles entering from both
4.2.3 Curves directions
Over the years, various theoreticians have pro- L = curve length (km)
posed a variety of polynomials as the most R = curve radius (km)
desirable forms of horizontal curvature, with S = 1, if transition
desirability presumably being determined by the curves have
aesthetics of the end resultant and usually from been provided
a vantage point not normally available to the = 0, otherwise
driver. Accident history suggests, however, that W = roadway width (lanes
drivers have enough difficulty in negotiating sim- plus shoulders) (m).
ple circular curves that have the property of pro-
Geometric Design Guide
viding a constant rate of change of bearing. It is Using this relationship, the designer would be
recommended that anything more complex than able to estimate the merits of increasing the
circular arcs should be avoided, the most note- radius of a curve. This would presumably be of
worthy exception being the loop ramp on inter- great benefit in the case where an existing road
changes. is to be upgraded or rehabilitated.
In the preceding section, relationships between It is necessary to determine the absolute bound-
operating speed and degree of curvature were aries of the design domain. The upper bound is
offered, as were acceptable differences obviously the tangent in the sense that it has a
between the operating speeds observed on suc- radius of infinite length. The lower bound is the
4-6
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
minimum radius for the selected design speed The side friction factor is a function of the condi-
and this is a function of the centripetal force nec- tion of the vehicle tyres and the road surface
essary to sustain travel along a circular path. and varies also with speed. For the purposes of
This force is developed in part by friction design, it is desirable to select a value lower
between the vehicle's tyres and the road surface than the limit at which skidding is likely to occur
and in part by the superelevation provided on and the international general practice is to
the curve. The Newtonian dynamics of the situ- select values related to the onset of feelings of
ation is illustrated in Figure 4.1. discomfort. Canadian practice suggests that the
The relationship between speed, radius, lateral side friction factor be taken as
friction and superelevation is expressed by the f = 0,21 - 0,001xV (4.9)
relationship:
e+f = V2/127 R (4.8) where V = vehicle speed (km/h).
where e = superelevation( taken
as positive when the For any given speed, it is thus only necessary to
slope is downward select the maximum rate of superelevation,
towards the centre of emax, in order to determine the minimum allow-
Geometric Design Guide
the curve) able radius of horizontal curvature for that
f = lateral or side friction speed. This selection is based on considera-
factor tions of the design domain as discussed in the
V = speed of vehicle (km/h) following section. In practice, four values of
R = radius of curvature (m). emax are used, being 4, 6, 8, and 10 per cent.
The minimum radius of curvature appropriate to
This equation is used to determine the minimum design speeds in the range of 40 km/h to 130
radius of curvature that can be traversed at any km/h for each of these values of emax is given in
given speed. Table 4.1.
4-7
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Guidelines are offered in the following section as 8 per cent, provided that this value of super-
for the selection of emax elevation is used only between intersections
and that the superelevation is sufficiently remote
4.2.4 Superelevation from the intersections for full run-off to be
achieved prior to reaching the intersection area.
The selection of the appropriate value of emax is
at the discretion of the designer in terms of the In rural areas, the range of observed speeds is
design domain concept. The higher values of relatively limited and adequate distance to allow
emax are typically applied to rural areas and the for superelevation development and runoff is
lower values to the urban environment. usually available. Climatic conditions may, how-
ever, impose limitations on the maximum value
The spatial constraints in urban areas will very of superelevation that can be applied. Icing of
often preclude the development of high values the road surface is not a typical manifestation of
of superelevation. Because of congestion and the South African climate but has been known to
Geometric Design Guide
the application of traffic control devices, the occur in various high-lying parts of the country.
speeds achieved at any point along the road Heavy rainfall reduces the available side friction
can fluctuate between zero and the posted and relatively light rain after a long dry spell also
speed - or even higher depending on the local reduces side friction. This applies particularly
level of law enforcement. Negotiating a curve to areas where the road surface is polluted by
with a superelevation of 10 per cent at a crawl rubber and oil spills, as is the case in urban
speed can present a major problem to the driv- areas and the immediately surrounding rural
er. As a general rule, urban superelevations areas. Where any of these circumstances are
should not exceed 6 per cent although, in the likely to occur, a lower value of e max is recom-
case of an arterial, this could be taken as high mended.
4-8
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
A lower value of emax should also be considered • Method 2: Side friction is first
in a road where steep gradients occur with any applied to sustain lateral acceleration down to
frequency. A superelevation of 10 per cent radii requiring fmax followed by increasing e with
would present trucks with some difficulties when reducing radius until e reaches emax. In short,
they are climbing a steep grade at low speeds. first f and then e are increased in inverse pro-
As shown in Table 7.3, the combination of a portion to the radius of curvature;
superelevation of 10 per cent and a gradient of • Method 3: Effectively the reverse
8 per cent has a resultant of 12,8 per cent at of Method 2 with first e and then f increased in
approximately 45O to the centreline. inverse proportion to the radius of curvature;
• Method 4: As for Method 3,
except that design speed is replaced by aver-
Whatever the value selected for e max, this value
age running speed, and
should be consistently applied on a regional
• Method 5: Superelevation and
basis. Its selection governs the rate of superel- side friction are in curvilinear relations with the
evation applied to all radii above the minimum. inverse of the radius of curvature, with values
Variations in emax result in curves of equal between those of Methods 1 and 3.
radius having different rates of superelevation.
Drivers select their approach speeds to curves These methods of distribution are illustrated in
on the basis of the radius that they see and not Figure 4.2.
on the degree of superelevation provided. A
lack of consistency with regard to supereleva- In terms of the design domain concept, Method
tion would almost certainly lead to differences in 2 has merit in the urban environment. As point-
side friction demand with possibly critical conse- ed out earlier, provision of adequate superele-
quences. Recommended rates of emax are vation in an environment abounding in con-
offered in Table 4.2. straints such as closely spaced intersections
There are a number of methods of distributing e to make as much use as possible of side friction
and f over a range of curves flatter than the min- before having to resort to the application of
imum for a given design speed. Five methods superelevation. It also should be noted that
are well documented by AASHTO. These are: drivers operating at relatively low speeds in an
and side friction are directly proportional to the er values of side friction than they would at high
4-9
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Method 5 is recommended for adoption in the bution for superelevation over the range of cur-
case of rural and high-speed urban roads. In vature.
practice it represents a compromise between
Methods 1 and 4. The tendency for flat to inter- Tables 4.3, 4.4, 4,5 and 4,6 provide values of e
mediate curves to be overdriven is accommo- for a range of horizontal radii and values of emax
dated by the provision of some superelevation. of 4, 6, 8, and 10 per cent respectively.
The superelevation provided sustains nearly all
lateral acceleration at running speeds (assumed Superelevation runoff
to be about 80 per cent of design speed) with
considerable side friction available for greater In the case of a two-lane road, superelevation
speeds. On the other hand, Method 1, which runoff (or runout) refers to the process of rotat-
Geometric Design Guide
avoids the use of maximum superelevation for a ing the outside lane from zero crossfall to
substantial part of the range of curve radii, is reverse camber (RC) thereafter rotating both
also desirable. Method 5 has an unsymmetrical lanes to full superelevation. Tangent (or crown)
parabolic form and represents a practical distri- runoff refers to rotation of the outside lane from
4-10
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
zero crossfall to normal camber (NC). Rotation drainage resulting in the possibility of storm
is typically around the centreline of the road water ponding on the road surface. A further
although constraints, such as driveway cause of ponding could be where the centreline
entrances or drainage in the urban environment, gradient is positive and equal to the relative gra-
may require rotation to be around the inside or dient. In this case, the inner edge of the road
outside edge. These latter alternatives result in would have zero gradient over the entire length
the distortion of the vertical alignment of the of the superelevation runoff.
road centreline and a severe slope on the road
edge being rotated, with a potentially unaesthet- Ponding is extremely dangerous for two rea-
ic end result. In the case of dual carriageway sons. The more obvious danger is that it can
cross-sections, rotation is typically around the cause a vehicle to hydroplane, causing a total
outer edges of the median island. loss of traction and steering ability. If the front
wheels are pointing in any direction other than
The designer should be sensitive to the fact that straight ahead when the vehicle moves out of
zero crossfall implies a lack of transverse the ponded water, the sudden availability of fric-
Note: NC denotes Normal Camber, i.e. 2 per cent fall from the centreline to either edge of the trav-
elled way
RC denotes Reverse Camber, i.e. 2 per cent crossfall from the outer edge of the travelled way
to the inner edge
4-11
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
tion can lead to a sharp swerve and subsequent which suggests that there is a maximum accept-
loss of control. The other possibility is that of able difference between the gradients of the
one front wheel striking the water before the axis of rotation and the pavement edge.
other, in which case the unbalanced drag could Experience indicates that relative gradients of
also lead to the vehicle swerving out of control. 0,8 and 0,35 per cent provide acceptable runoff
The designer should therefore endeavour to lengths for design speeds of 20 km/h and 130
avoid the combination of zero longitudinal gradi- km/h respectively. Interpolation between these
ent and zero crossfall. A pond depth of 15 mm values provides the relative gradients shown in
is sufficient to cause hydroplaning. In the case Table 4.7.
of worn tyres, a lesser depth will suffice.
Many States of the United States have opted for
The length of the superelevation runoff section a standard relative gradient of 1:200, whereas
is selected purely on the basis of appearance, Canada has elected to use a relative gradient of
Geometric Design Guide
Note: NC denotes Normal Camber, i.e. 2 per cent fall from the centreline to either edge of the travelled
way
RC denotes Reverse Camber, i.e. 2 per cent crossfall from the outer edge of the travelled way
to the inner edge
4-12
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Geometric Design Guide
Note: NC denotes Normal Camber, i.e. 2 per cent fall from the centreline to either edge of the trav-
elled way
RC denotes Reverse Camber, i.e. 2 per cent crossfall from the outer edge of the travelled way
to the inner edge
4-13
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
1:400 in the calculation of the length of the If the relative gradient approach to determina-
superelevation runoff. Other widely used tion of runoff length is adopted, this length is
options include adopting the distance travelled calculated as
in four seconds and previous editions of the
4.10
AASHTO policy suggested the distance trav-
elled in 2 seconds. As can be seen, there is a where L = length of supereleva
large degree of arbitrariness attaching to deter- tion runoff (m)
mination of the length of superelevation runoff. w = width of one traffic
The designer can thus vary the relative gradient lane, (m)
to accommodate other elements of the design, n = number of lanes rotated
such as the distance between successive ed = superelevation rate
curves or the distance to the following intersec- (per cent)
Geometric Design Guide
tion. It is, however, suggested that the relative ∆ = relative gradient, (per
gradients offered in Table 4.7 should provide a cent)
pleasing appearance and the designer should at b = adjustment factor for
least attempt to achieve relative gradients of a number of lanes rotated
similar magnitude.
Adjustment factor for number of lanes
4-14
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
superelevation runoff could double or treble and portion of the runoff located on the tangent and
there may simply not be enough space to allow the balance on the curve. Experience has
for these lengths. On a purely empirical basis, shown that having about 2/3 of the runoff on the
it is recommended that the calculated lengths tangent produces the best result in terms of lim-
be adjusted downwards by the lane adjustment iting lateral acceleration. If circumstances
factors offered in Table 4.8. demand, deviation by about 10 per cent from
this ratio is tolerable.
Location of superelevation runoff
The superelevation runoff and tangent runout
The two extremes of runoff location are:
are illustrated in Figure 4.3. Figures 4.4 and 4.5
• Full superelevation attained at the
show possible treatments for superelevation
beginning of the curve (BC), and
runoff on reverse and broken back curves. In
• Only tangent runout attained at the BC.
these cases, the superelevation runoff termi-
Both alternatives result in high values of lateral
nates at a crossfall of two per cent rather than
acceleration and are thus considered undesir- the more customary zero camber on the out-
able. The preferred option would be to have a side lane.
4-15
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Figure 4.4: Superelevation runoff on reverse curves
Geometric Design Guide
4-16
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
If the circular curve is preceded by a transition cubic parabola achieves a maximum value and
curve, all of the superelevation runoff should be then flattens out again and is thus not a true spi-
located on the transition curve. ral and the lemniscate requires an unacceptable
length of arc to achieve the desired radius. The
4.2.5 Transition curves clothoid, which has the relationship whereby the
radius, R, at any point on the spiral varies with
Any vehicle entering a circular curve does so by the reciprocal of the distance, L, from the start of
following a spiral path. For most curves, this the spiral, is thus the preferred option.
transition can be accommodated within the lim- Expressed mathematically, this relationship is
its of normal lane width. At minimum radii for the R = A2/L (4.11)
design speed, longer transition paths are fol- where A is a constant called the spiral parame-
lowed and, if these occur on narrow lanes, the ter and has units of length.
shift in lateral position may even lead to
encroachment on adjacent lanes. Under these The length of a transition curve may be based
circumstances, it may be convenient to shape on one of three criteria. These are:
the horizontal alignment such that it more accu- • Rate of change of centripetal accelera-
rately reflects the path actually followed by a tion, essentially a comfort factor, varying
vehicle entering the circular curve. between 0,4 m/s3 and 1,3 m/s3;
• Relative slope as proposed in Table 4.3; or
• Aesthetics.
Various curves can be used to provide a transi-
tion from the tangent to the circular curve.
Whatever form is used, it should satisfy the con- Since relative slope is applied to curves where
ditions that: transitions are not provided, its use also for tran-
• It is tangential to the straight; sitioned curves would be a sensible point of
• Its curvature should be zero (i.e. infinite departure. For the various design speeds, a
radius) on the straight; radius corresponding to a specified centripetal
• The curvature should increase (i.e.
acceleration can be calculated. These radii are
radius decrease) along the transition;
listed in Table 4.9 for an acceleration of 1,3
• Its length should be such that, at its
m/s2. There is little point in applying transition
junction with the circular curve, the full
Geometric Design Guide
super elevation has been attained; curves to larger radii where the centripetal
• It should join the circular arc tangential- acceleration would be lower.
ly, and
• The radius at the end of the transition
Setting out of transitions
should be the same as that of the circu-
lar curve.
Application of the spiral has the effect that the
Candidate curves are the lemniscate, the cubic circular curve has to be offset towards its centre.
parabola (also known as Froude's spiral), and It is thus located between new tangents that are
the clothoid (also known as Euler's spiral). The parallel to the original tangents but shifted from
4-17
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
them by an amount, s, known as the shift. The 4.2.6 Lane widening
value of the shift is given by
When vehicles negotiate a horizontal curve, the
s = L2/2R (4.12) rear wheels track inside the front wheels. In the
case of semi trailers with multiple axles and
where L = selected length of tran pivot points, this off-tracking is particularly
sition curve (m) marked. The track width of a turning vehicle,
R = radius of circular curve (m) also known as the swept path width, is the sum
of the track width on tangent and the extent of
The starting point of the spiral is located at a dis- off-tracking, with the off-tracking being a func-
tance, T, from the Point of Intersection (PI) of the tion of the radius of the turn, the number and
original tangents with location of pivot points and the length of the
wheelbase between axles. The track width is
T = (R+s) tan θ/2 + L/2 calculated as
Geometric Design Guide
(4.13)
U = u + R - (R2 - ΣLi2)0,5
(4.15)
where θ = deviation angle of the
circular curve where U = track width on curve (m)
u = track width on tangent (m)
The most convenient way to set out the spiral is R = radius of turn (m)
by means of deflection angles and chords and Li = wheel base of design
the deflection angle for any chord length, l, is vehicle between suc-
given as cessive axles and pivot
a = l2/6RL x 57,246 (4.14) points (m).
4-18
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Strictly speaking, the radius, R, should be the FA = [R2 + A(2L + A)]0,5 - R
radius of the path of the midpoint of the front (4.16)
axle. For ease of calculation, however, the
radius assumed is that of the road centreline. where FA = width of front overhang
(m)
The front overhang is the distance from the front R = radius of curve (m)
axle of the vehicle to the furthest projection of A = front overhang (m)
the vehicle body in front of the front axle. In the L = wheel base of single
case of the turning vehicle, the width of the front unit or tractor (m)
overhang is defined as the radial distance
between the path followed by the outer front The width of the rear overhang is the radial dis-
edge of the vehicle and the tyre path of the outer tance between the outside edge of the inner
front wheel. The width of the front overhang is rearmost tyre and the inside edge of the vehicle
calculated as body. In the case of a passenger car this dis-
4-19
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
tance is typically less than 0,15 m. The width of WC = N (U + C) + FA(N - 1) + Z
truck bodies is usually the same as the wheel- (4.18)
travelled way.
Z = 0,1(V/R0,5) (4.17)
4-20
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Widening is provided to make driving on a curve constant rate of change of bearing. It thus has
comparable with that on a tangent. On older a certain academic appeal.
roads with narrow cross-sections and low
design speeds and hence sharp curves, there The general equation of the parabola is
was a considerable need for widening on y = ax2 + bx +c,
curves. Because of the inconvenience attached from which it follows that the gradient, dy/dx, at
to widening the surfacing of a lane, it follows that any point along the curve is expressed as 2ax +
the required widening may not always have b and the rate of change of gradient, d2y/dx2, is
been provided. Where a road has to be rehabil- 2a. This has the meaning of extent of change
itated and it is not possible to increase the over a unit distance. Normal usage is to
radius of curvature, the designer should consid- express the rate of change in terms of the dis-
er the need for curve widening. tance required to effect a unit change of gradi-
ent. This expression is referred to as the K-
In the case of an alignment where curves in value of the curve and is equal to 1/2a. It fol-
need of widening of the travelled way follow lows that the length of a vertical curve can be
each other in quick succession, the inconven- conveniently expressed as being
ience associated with the application of curve
widening can be avoided by constructing the L = AxK (4.19)
entire section of road, including the intervening
tangents, to the additional width. where L = curve length (m)
A = algebraic difference
4.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT between the gradients
on either side of the
Vertical alignment comprises grades (often curve
referred to as tangents) and vertical curves. K = rate of change
Grades have the properties of length and gradient, 4.3.1 General controls for vertical
invariably expressed as a percentage, repre- alignment
senting the height in metres gained or lost over
Geometric Design Guide
a horizontal distance of 100 metres. On rural and high-speed urban roads, a smooth
grade line with gradual changes, which are con-
Curves may be either circular or parabolic, with sistent with the class of the road and the char-
South African practice favouring the latter. The acter of the terrain, is preferable to an alignment
practical difference between the two forms is with numerous breaks and short lengths of
insignificant in terms of actual roadway levels grades and curvature. A series of successive,
along the centreline. The parabola has the relatively sharp crest and sag curves creates a
property of providing a constant rate of change roller coaster or hidden dip profile which is aes-
of gradient with distance, which is analogous to thetically unpleasant. Hidden dips can be a
the horizontal circular curve, which provides a safety concern, although, at night, the loom of
4-21
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
approaching headlights may provide a visual Where the total change of gradient across a ver-
clue about oncoming vehicles. Such profiles tical curve is very small, e.g. less than 0,5 per
occur on relatively straight horizontal alignments cent, the K-value necessary to achieve the min-
where the road profile closely follows a rolling imum length of curve would be high. Under
natural ground line. these circumstances, the vertical curve could be
omitted altogether without there being an
A broken-back grade line, which consists of two
adverse visual impact.
vertical curves in the same direction with a short
length of intervening tangent, is aesthetically
The vertical alignment design should not be car-
unacceptable, particularly in sags where a full
ried out in isolation but should be properly coor-
view of the profile is possible. A broken plank
dinated with the horizontal alignment as dis-
grade line, where two long grades are connect-
cussed later. In addition to the controls imposed
ed by a short sag curve, is equally unaccept-
on the grade line by the horizontal alignment,
able. As a general rule, the length of a curve (in
the drainage of the road may also have a major
metres) should not be shorter than the design
impact on the vertical alignment. The top of a
speed in km/h. In the case of freeways, the min-
crest curve and the bottom of a sag imply a zero
imum length should not be less than twice the
gradient and the possibility of ponding on the
design speed in km/h and, for preference,
road surface. Where water flow off the road sur-
should be 400 metres or longer to be in scale
face is constrained by kerbs, the gradient
with the horizontal curvature. The broken-back
should be such that longitudinal flow towards
and broken-plank curves are the vertical coun-
drop inlets or breaks in the kerb line is support-
terparts of the horizontal broken-back curve and
ed. On lower-speed urban roads, drainage
the long tangent/small radius curve discussed
design may often control the grade design.
earlier. The only difference between them is
that these forms of vertical alignment are, at
There are, to date, no specific guidelines on
least, not dangerous.
consistency of vertical alignment in terms of the
In theory, vertical curves in opposite directions relative lengths of grades and values of vertical
do not require grades between them. In prac- curvature, as is the case in horizontal alignment.
tice, however, the outcome is visually not suc- However, where grades and curves are of
Geometric Design Guide
cessful. The junction between the two curves approximately equal lengths, the general effect
creates the impression of a sharp step in the of the grade line tends to be pleasing.
4-22
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
adverse effect on truck speeds and hence on length of grade" typically taken as being the dis-
the operating characteristics of the entire traffic tance over which a speed reduction of 15 km/h
stream. This effect is not limited to upgrades occurs. For a given gradient, lengths less than
because truck operators frequently adopt the the critical length result in acceptable operation
rule that speeds on downgrades should not in the desired range of speeds. Where the
exceed those attainable in the reverse direction. desired freedom of operation is to be maintained
on grades longer than the critical length, it will
It is desirable that truck speeds should not be necessary to consider alleviating measures
decrease too markedly. Apart from the opera- such as local reductions of gradient or the pro-
tional impact of low truck speeds, it has also vision of extra lanes.
been established that there is a strong correla-
tion between crash rates and the speed differ- Local research indicates that the 85th percentile
ential between trucks and passenger cars. mass/power ratio is of the order of 185 kg/kW.
American research indicates that crash rates for The performance of the 85th percentile truck is
speed reductions of less than 15 km/h fluctuate illustrated in Figure 4.7. The critical lengths of
between 1 and 5 crashes per million kilometres grade for a speed reduction of 15 km/h are
of travel increasing rapidly to of the order of 21 derived from these performance curves and are
4-23
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Section 4.4.2. Stepping the grade line, i.e. by readily be achieved under the three sets of cir-
inserting short sections of flatter gradient, as an cumstances. Other factors that should be borne
alleviating treatment is sometimes offered as in mind in selecting a maximum gradient
relief to heavy trucks at crawl speeds on steep include:
gradients. In practice, this has proved to be • traffic operations, where high volumes
ineffective because drivers of heavy trucks sim- would suggest a reduction in maximum
gradient in order to maintain an accept
ply maintain the crawl speed dictated by the
able Level of Service;
steeper gradient in preference to going through
• costs, being the whole-life cost of the
the process of working their way up and down
road and not merely its initial construc-
through the gears. tion cost;
the topography itself but the gradients that can or urban areas
4-24
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
It is the designer's responsibility to select a max- should be considered is of the order of 0,5 per
imum gradient appropriate to the project being cent. It is recommended that, even without
designed. The values offered in Table 4.11 are kerbing, gradients should not be less than 0,5
thus only intended to provide an indication of per cent. If the grade is longer than 500 metres,
gradients appropriate to the various circum- increasing the camber to 2,5 or 3,0 per cent
stances. should be considered. The latter value of cam-
ber should only be considered in areas subject
Maximum gradients on freeways should be in to heavy rainfall because it may give rise to
the range of three to four per cent regardless of problems related to steering and maintaining the
the topography being traversed. Lower order vehicle's position within its lane.
roads have been constructed to gradients as
steep as twenty per cent but it is pointed out that Crest curves are often in cut and, for the mini-
compaction with a normal 12/14 tonne roller is mum value of K for a design speed of 120 km/h,
virtually impossible on a gradient steeper than the gradient would be at a value of less than 0,5
about twelve per cent. It is recommended that per cent for a distance of 55 metres on either
this be considered the absolute maximum gradi- side of the crest. Over this distance, channel
ent that can be applied to any road. grading should be applied to the side drains. On
sag curves, the distance over which the longitu-
The minimum gradient can, in theory, be level, dinal gradient is less than 0,5 per cent is 26
i.e. zero per cent. This could only be applied to metres on either side of the lowest point at the
rural roads where storm water would be minimum K-value.
removed from the road surface by the camber
and allowed to spill over the edge of the shoul- Varying the camber between 2 per cent and 3
der. If used on a road that is kerbed, channel per cent over a distance of about 80 metres will
grading would have to be employed. Given the provide an edge grading at 0,5 per cent in the
limits of accuracy to which kerbs and channels case where the centreline gradient is flat. As an
can be constructed, the flattest gradient that alternative means of achieving adequate
4-25
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
drainage, this is more useful in theory than in by the required sight distance is contained with-
practice because shaping and compacting the in the length of the vertical curve.
road surface to have this wind in it is extremely If the curve length is shorter than the required
difficult. This method is not unknown but is not sight distance, lesser values of K can be
recommended because of the construction employed as indicated by Equation 4.21.
problem.
(4.21)
4.3.3 Curves
where K = Distance required for a
As the parameter, K, has been described as the 1 % change of gradient (m)
determinant of the shape of the parabolic curve, S = Stopping sight distance
it follows that some or other value of K can be for selected design
determined such that it provides adequate sight speed (m)
distance across the length of the curve. Sight h1 = Driver eye height (m)
distance is measured from the driver eye height, h2 = Object height (m)
h1, to a specified object height, h2. In the case A = Algebraic difference in
of a crest curve, the line of sight is taken as gradient between the
being a grazing ray to the road surface, as illus- approaching and depart-
trated in Figure 4.7. ing grades (%)
where K = Distance required for a Similar calculations can be carried out based on
1 % change of gradient passing sight distance. High values of K result
Geometric Design Guide
4-26
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Vertical curvature for barrier sight dis- specifically in cases where the actual speed dif-
tance ferentials between the overtaking and the over-
taken vehicles are greater than those applied in
On undivided roads, barrier sight distance (also the derivation of passing sight distances. K val-
referred to as non-striping sight distance) indi- ues of crest curvature corresponding to barrier
cates whether no-passing pavement markings sight distance are offered in Table 4.13.
are required. Barrier sight distance is shorter
than passing sight distance. The designer Sag curves
should attempt to provide barrier sight distance
or more wherever possible because passing During the hours of daylight or on well-lit streets
manoeuvres can often be completed in less at night, sag curves do not present any prob-
than the calculated passing sight distance lems with regard to sight distance. Under these
4-27
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
circumstances, the value of K is determined by existing pedestrian bridges, a clearance of 5,6
considerations of comfort, specifically the metres may be accepted. This is suggested
degree of vertical acceleration involved in the because pedestrian overpasses are relatively
change in gradient. The maximum comfortable light structures that are unable to absorb severe
vertical acceleration is often taken as 0,3 m/s2. impact and are more likely to collapse in such
an event. The increased vertical clearance
Where the only source of illumination is the reduces the probability of damage to the struc-
vehicle's headlights, the line of sight is replaced ture and improves the level of safety for pedes-
by a line commencing at headlight height, taken trians using it.
as being 0,6 metres, and with a divergence
angle of 1O relative to the grade line at the posi- The criteria of comfort, sight distance and verti-
tion of the vehicle on the curve. This situation is cal clearance lead to a minimum desirable
illustrated in Figure 4.9. length of sag curve. A further criterion is that of
drainage, whereby a minimum distance with a
Although not a frequent occurrence, sight dis-
gradient of less than 0,5 per cent is desired.
tance on a sag curve may be impaired by a
structure passing over the road. Checking the
Where the stopping sight distance is less than
available sight distance at an undercrossing is
the length of the curve, the value of K is given
best made graphically on the profile. In this
by Equation 4.22.
case, the line of sight is a grazing ray to the sof-
fit of the structure. The selected clearance is
thus of interest. Clearances are typically taken K = ____ S2___ (4.22)
4-28
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
The criterion of comfort, as expressed in 4.4 CROSS-SECTIONS
Equation 4.23, provides K-values roughly half of
those dictated by considerations of stopping The prime determinants of cross-section design
sight distance. are:
• The function that the road is intended to
K = V2 / 395 (4.23) serve;
where V = design speed (km/h) • The nature and volume of traffic to be
accommodated; and
K-values for sag curves, as determined by • The speed of the traffic.
4-29
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
All these needs have to be met in terms of over- these lanes or, as a further development, to pro-
all objectives of safety, economy, convenience vide cycle paths adjacent to or, for preference,
and minimum side effects. removed from the travelled lanes.
In urban areas, road functions also have to Although the horizontal and vertical alignments
include considerations of living space. People are disaggregated in the sense that they are a
enjoy casual encounters, meeting people on combination of tangents and curves, the cross-
neutral territory, as it were, without the obligation section is heavily disaggregated, comprising a
of having to act as host or hostess in the home. multitude of individual elements. These ele-
The sidewalk café, the flea market and window- ments are illustrated in Figure 4.10. Design is
shopping all have to be accommodated within thus concerned primarily with the selection of
the road reserve. All of these activities impact elements that have to be incorporated within the
on the cross-section, which has to be designed cross-section, followed by sizing of these indi-
accordingly. vidual elements.
Traffic does not exclusively comprise motorised In spite of this disaggregated approach to
vehicles. In developing areas, it may be neces- design, there are numerous combinations of
sary to make provision for animal-drawn vehi- elements that occur frequently. Cases in point
cles and, in this context, developing areas are are:
not necessarily exclusively rural. The volume of • Two-lane two-way roads;
motorised vehicles will have an impact on the • Two-plus-one roads;
design of the cross-section with regard to the • Four-lane undivided and divided roads,
and
number of lanes that have to be provided. High
• Four, six (or more) lane freeways.
volumes of moving vehicles will generate a
need for special lanes such as for turning, pass-
Each of these composite cross-sections leads to
ing, climbing or parking.
the development of a standard road reserve
In urban areas, the presence of large numbers width that often is enshrined in legislation. In
of pedestrians will require adequate provision to this section, the individual elements rather than
Geometric Design Guide
numbers may be low. refers to all those within the road reserve,
whether in vehicles or not.
Cyclists can often be accommodated on the nor-
mal travelled lanes but, when the number of Wide lanes supposedly promote the safety of
cyclists increases, it may be necessary to widen the occupants of vehicles although current evi-
4-30
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
dence suggests that there is an upper limit other protected land use. During the planning
beyond which safety is reduced by further process, it is prudent to attempt to acquire addi-
increases in lane width. The reverse side of the tional road reserve width to allow for improve-
coin is that wide lanes have a negative impact ments to traffic operations, auxiliary lanes, wider
on the safety of pedestrians attempting to cross pedestrian areas, cycle paths as well as for pro-
the road or street. South Africa has a particu- vision of utilities, streetscaping and mainte-
larly bad record in terms of pedestrian fatalities, nance considerations. This should, however,
which account for approximately half of the total not be taken to the extreme, where large tracts
number of fatalities. In devising safe cross-sec- of land are unnecessarily sterilised in anticipa-
tions, it is therefore necessary to consider the tion of some or other future eventuality.
needs of the entire population of road users and
not just those in vehicles. The location of existing major utilities, which
may be either above or below ground, and diffi-
In urban areas, it is necessary to make provision cult or costly to relocate is a fairly common
for boarding and alighting public transport pas- design control in urban areas. In particular the
sengers, disabled persons and other non-vehic- location of aboveground utilities in relation to
ular users of the facility in addition to accommo- clear zone requirements should be carefully
dating pedestrians and cyclists. In these areas, considered.
design speed usually plays a lesser role in the
design of the cross-section. In the discussion that follows, dimensions are
essentially discussed in terms of new or "green
Land availability is of particular importance in field" designs. Very often, however, the design-
urban areas. Land for the road reserve may be er does not have this level of freedom of choice.
restricted because of the existence of major For example, rehabilitation projects often
buildings or high cost of acquisition or some or require the creation of additional lanes without
4-31
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
the funding or space available for additional Similarly, a fourth lane on a 13,4 metre wide
construction. The choice then is one of either cross-section would imply lane widths of 3,1
accepting a lane or shoulder width that is nar- metres and a zero width of shoulder if the shoul-
rower than would be desired or foregoing the der rounding of 0,5 metres is to be maintained.
additional lanes. The traffic volumes necessitating consideration
of a four-lane cross-section would render such a
As discussed below, the preferred cross-section configuration of lanes and shoulders highly
for a two-lane two-way road has a total width of undesirable.
13,4 metres. This comprises lane widths of 3,7
metres and usable shoulder widths of 2,5 4.4.2 Basic Lanes
4-32
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
300 mm on either side of a vehicle 2,5 metres shoulder, or a cross fall, being a slope from one
wide. This width would only be applied to roads edge of the travelled way to the other edge.
where traffic volumes and/or speeds are expect- These slopes are provided to ensure drainage
ed to be low. of the road surface and are typically at two per
cent although, in areas where high rainfall inten-
Where traffic volumes are such that a multi-lane sities are likely to occur, the slope could be
or divided cross-section is required, 3,7 metres increased to as much as three per cent.
would be a logical width to adopt. High speeds
would also warrant this width because, on a nar- 4.4.3 Auxiliary lanes
rower lane, momentary inattention by a driver
could easily cause a vehicle to veer into the path Auxiliary lanes are located immediately adjacent
of another. Intermediate volumes and speeds to the basic lanes. They are generally short and
are adequately accommodated by a lane width are provided only to accommodate some or
In the case of a rehabilitation or reconstruction Auxiliary lanes are often used at intersections.
project, it may be necessary to add lanes to the They can be turning lanes, either to the left or to
cross-section. The cost of the additional earth- the right, or through lanes. The turning lanes
works may however be so prohibitive that the are principally intended to remove slower vehi-
funds required to upgrade the road to full 3,7 cles, or stopped vehicles waiting for a gap in
metre lanes and 3,0 metre shoulders may sim- opposing traffic, from the through traffic stream
ply not be available. The options available to hence increasing the capacity of the through
the road authority are then either not to upgrade lanes. Through auxiliary lanes are often
the road at all or to accept some lesser widths of employed at signalised intersections to match
lanes and/or shoulders. It is suggested that a the interrupted flow through the intersection
stepwise approach to the problem, first reducing area with the continuous flow on the approach
the available width of shoulder and thereafter lanes. The application and design of these
considering reductions in lane width, could be lanes are discussed in depth in Chapter 6.
adopted by. A 3,4 metre lane is reasonably Auxiliary lanes are also employed at inter- Geometric Design Guide
safe, even at a speed of 120 km/h, but is not a changes. These are through lanes and are
comfortable solution when applied over an intended to achieve lane balance where turning
extended distance. A reduction in the posted volumes are sufficient to warrant multi-lane on-
speed limit may be desirable if the lesser lane and off-ramps. They may also be used between
width is applied over several kilometres. At still closely spaced interchanges to support weav-
lower lane widths, it may be advisable to provide ing, principally replacing a merge-diverge with a
a posted speed limit of 100 km/h even for rela- Type A weave. Auxiliary lanes at interchanges
tively short sections of road. are discussed in Chapter 7.
Travelled lanes have either a camber, being a Climbing lanes and passing lanes are auxiliary
slope from the centreline towards the outside lanes employed on network links, i.e. other than
4-33
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
at intersections and interchanges. Climbing last-second manoeuvres occur. In the case of
lanes are often referred to as truck lanes, merging, such manoeuvres can be extremely
crawler lanes, overtaking lanes or passing hazardous. Reference should be made to the
lanes. The function of climbing lanes is, howev- SADC Road and Traffic Signs Manual for the
er, very different from that of passing lanes. recommended signage and road markings.
Climbing lanes remove slower vehicles from the
The lane drop should not be located so far from
traffic stream and have the effect of reducing the
the end of the need for the auxiliary lane that
number of passenger car equivalents (PCE's) in
drivers accept the increase in number of lanes
the stream. If the reduction is sufficient, the
and do not expect the reduction. Furthermore,
Level of Service (LOS) on the grade will match
the location should not be such that the lane
that on the preceding and succeeding grades.
drop is effectively concealed from the driver.
Passing lanes also remove slower traffic from
Concealment can arise from location immedi-
the stream but, in this case, the objective is pla-
ately beyond a crest curve. An "architectural"
toon dispersal, thus supporting an increase in
approach which locates the lane drop on a hor-
the capacity of the road. In short, the climbing
izontal curve and selects curve radii that result
lane seeks to match the LOS on a steep grade
in a smooth transition from two lanes to one
to that on the preceding and following flatter
across the length of the curve is a particularly
grades, whereas the passing lane improves the
subtle form of concealment that should be
capacity of the road as a whole. The ultimate
avoided at all costs. To simplify the driving task,
demonstration of the latter circumstance is the
the lane drop should be highly visible to
four-lane road, which could be described as a
approaching traffic and drivers should not be
two-lane road with continuous passing lanes in
subjected to successive decision points too
both directions.
quickly implying that lane drops should be
removed from other decision points.
From a safety point of view, it is important that
drivers are made aware of the start and, more
It is possible that the shoulder adjacent to an
particularly, the end of an auxiliary lane. The
auxiliary lane could be very narrow. However,
basic driver information requirements in the latter
for emergency use it is recommended that a
case are:
Geometric Design Guide
4-34
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
• Reduction in truck speed in association before the climbing lane is warranted. The
with a specified volume of traffic; speed reduction applied is 20 km/h from an ini-
• Reduction in LOS through one or more tial 80 km/h. The volume warrant is given in
levels, and Table 4.15 below.
• Economic analysis.
Speed reductions adopted internationally vary in the traffic stream. The addition of a volume war-
the range of 15 km/h to 25 km/h and are usual- rant increases the likelihood of a reasonable
ly intended to be applied to a single grade. The economic return on the provision of a climbing
most widely occurring value of speed reduction lane. It is conceded that performance-based
is 15 km/h, based on considerations of safety. warrants such as those described above are not
The Australian approach bases the need for intended to be - or are ever likely to be - fully
South African practice, as described in TRH17, is not concerned with the cost of modifying that
uses a combination of the speed and traffic vol- environment. The warrants suggested by the
ume as a warrant, requiring both to be met Highway Capacity Manual are:
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
• A reduction of two or more Levels of climbing lanes are variously referred to as pass-
Service in moving from the approach ing bays, turnouts or partial climbing lanes and
segment to the grade, or are typically 100 to 200 metres long. Because
• Level of Service E existing on the grade. vehicles entering the turnout do so at crawl
speeds, the tapers can be very short, e.g. twen-
The Highway Capacity Manual warrant is ty to thirty metres long, corresponding to taper
severe and does not, in any event, match the rates of 1:6 to 1:10 in the case of 3,1 metre wide
speed reduction warrant. The provision of a lanes.
climbing lane at a specific site is thus dependent
on the type of warrant selected. It is according- Climbing lanes usually have the same width as
ly suggested that, if a designer wishes to apply the adjacent basic lane. In very broken terrain,
this warrant, the reduction considered should be a reduction in width to as little as 3,1 metres can
of one or more Levels of Service, and not two or be considered because of the low speeds of
more. vehicles in the climbing lane. On the same
grounds, the shoulder width may also be
In view of the economic restraints on new con- reduced but to not less than 1,5 metres. If the
struction, a compromise between convenience shoulders elsewhere on the road are three
and cost effectiveness is required. The com- metres wide, the additional construction width
promise proposed is that, while delay - seen as required to accommodate the climbing lane and
a major criterion of Level of Service - is reduced shoulder is thus only 1,6 metres.
employed in determination of the need for provi-
sion of a climbing lane, the delay considered While the decision whether or not to provide the
would not be that suffered by the individual vehi- climbing lane could be based on the economics
cle but rather by the entire traffic stream. of the matter, the location of its terminals is
Commercially available software calculates the dependent purely on safety based on the oper-
value of the time saved during the design life of ational characteristics of truck traffic. The war-
the climbing lane and relates this to input from rant for the provision of climbing lanes in terms
the designer in respect of construction and of truck speed reduction is set at 20 km/h as
maintenance costs of the lane. described previously. It is suggested, as a safe-
Geometric Design Guide
4-36
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
length being measured on the preceding sag The terminal may take one of two possible
curve from a point halfway between the Vertical forms. One option is to provide a right-to-left
Point of Intersection (VPI) and the end of the taper merging the basic lane with the climbing
vertical curve (EVC). The full width of the climb- lane, followed by a left-to-right taper back to the
ing lane should be maintained until the point is two-lane cross-section. The motivation for this
reached where truck speed has once again layout is that faster-moving vehicles find it easy
increased to be 15 km/h less than the normal to merge with slower-moving traffic. This is its
speed on a level grade. only advantage. Should a vehicle not manage
to complete the merge before the end of the
The length of the entrance taper should be such right-to-left taper, its only refuge is the painted
that a vehicle can negotiate the reverse curve island, thereafter being confronted by an oppos-
path with the benefit of a 2 per cent crossfall on ing lane situation. Furthermore, in this layout,
the first curve followed by a negative superele- the basic lane terminates at the end of the
vation of 2 per cent on the second curve with a climbing lane with the climbing lane thereafter
short intervening tangent to allow for the rever- becoming the basic lane. This is a contradiction
sal of curvature. Ideally, it should not be neces- of the fundamental definitions of the basic and
sary for the vehicle path to encroach on the auxiliary lanes. This option is not recommend-
shoulder. These conditions can be met by a ed for two-lane roads, although it could possibly
taper which is about 100 metres long, corre- be used on multilane or divided cross-sections.
sponding to a taper rate of 1 : 27. This is
approximately half the taper rate applied to The alternative is to provide a simple taper,
interchange off-ramps, which is appropriate as, dropping the climbing lane after it has served its
in this case, the taper addresses a reverse path purpose. A vehicle that cannot complete the
and not a single change of direction. merging manoeuvre at the end of the climbing
lane has the shoulder as an escape route. This
As stated above, the exit terminal of the climb- is a safer option than that described above.
4-37
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Passing lanes there is an absence of passing opportunities.
They are aimed at platoon dispersion and local
The procedure followed in the design of the
research has demonstrated that a passing lane
alignment of a road should seek, in the first
length of about one kilometre is adequate for
instance, to provide the maximum possible
this purpose. Numerous short passing lanes
passing opportunity. Thereafter, the need for
are preferable to few long passing lanes and it is
climbing lanes should be evaluated and deci-
recommended that they be located at two, four
sions taken on where climbing lanes are to be
and eight kilometre spacings. Where traffic vol-
provided and what the lengths of these climbing
umes are low, the longest spacing can be used
lanes should be. At this stage, it is possible to
and, as traffic volumes increase, the intervening
relate the total passing opportunity to the overall
lanes can be added in a logical manner.
length of the road.
with the speeds on roads with unlimited passing As recommended for climbing lanes, the
opportunity. It is accordingly necessary for the entrance taper to a passing lane could be 100
designer to carry out an analysis based on the metres in length and the length of the exit taper
Highway Capacity Manual to establish whether double this to allow adequate time for merging
or not additional passing opportunities should vehicles to find a gap in the through flow.
be provided in order to maintain the desired Seeing that both the entrance and the exit
Level of Service. tapers signal a change in operating conditions
on the road, it is recommended that decision
Passing lanes are normally provided in areas sight distance should be available at these
where construction costs are low and where points.
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes in the cross-section. The essential point of dif-
ference lies in the fact that the passenger car is
As described above, auxiliary lanes are short usually taken as the design vehicle for basic
and are intended only to deal with a specific cir- lanes whereas the HOV lanes are designed to
cumstance. As soon as this circumstance accommodate buses. Kerb radii at intersections
changes, the auxiliary lane is dropped. HOV and the width of the turning lanes on bus routes
lanes, on the other hand, form part of the rapid should be such that buses can negotiate these
transit system of a city and can thus be provid- curves without encroaching on the adjacent
ed over a substantial distance. Whether they lanes or, more importantly, on the sidewalks.
should be considered as auxiliary lanes could
thus be debated. Bus routes typically converge on the CBD. The
HOV lanes, which, as part of the normal cross-
HOV lanes are typically applied on commuter
section, may have served well in the outlying or
routes with a view to encouraging the use of
suburban areas, could prove inadequate to
public transport or lift clubs hence reducing con-
accommodate the increased volume of bus traf-
gestion. The average occupancy of passenger
fic in the CBD. It may then be necessary to des-
cars is of the order of 1,5 persons per vehicle,
ignate various of the streets in the CBD as
whereas a municipal bus can convey 80 pas-
exclusive bus roads or, alternatively, to consider
sengers effectively replacing 50 or more pas-
a system similar to the O-Bahn routes.
senger cars in the traffic stream. In view of the
fact that buses can be 2,6 metres wide, narrow
4.4.4 Kerbing
lane widths are inappropriate to HOV lanes that,
ideally, should not be narrower than 3,6 metres,
Kerbs are raised or near-vertical elements that
i.e. allowing a clear space of 0,5 metres
are located adjacent to the travelled way and
between the sides of the vehicle and the lane
are usually used for:
markings.
• Drainage control;
• Delineation of the pavement edge; and
HOV lanes have to be policed to ensure that
• Reduction in maintenance operations
only vehicles qualifying for the privilege use
by providing protection for the edge of
Geometric Design Guide
them. Signalisation can be employed to give
surfacing.
vehicles in HOV lanes priority over other road
Kerbing is normally only applied in urban areas
users. This is described in the South African
where vehicle speeds are relatively low.
Road Traffic Signs Manual in some detail. The
combination of policing and priority usage
In rural areas, the drainage function is normally
underpins the effectiveness of HOV lanes but
accommodated by channels or open drains of
these operational issues are normally outside
various forms. Delineation is usually by means
the terms of reference of geometric design.
of an edge line or a contrasting colour on the
It is important that the designer draws a distinc- shoulder. Protection of the edge of surfacing
tion between the basic lanes and the HOV lanes can be by means of buried edge blocks or, more
4-39
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
typically, by means of a thickened edge. A thick- drainage. Perhaps their widest application is to
ened edge is simply a bitumen-filled V-shaped be found in residential areas, where vehicles
groove cut into the base course. can drive off the travelled way to park on the
verge.
Kerbs may be barrier or semi-mountable or
mountable. Barrier and semi mountable kerbs Channels are usually about 300 mm wide, thus
normally are accompanied by a channel (or gut- automatically providing an offset between the
ter) whereas the mountable kerb is, in effect, a kerb and the edge of the travelled way. Where
channel itself. channels are not provided, the offset should still
be maintained for reasons of safety.
Barrier kerbs are intended primarily to control
drainage as well as access and can inhibit slow- 4.4.5 Shoulders
moving vehicles from leaving the roadway.
When struck at high speeds, barrier kerbs can Shoulders are the usable areas immediately
result in loss of control and damage to the vehi- adjacent to the travelled way and are a critical
cle. In spite of the name, barrier kerbs are inad- element of the roadway cross-section. They
equate to prevent a vehicle from leaving the provide:
road after a high-speed impact. In addition, a • A recovery area for errant vehicles;
barrier kerb can lead to a high-speed errant • A refuge for stopped or disabled vehi-
vehicle vaulting over a barrier or guardrail. For cles;
this reason, barrier kerbing is not generally used • An area out of the travel lanes for emer-
on urban freeways and is considered undesir- gency and maintenance vehicles; and
able on expressways and arterials with design • Lateral support of the roadway structure.
speeds higher than 70 km/h. Barrier kerbs are In addition, shoulders support use of the road by
never used in conjunction with rigid concrete other modes of transport, for example cyclists
barrier systems. and pedestrians.
Semi-mountable kerbs have a face slope of 25 Regulation 298 of the regulations promulgated
mm/m to 62,5 mm/m and are considered mount- in terms of National Road Traffic Act (Act
Geometric Design Guide
able under emergency conditions. They are typ- 93/1996) prohibits driving on the shoulder
ically used on urban freeways and arterials and except that this is permitted:
also in intersections areas as a demarcation of • On a two-lane road;
raised islands. • Between the hours of sunrise and sunset,
• While being overtaken by another vehicle.
Mountable kerbs have a relatively flat sloping provided this can be done without endangering
face of 10 mm/m to 25 mm/m and can be the vehicle, other vehicles, pedestrians or prop-
crossed easily by vehicles. They are particular- erty and if persons and vehicles on the road are
ly useful as a form of lane demarcation on high- clearly discernable at a distance of at least 150
speed roads but are not effective as a form of metres.
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Considering the above applications of the shoul- Between the two extremes of 3,0 metres and
der, a stopped vehicle can be accommodated 1,0 metres, shoulder widths of 1,5 or 2,5 metres
on a shoulder that is three metres wide. There could be used in the case of intermediate traffic
is no merit in adopting a shoulder width greater volumes and speeds. These alternative shoul-
than this. The shoulder should, however, not be der widths would not normally be used for the
so narrow that a stopped vehicle could cause inner shoulders of a dual carriageway road.
congestion by forcing vehicles travelling in both Table 4.16 illustrates the application of the vari-
directions into a single lane. A partly blocked ous shoulder widths on undivided rural roads.
lane is acceptable under conditions of low
speed and low traffic volume. Assuming the Paved widths of between 1,5 and 2,5 metres
narrowest width of lane, i.e. 3,1 metres, it would should be avoided. The presence of the paving
be possible for two vehicles to pass each other may tempt a driver to move onto the shoulder to
next to a stopped car if the shoulder were not allow another vehicle to overtake, but these
less than 1,0 metres wide. Hazards, including widths cannot accommodate a moving vehicle
the edges of high fills, cause a lateral shift of with any safety.
vehicles if closer to the lane edge than 1,5
metres. Allowing for shoulder rounding of 0,5 These shoulder widths are recommended for
metres, the usable shoulder is thus 1,0 metres adoption for new construction. In the case of
wide and this should be considered the irre- rehabilitation or reconstruction projects, there
ducible minimum width of shoulder. may not be sufficient width of cross-section to
accommodate the desirable widths and some
Where the traffic situation demands a dual-car- lesser width will have to be considered. As
riageway cross-section, the greatest width of pointed out in Section 4.4.2, it may be advisable
shoulder, i.e. three metres, is called for. This to first reduce the shoulder width before consid-
width would apply to the outer shoulder. The ering reductions of lane width.
inner shoulder need only be one metre wide:
• to protect the integrity of the pavement-
The shoulder breakpoint is usually about 500
layers;
mm beyond the edge of the usable shoulder to
• to avoid drop-offs at the lane edge; and
Geometric Design Guide
allow for shoulder rounding.
• provide space for roadmarkings
provided the median island is not kerbed, thus
Where guardrails or other roadside appurte-
allowing a disabled vehicle to be moved clear of
nances have to be provided, these are located
the adjacent lane. If a barrier, such as kerbing
300 to 500 mm beyond the usable shoulder.
or a guardrail, makes the median island inac-
The shoulder breakpoint should be a further 500
cessible, the full shoulder width should be pro-
mm beyond these appurtenances, as a lesser
vided in the case of a six-lane cross section
distance will not provide the support needed by
because negotiating two lanes to reach the
a guardrail when hit by an errant vehicle.
safety of the outside shoulder (with a disabled
vehicle) could be difficult.
4-41
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
The surfacing of shoulders is recommended: should constitute adequate grounds for full sur-
• For freeways; facing of the shoulders.
• In front of guardrails;
• Where the total gradient, being the Full surfacing implies continuous surfacing
resultant of the longitudinal gradient and along the length of the road and not necessarily
the camber or superelevation, exceeds
across the full width of the shoulder, although
six per cent;
this is the desirable option. It is suggested
• Where the materials with which the
above that the minimum recommended width of
shoulders are constructed are readily
erodible, or where the availability of shoulder is 1,0 metres. If it were considered
material for maintenance of the shoul- necessary to surface the shoulder at all, there
ders is limited; would be little or no operational advantage in
• Where heavy vehicles would tend to use surfacing a lesser width than this. In the case of
the shoulder as an auxiliary lane; new construction, the designer has the option of
• In mist belts; or considering the economic merits of a relatively
• Where significant usage by pedestrians narrow surfaced shoulder vis-à-vis a wide
occurs. unsurfaced shoulder. In the case of rehabilita-
tion projects, it may be decided to retain the full
A patchwork of surfaced shoulders would be 3,0 metre shoulder but, as a cost-saving meas-
Geometric Design Guide
both unsightly and unsafe. Where the interven- ure, to surface only half of the total width.
ing lengths of unsurfaced shoulders are short, it
is suggested that they also be surfaced. As a The cross fall on surfaced shoulders is normally
guideline, it is proposed that if surfacing sixty or an extension of that on the travelled lanes.
more per cent of the shoulder is warranted, this Where shoulders are not surfaced, the cross fall
4-42
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
is normally one per cent steeper than that on the maximum stem thickness of 175 to 200 mm,
lane to allow for the rougher surface and the corresponding to the diameter of a guardrail
consequently slower rate of flow of storm water post, is recommended.
off the road surface.
4-43
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
of the order of 5,5 to 6,0 metres. This width is piped drainage system is generally available.
adequate to accommodate pedestrians as well The depressed median allows the roadbed to
as the right-turning lane. If intersections are drain into the median, specifically on curves
closely spaced, it may be necessary to apply where water from the outer carriageway is pre-
this width to the full length of the median, where- vented from draining across the inner carriage-
as with widely spaced intersections, e.g. 500 way. In the urban context, kerbing includes drop
metres or more between intersections, a lesser inlets directing storm water into the underground
width can be applied between the intersections system.
with the median being flared out by means of
active tapers at the intersections. Urban median islands are usually narrower than
their rural counterparts and do not normally
Medians with a width of nine metres or more have barriers. The barriers have to be terminat-
allow for individual grading of the two carriage- ed at every intersection and at some entrances
ways, which can be useful in rolling terrain. In so that the safety offered by the barrier is more
addition, these medians lend themselves to than offset by the hazard of the barrier ends.
landscaping and to the creation of a park like Kerbing offers a modest degree of protection to
environment. Unfortunately, they create prob- pedestrians who may be on the median while
lems at intersections by virtue of the long travel crossing the road. In addition, kerbing can, to a
distances that they impose on turning vehicles. limited extent, redirect errant vehicles back into
The incidence of crashes at intersections their own lanes.
increases with increasing width of median and,
at widths of 20 metres, the intersection should The speeds on rural roads make kerbing inap-
be designed as two intersections back-to-back, propriate in this environment, as the driver of a
with traffic control on the roadway crossing the vehicle striking a kerb at high speed would
median. The wide rural median does not trans- almost certainly lose control of the vehicle, with
late well to the urban environment so that roads this problem being compounded by the
on the outskirts of urban areas should be inevitable damage to the front wheels of the
designed with medians appropriate to a future vehicle.
urban characteristic.
Geometric Design Guide
4-44
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
4.4.7 Outer separators At an intersection, the frontage road should
either be terminated or moved a substantial dis-
The outer separator is the area between the tance away from the through lanes. This is
edges of the travelled way of the major road and intended to safeguard the operation of the inter-
the adjacent parallel road or street. It compris- section because vehicles attempting to turn
es the left shoulder of the major road, an island from the through road to a frontage road could
and the right shoulder of the adjacent road or very easily generate a queue that backs up onto
street. The outer separator serves as a buffer the through lanes. Not only is this operationally
between through traffic and local traffic on a undesirable but it could also be unsafe.
frontage or service road. It is typically applied
where the corridor has to serve the two func- Where it is anticipated that a road will have to be
tions of long distance travel and local accessi- widened at some time in the future, the width of
bility. An arterial passing through a local shop- the outer separator should be such that it can
ping area is an example of this application. accommodate the additional lane, hence min-
imising the extent of damage to the rest of the
If travel on the frontage road is one way and in road cross-section.
the same direction as that on the adjacent
through lane, the outer separator can be as nar- 4.4.8 Boulevards
row as three metres or, if barriers are provided,
two metres. Boulevards are only used in urban areas and
are similar to outer separators with regard to
At night, drivers on the through lane would find their function and location. The principal differ-
an opposing direction of flow on the frontage ence is that they separate a sidewalk and not a
road very confusing, being confronted by head- frontage road from the through lanes.
lights both to the right and to the left. Under Boulevards are a desirable feature because:
these circumstances, the width of the outer sep- • The separation between the sidewalk
arator should be substantially increased, prefer- and the vehicular traffic provides
increased safety for pedestrians and
ably doubled, to minimise the effect of the
children at play;
approaching traffic, particularly headlight glare
•
Geometric Design Guide
The probability of a pedestrian/vehicle
on non-illuminated sections of the road.
collision is reduced as the sidewalk is
Plantings or dazzle screens on the outer sepa- placed some distance from the kerb;
rator are recommended for the same reason. • Pedestrians are less likely to be
splashed by passing vehicles in wet
On rural freeways, the outer separator should weather;
be at least nine metres wide, based on the dis- • Space is provided for street furniture and
tance that an out-of-control vehicle is able to streetscaping as well as for surface and
move away from the edge of the through lane. underground utilities, and
Reference in the literature is to outer separator • Changes to the cross-slope of the side-
widths of twenty to thirty-five metres in rural walk to provide for appropriate driveway
areas. gradients are minimised using the
4-45
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
boulevard area to effect the gradient have to be provided across boulevards, the vari-
change. ation in slope should not be so drastic that vehi-
cles cannot traverse the area without scraping
The verge, showing the location and dimensions
their undersides on the ridge between the
of the boulevard, is illustrated in Figure 4.11.
boulevard and the sidewalk.
The entire area from the reserve boundary to Pedestrian accidents often occur at bus stops.
the road edge is normally sloped towards the This can be attributed to the fact that buses fre-
road to assist drainage, not only of this area but quently stop too close to the road edge, thus
of the adjacent development as well. Because obstructing oncoming drivers' view of pedestri-
Geometric Design Guide
of the impedance offered by grass to overland ans crossing the road. Under these circum-
flow, the slope of the boulevard should be at stances, a pedestrian stepping out from behind
least four per cent. Local circumstances may the bus would be moving directly into the path of
require steeper slopes but, where driveways an oncoming vehicle.
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Two approaches can be adopted to minimise The location of bus stops can have an adverse
this problem. If the bus stop is provided with impact on safety. A bus at a stop located imme-
adequate entrance and exit tapers, it is easy for diately in advance of intersections would force
buses to move well clear of the travelled way. If left-turning vehicles into a situation of heavily
space permits, a painted island can be provided reduced sight distance. Furthermore, while
between the bus stop and the travelled way so pulling out of the stop, the bus could seriously
that the stop is, in effect, a short length of auxil- influence the operation of the intersection as a
iary lane. In addition to an approach aimed at whole.
the physical dimensions of the bus stop, a fur-
ther safety measure could be the provision of Best practice suggests that bus stops should be
barriers preventing bus passengers from cross- located beyond intersections. However, they
ing the road until they have moved clear of the should not be located more than about fifty
A proposed typical layout of a bus stop is illus- Destinations for bus passengers may be on the
trated in Figure 4.12. If the frequency of service bus route itself but are more likely to be to one
on a particular road is high, e.g. where two or side or the other of the route. The close prox-
more bus routes have converged upstream of imity of the bus stop to an intersection offers
the bus stop, the length of the bus stop should passengers a convenient route to their final des-
be increased to 25 metres to accommodate two
tination. However, it is suggested that a bus
buses. If necessary, the tapers can be reduced
stop should not be located closer than about 15
to not less than 1 : 3 for design speeds of 70
metres from the kerb line of the intersecting
km/h or less.
road or street. A lesser spacing would make it
4-47
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
difficult for a left-turning bus to enter the bus driveway entrances may have to have a steeper
stop and, furthermore, may result in encroach- cross-slope than this to match the gradient of
ment on the sight triangle required by a driver on the driveways but should not exceed a cross-
the intersecting road or street. slope of five per cent.
The normal cross-slope on a sidewalk is 2 per Sidewalks are not normally provided in rural
cent. Cross-slopes steeper than this present a areas. It should, however, be noted that approx-
problem to people with walking impairments or imately half the fatalities on the South African
who are in wheel chairs. Sidewalks crossing road network are pedestrians, with many of
4-48
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
these fatalities occurring in rural areas. pacted regularly to provide pedestrians with a
Provision should therefore be made for pedes- hard surface to walk on. In high rainfall areas, a
trian safety outside urban areas. Paved foot- portion at least of the shoulder should be paved,
ways could be considered under the warranting with this paved area being at least 1,5 metres
conditions listed in Table 4.17. wide. Furthermore, the road shoulder should be
well drained to prevent the accumulation of
Footways can be as little as one metre wide, but water, which would force pedestrians to walk on
a width of 1,8 metres would allow two people to the carriageway.
walk side by side.
location immediately outside the edge of the need sufficient space to operate with safety and
usable shoulder in the case of a high volume convenience rather than simply being assigned
high-speed road. whatever space is left over after the needs of
In cases where footways are not warranted but vehicular traffic has been accommodated.
where a large number of pedestrians walk
alongside the road, the road shoulder should be The basic requirements of cyclists are:
upgraded to cater for them. The minimum width • Space to ride;
of these shoulders should be three metres. If • A smooth surface;
not surfaced, they should be bladed and com- • Speed maintenance, and
4-49
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
• Connectivity. safely. The surface of a cycle path should not
deviate from a three-metre straightedge by
The bicycle design envelope and clearances are more than 5 mm and should also be shaped to
illustrated in Figure 4.13. The one metre enve- existing features to within 5 mm.
lope allows for the width of the bicycle as well as
for erratic tracking. Adequate clearances to For bicycles to be effective as a means of trans-
fixed objects and passing vehicles should be portation, cyclists must be able easily to main-
provided, in addition to the one metre envelope. tain a steady speed with ease. Cyclists typical-
ly travel at speeds of twenty to thirty km/h some-
Bicycles have narrow tyres inflated to high pres- times reaching 50 km/h on downgrades. Once
sures and have no suspension system to speak slowed or stopped it takes considerable time
of. A smooth surface is therefore desirable for and effort to regain the desired operating speed.
bicycles to be used effectively, comfortably and Bicycle routes should thus be designed for con-
Geometric Design Guide
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
tinuous movement, avoiding steep gradients, from the roadway and from which all
rough surfaces, sharp corners, intersections or motor traffic, with the exception of main-
the need to give way to other road users. tenance vehicles, is excluded.
Cycle paths may be located within the road
• Cycle path, which is physically removed accept a steeper slope and provide for safety by
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
some other means, such as barriers. In this to provide the road and its appurtenant works.
case the steepest slope that can be used is dic- Utilities not directly connected with the road,
tated by the natural angle of repose and erodi- e.g. telephone or power lines are normally locat-
bility of the construction material. ed in the verge.
Non-cohesive materials require a slope of 1:2, In urban areas, the area between the edge of
whereas cohesive soft materials can maintain a the travelled way and the road reserve bound-
slope of 1:1,5. Cuts in firm cohesive materials ary provides space for a variety of elements
such as stiffer clays can be built to a slope of that, for convenience, are summarised in Table
1:1. Rock cuts can be constructed to a slope of 4.19.
1:0,25 (4:1) provided that the material is rea-
sonably unfissured and stable. Some of these elements have been discussed
previously. The intention is to provide the
It is stressed that the slopes suggested are only designer with a checklist of elements that should
an indication of normally used values. The be accommodated. Some elements will be
detailed design of a project should therefore mutually exclusive. For example, the use of
include geotechnical analysis, which will indi- barrier kerbs indicates that mountable kerbs
cate the steepest slopes appropriate to the con- cannot be present. Others may represent a
struction or in-situ material. Economic analysis temporary change in cross-section, for example
will indicate the height of fill above which a slope the boulevard being replaced by a bus embay-
of 1:4 should be replaced by a steeper slope ment. Yet others may overlap, for example the
and alternative provision made for safety. As a driveway approach that crosses a sidewalk.
rule of thumb, the transition from the flat slopes
to slopes dictated by the materials typically Elements that are most likely to be accommo-
occurs at a fill height of about 3 m. dated in the verge are;
• Berms intended to function as barriers
4.4.13 Verges protecting the surrounding development
from visual intrusion or noise;
• Cut and fill slopes;
The verge is defined as the area between the
•
Geometric Design Guide
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
is suggested that this clear space should ideally road itself. However, to the driver the presence
be a minimum of five metres wide with an of a pole is a hazard to be avoided and whether
absolute minimum width of three metres. the pole is carrying a power line or a streetlight
is a matter of indifference. Given this broader
4.4.14 Clearance profiles approach to utilities, surface utilities typically
located in the reserve include:
The clearance profile describes the space that is • Electrical transmission lines;
exclusively reserved for provision of the road. It • Telephone lines;
defines the lowest permissible height of the sof- • Street lighting;
•
Geometric Design Guide
fit of any structure passing over the road and Traffic signal poles, and
also the closest approach of any lateral obstacle • Fire hydrants.
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Figure 4.14: Collision rate
Geometric Design Guide
placement of utilities. The use of an integrated utilities is by manholes and open manholes are
process in the planning and location of road- an unnecessary hazard to pedestrians. In older
ways and utilities is encouraged in order to municipal areas, services were sometimes
avoid or at least to minimise conflicts. located under the roadway itself. This practice
should be actively discouraged as it places both
As a rule, underground utilities should be locat- maintenance workers and passing vehicles at
ed in the verges or boulevards. Access to these risk. Every time the road is resurfaced, it is nec-
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
essary to remove the manholes and replace 4.4.16 Drainage elements
them at the new level. This operation carries an
element of risk but, if not carried out, the man- The process of design of storm water drainage
hole is at a lower level than the road surface and systems is exhaustively discussed in the South
the drop could be sufficient for a driver to lose African Roads Agency Drainage Manual, 1986.
control of the vehicle. The lower level of the
manhole would, during rainy weather, lead to In this section, discussion is limited to the ele-
the creation of a pond of water that could slow- ments that the designer should incorporate in
ly drain into the conduits of the buried utility, the cross-section to ensure adequate drainage
possibly leading to disruption of the service of the road reserve and the adjacent land.
being provided.
A distinction is drawn between rural and urban
drainage. Rural drainage focuses largely on the
The problem with surface utilities is that they are
swift removal of storm water from the travelled
carried on poles that can be hit by errant vehi-
way onto the verge and on its movement to a
cles. Research has indicated that the frequen-
point where it can be taken from the upstream to
cy of crashes is a function of the pole density in
the downstream side of the road. In an urban
poles per kilometre and the average pole offset
environment, the road reserve serves as the
from the travelled way. The crash frequency is
principal conduit of storm water from surround-
typically of the order of 0,1 crashes per kilome-
ing properties and its conveyance to a point
tre per year with a pole spacing of less than 20
where it can be discharged into natural water-
poles per kilometre and an offset of eight
courses. Rural drainage is, in short, the
metres. When the pole density is higher than 30
removal of water from the road reserve whereas
poles per kilometre and the offset less than one
urban drainage attracts water to the reserve.
metre, the collision rate climbs to a high of 1,5
crashes per kilometre per year. This is illustrat-
In both rural and urban environments, storm
ed in Figure 4.14.
water drainage is aimed both at the safety of the
road user and the integrity of the design layers
A nomograph predicting utility pole crashes is of the road. Previously, rural drainage was Geometric Design Guide
given in Figure 4.15. exclusively directed towards safeguarding the
design layers. It was previously common prac-
The example shows that a road with an ADT of tice to recommend a minimum depth of drain.
11 000 vehicles and a pole density of 40 poles The safety of the road user dictates rather that a
per kilometre will experience 0,75 crashes per maximum depth of drain be specified. The rec-
kilometre per year if the pole offset is 1,5 ommended maximum depth is 500 mm. The
metres. If the designer were to increase the volume of water to be conducted by a drain thus
pole offset to 3 metres, the crash rate would indicates the required width of the drain rather
reduce to 0,5 crashes per kilometre per year, an than its depth, since the need to keep the design
improvement of 33 per cent. layers unsaturated has not changed.
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Rural drainage scour is likely to occur are given in Table 4.20.
Conventional open-channel hydraulics will, in
Rural drainage is normally by means of unpaved conjunction with Table 4.20, indicate when
open drains, which may either silt or scour, either silting or scouring is likely, and hence
depending on the flow speeds in them. Both whether it is necessary to pave a drain or not.
silting and scouring of a drain increase the haz-
ard to the road user. Scour would lead to the As a rough guide to longitudinal slopes, it is sug-
creation of a deep channel that would be impos- gested that unpaved drains should not be steeper
sible to traverse with any degree of safety. It than 2 per cent, or flatter than 0,5 per cent.
may also cause erosion of the shoulder and ulti- Paved drains should not be flatter than 0,3 per
mately threaten the integrity of the travelled way cent. Practical experience indicates that it is dif-
itself. Silting may block the drain, so that water ficult to construct a paved drain accurately to the
that should have been removed would be dis- tolerances demanded by a slope flatter than 0,3
charged onto the road surface. per cent, so that local imperfections may cause
silting of an otherwise adequate drain.
The effectiveness of the drain depends on water
speed, which is a function of longitudinal slope, Where the longitudinal slope is so flat that self-
as well as of other variables. There is a range cleansing water speeds are not achieved, even
of slopes over which the flow velocity of water with paving, it will be necessary to consider a
on in-situ materials will be so low that silting piped drainage system.
occurs, and another range where the flow veloc-
ity will be high enough to cause scour. On As an alternative to lining a material subject to
slopes between these two ranges neither silting scour, it is possible to reduce flow velocity by
nor scouring will occur and unpaved drains will constructing weirs across an unpaved drain.
be effective. The drain will then in effect become a series of
stilling basins at consecutively lower levels.
Paving solves some of the problems caused by While this could be an economical solution in
both silting and scouring. Paving generally has terms of construction cost, it has the disadvan-
a lower coefficient of roughness than in-situ tage that an area of deep localised erosion,
Geometric Design Guide
materials, so that water speeds are higher in a immediately followed by a stone-pitched or con-
paved drain than in an unpaved drain with the crete wall, would confront an errant vehicle. If
same slope. Furthermore, it is possible to force this alternative is to be considered at all, it
higher speeds in the paved drain by selection of should be restricted to roads with very low traf-
the channel cross- section. The problem of silt- fic volumes and the weirs should be spaced as
ing can be resolved, at least partially, by paving far apart as possible.
the drain.
Drains constructed through in-situ materials
The flow velocity below which silting is likely to generally have flat inverts so that, for a given
occur is 0,6 m/s. Flow velocities above which flow, the flow velocity will be reduced. The flat
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
inverts reduce the possibility of scour and are reduce the likelihood of a vehicle digging its
easy to clear if silting occurs. Paved drains, not front bumper into the far side of the drain and
being susceptible to scour, have a V-profile. somersaulting.
Self-cleansing velocities are thus achieved at
relatively small flows and the need for mainte- Typical drain profiles are illustrated in Figure 4.16.
nance is reduced.
The sides of the drain should not be so steep as (a) Side drains
to be dangerous to the road user; a maximum
Side drains are located beyond the shoulder
slope of 1:4 is recommended. Ideally, both
breakpoint and parallel to the centre line of the
sides of the drain should be designed to this
road. While usually employed in cuts, they may
slope or flatter. Where space for the provision of
also be used to run water along the toe of a fill
the drain is restricted, the slope closest to the
to a point where the water can conveniently be
road should remain at 1:4 and the outer slope
diverted, either away from the road prism or
steepened. This has the effect of positioning the
through it, by means of a culvert. When used
drain as far as possible from the path of vehi-
in conjunction with fills, side drains should be
cles. One example of this is a side drain in a
Geometric Design Guide
located as close to the edge of the reserve
cut, where the outer slope of the side drain
boundary as is practicable to ensure that ero-
forms an extension of the cut face. These
sion of the toe of the fill does not occur. Side
slopes, in combination with the flat invert, give
drains are intended as collectors of water and
the trapezoidal profile of an unpaved drain.
the area that they drain usually includes a cut
face and the road surface.
It is recommended that the bottom of a lined V-
profile and the junctions between the sides and
(b) Edge drains
bottom of an unlined trapezoidal profile be
slightly rounded. The rounding will ease the Edge drains are intended to divert water from fill
path of an errant vehicle across the drain, and slopes that may otherwise erode either because
4-57
Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
Figure 4.16: Typical drain profiles
Geometric Design Guide
of the erodibility of the material or because they located almost under a guardrail would heighten
are subjected to concentrations of water and the possibility that a vehicle wheel might snag
high flow velocities. Guardrail posts tend to under the guardrail.
serve as points of concentration of water, so
that, as a general rule, edge drains are warrant- Edge drains are constructed of either concrete
ed when the fill material is erodible or when or premixed asphalt. Premix berms normally
guardrails are to be installed. have a height of 75 to 80 mm, and are trape-
zoidal in profile with a base width of 250 mm and
Edge drains should preferably be raised rather a top width of 100 mm. Concrete edge drains
than depressed in profile. A depressed drain are normal barrier kerbs and channels. These
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
require a properly compacted backing for stabil- used, a transverse slope flatter than 1:10 may
ity and are, therefore, not as easy to construct make it difficult to protect the design layers of
as premix berms. the road. Unlike side drains, median drains,
whether lined or not, are generally constructed
(c) Catch water drains with a shallow V-profile with the bottom gently
rounded.
The catch water drain, a berm located at the top
of a cut, is to the cut face what the edge drain is (e) Chutes
to a fill. It is intended to deflect overland flow
from the area outside the road reserve away Chutes are intended to convey a concentration
from the cut face. Even if the cut is through of water down a slope that, without such protec-
material which is not likely to scour, the catch tion, would be subject to scour. They may vary
water drain serve to reduce the volume of water in size from large structures to half-round pre-
that would otherwise have to be removed by the cast concrete products, but they are all open
side drain located at the bottom of the cut face. channels. Flow velocities are high, so that still-
ing basins are required if down-stream erosion
Catch water drains are seldom, if ever, lined. is to be avoided. An example of the application
They are constructed with the undisturbed top- of chutes is the discharge of water down a fill
soil of the area as their inverts and can readily slope from an edge drain. The entrances to
be grassed as a protection against scour. chutes require attention to ensure that water is
Transverse weirs can also be constructed to deflected from the edge drain into the chute,
reduce flow velocities, since the restrictions pre- particularly where the road is on a steep grade.
viously mentioned in relation to weirs do not It is important that chutes be adequately spaced
apply to catch water drains. The cut face and to remove excess water from the shoulders of
the profile of the drain reduce the probability of the road. Furthermore, the dimensions of the
a vehicle entering the drain but, should this hap- chutes and stilling basins should be such that
pen, the speed of the vehicle will probably be these drainage elements do not represent an
low. excessive risk to errant vehicles. Generally,
they should be as shallow as is compatible with
Geometric Design Guide
(d) Median drains their function and depths in excess of 150 mm
should be viewed with caution.
Median drains do not only drain the median but
also, in the case of a horizontal curve, prevent Because of the suggested shallow depth of
water from the higher carriageway flowing in a chutes, particular attention should be paid to
sheet across the lower carriageway. The space their design and construction to ensure that the
available for the provision of median drains highly energised stream is not deflected out of
makes it possible to recommend that the trans- the chute. This is a serious erosion hazard that
verse slopes should be in the range of 1:4 to can be obviated by replacing the chute with a
1:10. If the narrowest median recommended is pipe.
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
(f) Mitre banks requirements for these forms of protection are
usually conflicting. For major storms, the runoff
As their name implies, these banks are con- should be retarded to reduce flood peaks and,
structed at an angle to the centre line of the for minor storms, the runoff is best handled by
road. They are intended to remove water from rapid removal. The solution is to provide two
a drain next to the toe of a fill and to discharge separate but allied drainage systems.
it beyond the road reserve boundary. Several ajor storms involve considerations such as
mitre banks can be constructed along the length attempting to achieve rates of runoff that do not
of a drain, as the concentration of water in the exceed pre-development levels. This is
drain should ideally be dispersed and its speed achieved in part through the application of
correspondingly reduced before discharge. detention and retention ponds. Furthermore,
Speed can be reduced not only by reducing the the layout of road patterns can be coordinated
volume, and hence the depth, of flow but also by with the run-off requirements of the system to
positioning the mitre bank so that its toe is virtu- increase the time of concentration, hence reduc-
ally parallel to the natural contours. The ing the risk of flood hazards
upstream face of a mitre bank is usually pro-
tected by stone pitching, since the volume and Accommodation of minor storms is achieved
speed of flow of water that it deflects may cause with kerbs and channels, drop inlets and under-
scour and ultimately lead to breaching of the ground reticulation. The runoff is initially col-
mitre bank. lected in channels until the flooded width of the
road reaches a specified limit and then dis-
(g) Rural underground systems charged into the underground system, which is
connected to an outfall point - typically a natural
The geometric designer is not directly con- watercourse. In the case of high-speed routes,
cerned with the underground system, except for such as freeways, expressways and major arte-
its inlets. These should be hydraulically efficient rials, no encroachment of storm water onto the
and correctly positioned to ensure that water travelled lanes can be considered. Minor arteri-
does not back up onto the road surface or satu- als and collectors should have one clear lane of
rate the design layers. To restrict the hazard to 3,0 metres minimum width in each direction and
the road user, inlets that are flush with the sur- local streets need only have one clear lane of
face drain invert are preferable to raised struc- 3,0 metres minimum width. In all cases, the
tures. 100-year storm should not cause a barrier kerb
Geometric Design Guide
Urban drainage
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Chapter 4: Road Design Elements
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
South Africans are blessed with a beautiful Despite the difference in scale, the stars over-
country. There are thus boundless opportunities head can be brighter than the spark from a
to develop highway location and design as an campfire. This demonstrates better than words
art form in this country's varied landscape from that seeing depends on the energy of the light
mountains and plains to deserts and seas. received by the eye. Also there has to be a rea-
When properly applied, there can be benefits sonable contrast between the source and the
both to the user and to the landscape. background. Stars are not visible during the
day. In daylight, a contrast in brightness of five
Creating a harmonious alignment is architec- per cent can be perceived. At twilight, much
ture. It requires the ability to visualize the final greater differences are required. The cones of
form both from the perspective of the driver and the eye's retina which perceive colour also
the outside observer as well as a grounding in require significant light energy and do not oper-
engineering principles The ability to capture the ate at low levels at night. The yellow and green
final form in the mind's eye and translate the colours at the centre of the spectrum appear
design into two-dimensional representations significantly brighter than the reds and blues
defining the layout represents creativity at a high which have longer and shorter wavelengths
level. Most texts on the subject of the aesthet- respectively.
Geometric Design Guide
ics of alignment design stress the role of experi-
ence. Undoubtedly, we all learn as we grow in Although very quick, our visual response is not
the profession. However, in our society at pres- immediate. Approximately 0,2 of a second is
ent we do not have the luxury of widely avail- required to fix on an object. However, in a
able, experienced engineers. Designers often changing environment we can at best process
have to tackle difficult problems for the first time twelve images per second. Changing focus
and at short notice. In what follows we have from the dashboard clock to a road sign takes
therefore concentrated on describing what it is about one second. From there, reaction time
important to know and on giving some guidance requires 1,3 seconds thus leading to a final safe
as to what is, and what is not, good practice. reaction/response time of 2,5 seconds. A com-
5-1
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
plex environment, where the desired response designers and are further summarized below:
is not immediately obvious, may require a sig-
nificantly longer reaction time as discussed in 1. As speed increases, the number of
Chapter 3. objects and incidences that must be
reacted to increases proportionately.
The driver sees the road and surrounds as if he
Concentration focuses on the approach-
were stationary in a 3D movie. Nearby objects
ing road and traffic in the immediate
speed past in a blur. Objects in the foreground
vicinity. Observing irrelevant objects
can only be seen briefly. Only objects at the
outside of the necessary area of atten-
infinity focus can be scanned at leisure.
tion becomes more and more danger-
ous. It follows that the driver will only be
Under conditions of good lighting, people with
able to see interesting objects in the
good eyesight can observe an object that sub-
centre of his visual field and therefore
tends an angle of one arc minute or 29 millime-
the road should aim the eye towards
tres at 100 metres. Lines can be perceived
objects of interest and create variety
more acutely. However, they should subtend an
through curvature.Planes that stand per-
angle of at least 4 arc seconds to be visible.
pendicular to the road are prominent
People with good eyesight are not the norm and
while parallel ones are not.
allowance has to be made for lower acuity when
2. As speed increases the eyes seem to
designing objects and messages that are impor-
focus further and further ahead. Drivers
tant to the driver in a high-speed environment
anticipate the distance ahead that they
and a constantly changing visual field.
will require to respond to emergen-
Because of the ability of both the head and eyes cies.At 70 km/h the focal point of the eye
driver's field of view. However, the sensitive part while at 120 km/h the focal point can be
of the retina at the centre of the visual field has up to 1 000 metres ahead. From the
a relative arc of 2,5 degrees. The peripheral principle of visual acuity, it follows that
vision lies outside this cone where little detail anything that has to be brought to the
can be perceived. The visual field also dimin- driver's attention must lie close to the
Geometric Design Guide
ishes the more finely we focus. axis of vision and also be large enough
to be recognized at a long distance.
From these general principles of vision, J R 3. As the level of concentration increases,
Hamilton and L L Thurston (in a paper entitled the total visual field decreases with the
"Human Limitations in Automobile Driving" pub- result that the peripheral vision diminishes as
lished in 1937) enunciated five propositions that speed increases. This is sometimes
are applicable to the highway environment. referred to as tunnel vision and, unless
These were summarized in "Man Made the point of concentration is made to
America" by Tunnard and Pushkarev (1963), move through an arc by means of a
which should be required reading for all highway curving roadway, driving along a straight
5-2
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
and uneventful highway can become- networks, drivers have to concentrate in order to
hypnotic. survive. They must focus as far ahead as pos-
4. As speed increases, foreground fea- sible to anticipate the approaching vehicles and
tures begin to fade because the driver is changes in alignment. They cannot cope with
not able to see clearly except at a dis- sudden events in the foreground and both their
tant focus. Foreground detail is greatly peripheral vision and space perception are
diminished at 80 km/h, and beyond 100 impaired.
km/h reception of the foreground is neg-
ligible. Thus, only at a distance of
With modern virtual reality techniques it is also
between 50 metres and 100 metres
possible to show that, at 120 km/h, the paved
does vision become adequate at 100
area and median across a 30 metre wide free-
km/h. It follows that emphasizing elabo-
way takes up thirty per cent of the visual field,
rate detail is meaningless for the driver.
the roadside about fifteen per cent, and the sky
Only large simple shapes are usually
dominates at fifty five per cent. When the road-
perceived and particularly the geometry
way is only 15 metres wide at somewhat lower
of the paved road at the centre of the dri-
speeds the roadway takes up about fifteen per
ver's vision. Outside the road, only the
cent, the sky approximately twenty five per cent,
general outline and form of the land
and the roadside the remaining sixty per cent.
together with objects on the horizon are
distinguishable.
This leads us to the conclusion that our
5. Space perception also becomes impaired as
approach to aligning a divided freeway should
speed increases. This is a complex sub-
be very different from that for a two lane main
ject and is related to the fact that we can-
road. For freeways, the pavement and its medi-
not perceive small relative changes in
an dominate and the designer should focus his
objects at long distances. A person
attention on the architecture of the alignment as
requires clues from the surrounding land-
it is moulded into the land form. On the other
scape to perceive motion. The movements
hand, for the narrow pavements typical of much
of objects travelling parallel and closest
of our network, the opportunity to use the road
to the axis of vision cannot be perceived
Geometric Design Guide
as a platform for viewing the environment can
beyond 250 metres on either side. As speed
be used to dramatic effect in road architecture.
increases the time interval between first dis-
cerning movement and passing the object
reduces. It follows therefore that the 5.3 DESIGN APPROACH
highway should offer as many clues as
possible to allow the driver to judge his In engineering terms, the geometric elements of
speed and remain in tune with reality as the highway are simple. We use tangents, hor-
the space around him changes continuously. izontal curves, grades and vertical curves.
When taken together, these principles confirm However, the use of these elements in combi-
that, at the high speeds on main and freeway nation can be nearly infinite: The result can be
5-3
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
pleasing or discordant; economical or expen- 11. The history, competency and funding of
sive; safe or dangerous. road maintenance in the region.
5-4
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
5.4 FITTING THE ROAD TO THE fall relative to the centreline. The notion is thus
LANDSCAPE that of an abstract ribbon in space, which the
designer should be able to visualise from study
The appearance of the road to the traveller and of the survey plan, the longitudinal section and
its appearance in the landscape depend on how the cross-section. As a rule, the most pleasing
we string the tangents, grades and curves appearance results when the horizontal and ver-
together. These elements form an inclined tical curves are of approximately equal length
plane, a simple geometric form common to all and in phase with one another.
engineering design. However, nature did not
create the surface of the earth using pencil and External harmony describes the match or mis-
paper. The inclined plane is not nature's way of match between the road and its environment.
folding the landscape, forming escarpments and The achievement of external harmony results in
incising the rivers. A road with its rigid geomet- the road being an enhancement of the land-
ric form made up of vectors and circular arcs is scape rather than a scar across it. An example
thus a discordance in nature. It is the designer's of the latter is a long tangent at right angles to
task to minimise that discord. This can be done the natural contours and with a succession of
by the judicious use of curvature. short crest and sag curves closely following the
ground line. This results in a roller coaster
Returning to the earlier discussion on what the appearance totally at odds with the form of the
eye sees at speed and how vehicles behave, we landscape.`
concluded that there is a vast scale difference
between a divided freeway and a two-lane road. 5.4.1 Freeway design
The former can easily be 35 to 40 metres wide
while the other is typically 13,7 metres wide or at In locating a freeway or divided roadway, the
most 15 if there are sidewalks or surfaced appearance of the road as a ribbon in the land-
drains. On a freeway, the paved ribbon domi- scape from the viewpoint of the driver is crucial.
nates the driver's view, whereas, on a two-lane To create a continuous and homogenous
road, the roadside takes up most of the visual appearance, sudden breaks, kinks or abrupt
field. It follows, therefore, that the design changes in the alignment must be avoided. This
Geometric Design Guide
approaches for these two cases need to be very invariably requires the use of above minimum
different indeed. standards for horizontal and vertical curves and
the use of the clothoid spiral to form transitions
This difference in approach is captured in the between tangents and curves. To create inter-
twin concepts of internal and external harmony est in a changing landscape the designer should
of the alignment. strive for the curvilinear or 'splined' alignment.
Figure 5-1 illustrates a range of acceptable
Internal harmony describes the drivers' view of curve lengths for varying deflections and radii
the road itself as the centreline rises and falls or that are visually desirable. Curve radii of up to
changes direction and the road edges rise and 18 000 metres with lengths in excess of 4 000
5-5
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
metres have been used successfully in South the designer must be aware of the optical illu-
Africa. sion that results from this combination. A crest
curve causes a horizontal curve to appear to
Visualising the roadway from the three dimen- have a larger radius than it has in reality and a
sional viewpoint of the driver is important. The sag curve causes the horizontal curve to appear
road that flows through the landscape, avoids sharper than it really is. The lower the K-value
major obstacles and is in scale with the terrain of the vertical curvature, the more pronounced
should be the designer's objective. the effect is. If the horizontal curve has a mini-
mum radius, the crest curve could tempt a driv-
The co-ordination of the vertical and horizontal er to maintain a speed higher than is safe
alignment ensures that the scale of the plan and whereas the sag curve could lead to unneces-
profile view are in harmony. However, it is not sary and sharp braking which would not neces-
always possible to ensure that horizontal and sarily be anticipated by following drivers.
Geometric Design Guide
vertical curves coincide. When these elements Correct phasing of the vertical and horizontal
are out of phase or out of scale the designer alignment should thus be accompanied by the
should take particular care to avoid unpleasant use of horizontal radii that are well above the
effects. Several examples of good and bad minimum for the design speed of the road.
practice are illustrated and discussed in Section
5.4.3. A useful tool for analysing the curvilinear nature
of an alignment is the 1/R diagram in which the
Although the aesthetics of the 3-D alignment of inverse of the radius is plotted against the cen-
the road are enhanced by having the vertical treline distance. In the diagrams shown in the
curves contained within the horizontal curves, following figures tangents have a zero value and
5-6
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
the curves a constant value that is inversely pro- Figure 5-5 illustrates alternative 1/R diagrams
portional to the radius. Transitions appear as for a group of successive tangents employing:
sloping lines. 1. Minimum radius curves;
2. Curves approximately equal in length to
The examples in Figures 5-2 to 5-4 illustrate the adjacent tangents; and
how 1/R diagrams are used to visualise the 3. Long curves with the intervening tan-
curvilinear nature of an alignment. Not only is gents only long enough to accommo-
the disjointed nature of the alignment shown in date superelevation development
Figure 5-2 immediately apparent but the total
area enclosed by the 1/R line and the horizontal A fourth 1/R diagram illustrates the effect of
axis in Figure 5-4 is significantly less than the removing the broken-back curve between SV 1
same areas in Figures 5-2 and 5-3. 800 and SV 6 000. Depending on topographic
5-7
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Figure 5-4: 1/R diagram for curvilinear alignment with transitions
restraints, this alignment would be the preferred ficient for aesthetic design. It is essential that
option. It illustrates two sets of true S-curves, the road flow with the landscape. When
being reverse curves with equal radii. The first approaching an escarpment from rolling terrain
S-curve has radii of approximately 3 000 metres the curve radii and curve length should be grad-
and the other radii of approximately 1 100 metres. ually decreased in the transition zone until the
road enters the pass. This continuity of align-
Relating the areas to the deflection angles and ment enhances both the aesthetic and operating
the remaining tangents by simply making the characteristics by reducing the element of sur-
curves as long as possible is not, of course, suf- prise. It is under these conditions that co-ordi-
Geometric Design Guide
5-8
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
nating the horizontal and vertical alignment is As the roadside takes up more than half the dri-
particularly important, as the gradients will also ver's visual field when driving on a single car-
change in keeping with the horizontal alignment. riageway road, there is significant benefit to be
gained by maintaining the grade line above
Treatment of the median can play an important ground level for as much of the alignment as
role in the design of a divided highway. Medians possible. Roadways elevated in this way create
that are less than 10 metres wide should never greater interest and improve overall visibility in
be narrowed and should usually be treated as addition to the obvious benefit of having suffi-
unifying the two carriageways. When median cient height to accommodate drainage struc-
5-9
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Figure 5-5 shows the advantage of maintaining result in a disjointed alignment will be there for
a constant, uniform grade for as long as possi- the life of the road.
ble. Local dips to minimise earthworks that
5-10
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Short crests and sags should also be avoided Maintaining a constant grade is the preferred
on horizontal curves, as shown in Figure 5-6. option.
5-11
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
A short discontinuity or dip in the alignment pre- advance and following the sag curve improves
ceding a horizontal curve creates a particularly the appearance, as shown in Figure 5-7.
discordant view. Eliminating the crest curves in
5-12
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
A common fault in road alignment is illustrated in The advantages in the alignment aesthetics of a
Figure 5-8. The roadway is often unnaturally skew crossing often far outweigh the savings
curved to cross a small stream or grade separa- deriving from a square crossing
tion at right angles.
5-13
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Figure 5-9A illustrates the broken-back horizon- back effect. The advantages of using a single
tal curve, or two curves in the same direction radius curve throughout are illustrated in Figure
separated by a short tangent. The sag curve on 5-9.B.
the separating tangent intensifies the broken-
A: Broken-back curve
Geometric Design Guide
5-14
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
A sag curve at the start of a horizontal curve has the horizontal curve would cause it to start earlier.
the effect of enhancing the sharp angle appear- Applying both remedial measures should result
ance as shown in Figure 5-10, and should be in a better phasing of the horizontal and vertical
avoided. Raising the preceding grade will move alignments.
the sag curve downstream. A longer radius on
5-15
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Minor changes in grade or rolling of the vertical avoided on long horizontal curves.
alignment as shown in Figure 5-11 should be
A: Rolling gradeline
Figure 5-11 B illustrates the advantages of co-ordinating the horizontal and vertical alignments.
Geometric Design Guide
5-16
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Figure 5-12 shows the effect when the start of a crest and the continuation of the curve is visible
horizontal curve is hidden by an intervening in the distance. The road appears disjointed.
5-17
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Figure 5-13: Well-coordinated crest and horizontal curves
Geometric Design Guide
Figure 5-13 and Figure 5-14 illustrate the vertical alignment. In each case the vertical
advantages of co-ordinating the horizontal and curve is contained within the horizontal curve.
5-18
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Figure 5-15: N2 North: Curvilinear alignment in a valley
Figures 5-15 to 5-17 illustrate examples where in practice.
excellent aesthetic designs have been achieved
5-19
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Figure 5-17: N2 - Combining horizontal and vertical alignment
factors that act together in complex ways. They use planner on the other hand is concerned with
can be negative as in the scarring of a hillside, the organisation of the areas and their relation-
the diversion of a stream or the closing of an ship to one another. Although making a neces-
access. They can also be positive: sary contribution to communication, roads, par-
• When the space used by the road is ticularly those of an arterial or freeway nature,
orderly; are viewed as a barrier. They should never cut
• The alignment imaginative; across homogenous areas of whatever type.
• It appears to belong where it is; and
• It serves the transportation needs of the The challenge of reconciling the conflicts
community. between the disciplines can best be tackled by a
5-20
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
team approach where all participants strive to guardrails. Flat, rounded slopes also blend
understand the viewpoints and constraints of more readily into the natural contour of the land.
the various disciplines. Integration with the
The general rule is that the lower the cut or fill
social environment should be the primary objec-
the flatter the slope should be. On fills with a
tive. Of the social values, the aesthetic and
height of 8 to 10 metres, slopes of 1 : 1,1/2 to1
visual impacts are often the most important. It is
: 2 appear acceptable. For heights of 4 to 5
the detail of embankments, road signs, bridges, metres slopes of 1 : 4 should be the goal.
the planting of the median and a host of other Minor cuts and fills should be blended into the
design features that attract the eye. All these landscape so that they are hardly noticeable.
should be integrated with the immediate envi- This concept is shown in Figure 5-18. In the first
Geometric Design Guide
ronment of the road. sketch, the continuity of the space is preserved
in the cross-section whereas, in the second, the
Of all these, the form of the cross section is the space is chopped up into discontinuous ele-
main element under the control of designer that ments.
can be manipulated to soften the impact of the road.
Flattening the slopes of cut and fill and rounding
The use of contour plans to grade cut and fill
the changes of slopes to create smooth con-
slopes are particularly useful when designing
tours has many benefits. It reduces soil erosion,
interchanges to ensure a pleasing layout of
minimises the risk of injury when a vehicle
what are often large ground areas.
leaves the road and reduces the warrants for
5-21
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
Geometric Design Guide
Figures 5-19 and 5-20 illustrate the advantages through a natural feature whereas the second
of transitioning the slopes into a deep cut. The illustrates what, at best, would be a scar on the
approach shown in the first figure could lead to landscape.
the appearance of the road being located
5-22
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
A: Cut with constant cut batters
5-23
Chapter 5: Alignment Design
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
6-1
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
the potential safety and operation conflicts that of 2,5 seconds is normally used as an input to
are inherent when traffic streams interact at models determining intersection sight distance.
intersections. However, because of heightened awareness at
controlled intersections, circumstances may
Although some guidance on capacity and traffic indicate a lower acceptable value of 2,0 sec-
control is offered, the focus of this chapter is on onds at busy urban intersections.
application of the geometric principles that gov-
ern the physical layout and location of an inter- The concept of driver expectancy is crucial in
section. the evaluation of drivers' response and tasks
within intersections.
6.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Vehicle Characteristics
6.2.1 General
The size and manoeuvrability of vehicles is a
The unique characteristic of intersections is that governing factor in intersection design, particu-
vehicles, pedestrians and bicycles travelling in larly when channelisation features are being
many directions, must share a common area, selected. Because of the importance of vehicle
often at the same time. The mitigation of the characteristics in the operation of an intersec-
resulting conflicts is a major objective of inter- tion, the selection of an appropriate vehicle, as
section design. This conflict resolution is, in described in sub-section 3.4.4, will influence the
turn, influenced by construction and mainte- elements in the above table. In selecting an
Geometric Design Guide
nance costs, environmental factors and the appropriate vehicle, the designer should careful-
ease of implementation. ly evaluate the expected traffic mix in context.
6.2.2 Elements affecting design Various vehicle characteristics and their influ-
ence on the design of channelised intersections
Human factors are described in Table 6.2.
6-2
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
use and the prevailing climate all have an influ- The type of area and adjacent land use governs
ence on the type of design selected. Flexibility the selection of an appropriate intersection. In
of approach is essential and the concepts of urban areas, pedestrian flows, on-street parking
context-sensitive design as outlined in Chapter and bus and taxi activity are commonplace. In
2 should be applied residential areas, bicycles and school crossings
need to be considered. They are usually absent
Functional classification is a key to applying the in rural areas, where utility and delivery vehicles
appropriate design standards. Primary arterials are more common.
carry high traffic volumes, operate at high
speeds and are often used by drivers unfamiliar Local climate can influence design decisions.
with them. Large trucks and buses are common Where the presence of mist is a frequent occur- Geometric Design Guide
and there is a driver expectancy for route conti- rence, sight distance would be reduced. Heavy
nuity and a high level of service. Intersection rainfalls can obscure signs and road markings
design should reflect and make provision for the and reduce pavement friction.
operating characteristics of drivers and their
expectations in the various classes of roads. 6.2.3 Traffic manoeuvres and conflicts
Channelisation should accommodate the
expected vehicles in a simple and direct man- Typical manoeuvres that result in vehicle conflict
ner. Decision sight distance is an important ele- at intersections are:
ment and traffic control devices and pavement • Crossing;
markings should be placed with care. • Merging;
6-3
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
• Diverging; and Traffic volumes are the most important determi-
Diverging and merging may be either to the left flict increases as traffic on the approach legs
The conflict at intersections created by the vari- able to handle peak traffic demands. The analy-
ous manoeuvres leads to a unique set of opera- sis of capacity is based on the operational char-
tional characteristics. Understanding these is acteristics of conflicting vehicles separated by
central to intersection designs and the most the time constraints imposed by traffic control
important characteristics are safety and capacity. devices. The measuring and forecasting of traf-
6-4
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
fic flows and capacity analysis is a specialised Unsignalised intersections
subject and designers should refer to the manu-
als and references commonly used. The follow- The capacity of the major road at Stop- and
ing is a brief summary of capacity as it relates to Yield-controlled intersections is not affected by
design. the presence of the intersection. The capacity
of the minor road is dependent on the distribu-
Signalised intersections tion of gaps in the major road traffic and the gap
acceptance of the minor road traffic. Gap
acceptance is dependent on the
The idealised flow rate through an intersection
reaction/response time, vehicle acceleration
is known as the saturation flow rate per hour of
and vehicle length. It is not a function of
green time. Initial driver reaction, vehicle accel-
approach speed on the major road. Gap
eration and the behaviour of following vehicles
acceptance times used in determining capacity
all affect this flow rate. The capacity of an
are usually somewhat shorter than those used
approach or leg of an intersection is proportion-
to compute intersection sight distance as
al to the green time for that approach within the
described in Section 6.4
signal cycle in accordance with
C = s x g/c
where C = capacity (veh/h) Factors affecting capacity include:
s = saturated flow
• Operational speed of the major road;
• Intersection sight distance;
rate (veh/h)
• Radii of turning roadways;
g/c = the ratio of
• Intersection layout and number of
green time to lanes;
signal cycle • Type of area; and
time. • Proportion of heavy vehicles
6-5
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
er's selection of the basic intersections type is At intersections carrying light crossing and turn-
normally predicated on the design context, as ing volumes the capacity figures for uninterrupt-
intersections can vary greatly in scope, shape, ed flow generally apply. Table 6.4 below is a
degree of channelisation and traffic control guide to the maximum traffic volumes that these
measures. intersections can accommodate.
intersections.
ical factors are cost and capacity.
• Poor sight distance leads to significantly
higher injury and total accident rates.
A worldwide review of intersection design prac- However, on roundabout approaches,
tice reported that, "typically the cheapest inter-
accidents may actually increase with
section type providing the required level of serv-
increasing sight distance.
ice is chosen". This cost is usually the sum of
the design, construction and right-of-way costs. • Medians should be as wide as practical
This view is consistent with South African expe- at rural, unsignalised intersections but
rience, where the cost to the road authority is not wider than necessary at signalised
often the governing factor in the choice of inter- intersections.
section type. • Channelisation is usually beneficial but
6-6
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
kerbed islands in the major road may be the alignment of either the major or the minor
hazardous in rural areas. road, or both, to ensure that adequate sight dis-
• The hazard of an intersection increases tance is available. If this is not possible, the
as the approach speed increases. options available to the designer are to:
• relocate the intersection;
6.2.6 Location of intersections • provide all-way Stop control; or
• provide a Jug handle or Quarter link
Given the fact that intersections are the most interchange, as described in Section
dangerous part of any road network, it follows 7.6.4.
6-7
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
road. For these, reasons, intersections should The location of an intersection may require
not be located on horizontal curves with radii modification to improve the angle of skew
less than those indicated in Table 6.5. between the intersecting roads, as discussed in
Section 6.3.1. If the angle of skew is less than
Drivers on the outside of a curve typically have 60O, the intersection can be replaced by two rel-
little or no difficulty in seeing opposing vehicles atively closely spaced T-intersections. A vehicle
on the major road. The opposing vehicles are on the minor road would thus follow the route
partly in front of them and they have the addi- comprising a right turn onto the major road, fol-
tional height advantage caused by the superel- lowed by a left turn off it. Any delay to the minor
evation of the curve. However, they have to road vehicle would occur clear of the high-
negotiate the turn onto the major road against speed traffic on the major road. If the angle of
an adverse superelevation. The risks involved skew is greater than 120O, relocation should be
in sharp braking during an emergency should to a four-legged intersection in preference to the
also be borne in mind when an intersection is two T-intersections, because these would result
located on a curve. In general, an intersection in the minor road traffic following the route com-
should not be located on a curve with a superel- prising a left turn onto the major road and a right
evation greater than 6 per cent. turn off it with consequent delays to the major
road traffic and increased risk to the vehicle
Stopping sight distances increase with steepen- waiting to complete the right turn off the major
ing negative gradient. Stopping sight distance route. A right-left stagger or offset is, in short, to
required on a gradient of -3 per cent is approxi- be preferred to a left-right stagger.
mately 6 per cent longer than that on a level
grade, whereas, on a -6 per cent gradient, it is A further limitations on the location of intersec-
approximately 16 per cent longer. It is suggest- tions - being the spacing of successive intersec-
ed that, as a safety measure, intersections tions - is discussed in the following section.
should not be located on gradients steeper than
three per cent. The gradient is more critical on 6.2.7 Spacing of intersections
the minor road than on the major road because
all vehicles on the minor road have to stop or Designers seldom have influence on the spac-
Geometric Design Guide
6-8
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
of the location of individual intersections. This is Along signalised arterials, intersection spacing
of particular concern when the provision of a should be consistent with the running speed and
new intersection on an existing road is being signal cycle lengths, which are variables in
considered. themselves. If the spacing of the intersections
is based on acceptable running speeds and
Access management is aimed at maintaining an cycle lengths, signal progression and an effi-
effective and efficient transportation system for cient use of the roadway can be achieved.
the movement of people and goods, simultane-
ously supporting the development of the adja- In Figure 6.2, these three variables are com-
cent land use. Increasingly intensive land bined in a chart allowing the selection of a suit-
usage generally leads to demands for improved able intersection spacing. From this figure it
road infrastructure and the improved infrastruc- transpires that the minimum spacing on arterial
ture makes access to it very attractive. Allowing roads should be at least 400m. Where spacings
access simply on the basis of its meeting some closer than the minimum exist, a number of
or other minimum geometric requirement results alternative actions can be considered, for exam-
in increasing traffic conflicts and reduction in ple two-way flows can be converted to one-way
capacity so that the benefit of the original operation or minor connecting roads can be
improvement is lost. This then leads to closed or diverted, and channelisation can be
demands for further road improvements. used to restrict turning movements.
This cycle can only be broken by the develop- Where the crossing road of an interchange is an
ment of a proper Access Management Plan by arterial, the suggested minimum distance along
the local authority concerned. This plan speci- the arterial from the ramp terminal to the next
fies where intersections may be located. intersection is 200m in the case of a collector
Furthermore, it defines the class of intersection road. If the next intersection is with an arterial
that may be considered. Three classes of inter- the spacing between the ramp and the intersec-
sections are defined in the National Guidelines. tion should be increased to 600 metres for a
These are: Class 3 arterial and 800 metres for a Class 2
These are illustrated in Figure 6.2. The left-in left-out class of access would typical-
ly only be applied under circumstances where
6-9
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
speeds or traffic volumes or both are high. This and deceleration lanes using taper rates as list-
is in order to minimise the disruption that would ed in Table 6-12 and lengths listed in Table 7-5
be caused by right-turning vehicles. As such, it or 7-6
would normally be provided with acceleration
Geometric Design Guide
6-10
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
6.2.8 Channelisation • Undesirable or wrong-way movements
should be discouraged or prohibited;
The purpose of channelisation is to achieve safe • Vehicle paths should be clearly defined;
and efficient operation by managing the conflicts • The design should encourage safe vehi-
cle speeds;
that are inherent to intersections. NCHRP
Report 279 reports that the objectives of good • Channelisation should separate points
intersection design are: of conflict whenever possible;
• Reduction of the number of points of • Traffic streams should cross at close to Geometric Design Guide
potential conflict to the minimum com- right angles and merge at flat angles;
patible with efficient operation; • High priority flows should have the
• Reduction of the complexity of conflict greater degree of freedom;
areas whenever possible; • The design should be in the context of
• Limitation of the frequency of actual con- the traffic control scheme;
flicts; and • Decelerating, slow-moving or stopped
• Limitation of the severity of those con- vehicles should be separated from high-
flicts that do occur. er-speed through lanes; and
• Refuge for pedestrians and the handi-
To achieve these objectives there are nine prin- capped should be provided where
ciples of channelisation design: appropriate.
6-11
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
The tools available to apply these principles are: have difficulty at this angle of skew in seeing
• Defining and arranging traffic lanes; vehicles approaching from their left. The
• Traffic islands of all sizes and types; designer should be able to specifically justify
• Median islands; using an angle of skew less than 75°. In the
• Corner radii; remodelling of existing intersections, the acci-
• Horizontal and vertical approach geom- dent rates and patterns will usually indicate
etry; whether a problem exists and provide evidence
• Pavement tapers and transitions; and on any problems related to the angle of skews
• Traffic control devices.
6.3.2 Horizontal and vertical alignment
The first six elements are a range of physical
features while traffic control devices are an inte- The horizontal and vertical alignments through
gral part of any intersection. These six elements and approaching an intersection are critical fea-
are discussed in Section 6.5. tures. Simple alignment design allows for early
recognition of the intersection and timely focus
ences both the operation and safety of an inter- • The alignments should not restrict the
Operationally they are undesirable because: quent braking and turning associated
with intersections; and
• Crossing vehicles and pedestrians are
exposed for longer periods;
• The alignments should not require
undue direct attention to be detracted
• The driver's sight angle is more con-
strained and gap perception becomes from the intersection manoeuvres and
6-12
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
distance at the intersection to above-minimum Stopping sight distance should be provided con-
requirements. tinuously on all roadways including at the
For new intersections, the gradient on the minor approaches to intersections. However, in rural
roadway is normally adjusted to form a smooth areas or when approach speeds are in excess
profile, as suggested in Figure 6.4. of 80 km/h, the decision sight clearance set out
in Section 3.5.8 should be provided on all
approaches to intersections for safe operation,
Where major roadways intersect, the profiles of
particularly where auxiliary lanes are added to
both roads are usually adjusted in approximate-
the intersection layout to accommodate the turn-
ly equal manner. When significant channelisa-
ing movements.
tion is introduced in association with complex
gradients, intersections should be designed on
an elevation plan to avoid discontinuities and In addition to these forms of sight distance, it is
ensure free drainage. necessary to provide Intersection Sight
Distance (ISD). This is the sight distance
6.3.3 Lane widths and shoulders required by drivers entering the intersection to
enable them to establish that it is safe to do so
Where intersecting roadways have shoulders or and then to carry out the manoeuvres neces-
sidewalks, the main road shoulder should be sary either to join or to cross the opposing traf-
continued through the intersection. Lane widths fic streams. Previously, values of ISD were
should be 3,7 m for through lanes and 3,6 derived from elaborate models based on
metres for turning lanes. Where conditions are assumptions of reaction times, speeds and
severely constrained, lane widths as low as 3,3 acceleration rates of turning vehicles and the
metres can be considered provided that deceleration rates of the opposing vehicles, etc.
approach speeds are below 80 km/h. In con- The distances offered in sub-section 6.4.3 are
stricted urban conditions on low speed-road- derived from research into gap acceptance as
ways, lane widths of 3,0 metres should be the reported in NCHRP Report 383 "Intersection
minimum adopted. Offsets from the edge of the Sight Distance".
turning roadway to kerb lines should be 0,6 to
1,0 metres.
Geometric Design Guide
6.4 SIGHT DISTANCE
6-13
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
Geometric Design Guide
6-14
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
time to slow, or to stop if need be, before enter- truck driver is considerably greater than that
ing the intersection. For the departure sight tri- required by the driver of a passenger car. For
angle, the line of sight described by the design purposes, the eye height of truck drivers
hypotenuse of the sight triangle should be such is taken as 1,8 metres for checking the avail-
that a vehicle just coming into view on the major ability of sight distance for trucks.
road will, at the design speed of this road, have
a travel time to the intersection corresponding to 6.4.3 Intersection control
the gap acceptable to the driver of the vehicle
on the minor road. Both forms of sight triangle The recommended dimensions of the clear sight
are required in each quadrant of the intersec- triangles vary with the type of traffic control used
tion. at an intersection because different types of
control impose different legal constraints on
The line of sight assumes a driver eye height of
drivers resulting in different driver behaviour.
1,05 metres and an object height of 1,3 metres.
Sight distance policies for intersections with the
following types of traffic control are presented
The approach and departure sight triangles are
below:
illustrated in Figure 6.5. The areas shown shad-
ed should be kept clear of vegetation or any
• Intersections with no control (Case A);
other obstacle to a clear line of sight. To this
• Intersections with Stop control on the
end, the road reserve is normally splayed to
minor road (Case B);
ensure that the entire extent of the sight triangle o Right turn from the minor road
is under the control of the road authority. (Case B1);
Furthermore, the profiles of the intersecting o Left turn from the minor road
roads should be designed to provide the (Case B2);
required sight distance. Where one or other of o Crossing manoeuvre from the
minor road (Case B3);
the approaches is in cut, the affected sight tri-
• Intersections with Yield control on the
angles may have to be "day lighted", i.e. the nat-
minor road (Case C);
ural material occurring within the sight triangles
o Crossing manoeuvre from the
may have to be excavated to ensure intervisibil- minor road (Case C1); Geometric Design Guide
ity between the relevant approaches. o Left or right turn from the minor
road (Case C2);
Sight distance values are based on the ability of • Intersections with traffic signal control
the driver of a passenger car to see an (Case D); and
approaching passenger car. It is also necessary • Intersections with all-way Stop control
(Case E).
to check whether the sight distance is adequate
for trucks. Because their rate of acceleration is
lower than that of passenger cars and as the A sight-distance policy for stopped vehicles turn-
distance that the truck has to travel to clear the ing right from a major road (Case F) is also pre-
intersection is longer, the gap acceptable to a sented.
6-15
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
Figure 6.5: Sight triangles
Intersections with no control (Case A) If sight triangles of this size cannot be provided,
the lengths of the legs on each approach can be
Geometric Design Guide
Uncontrolled intersections are not used in con- determined from a model that is analogous to
junction with the main road network, but are the stopping sight distance model, with slightly
common in rural networks and access roads to different assumptions.
rural settlements. In these cases, drivers must
be able to see potentially conflicting vehicles on Field observations indicate that vehicles
intersecting approaches in sufficient time to stop approaching uncontrolled intersections typically
safely before reaching the intersection. Ideally, slow down to approximately 50 per cent of their
sight triangles with legs equal to stopping sight normal running speed. This occurs even when
distance should be provided on all the no potentially conflicting vehicles are present,
approaches to uncontrolled intersections. typically at deceleration rates of up to 1.5m/s.
6-16
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
Braking at greater deceleration rates, which can from a speed less than the normal running
approach those assumed in the calculation of speed.
stopping sight distances, begins up to 2,5 sec-
onds after a vehicle on the intersecting Table 6.5 shows the distance travelled by an
approach comes into view. Thus, approaching approaching vehicle during perception, reaction
vehicles may be travelling at less than their nor- and braking time as a function of the design
mal running speed during all or part of the per- speed of the roadway on which the intersection
ception-reaction time and can brake to a stop approach is located. These distances should be
Note: Based on ratio of stopping sight distance on specified approach grade to stopping sight distance
on level terrain.
6-17
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
used as the legs of the sight triangles shown in intersections because all minor-road vehicles
Figure 6.4. should stop before entering or crossing the
major road.
Where the gradient of an intersection approach
exceeds three per cent, the leg of the clear sight Vehicles turning right from the minor road have
triangle along that approach should be adjusted to cross the stream of traffic approaching from
by multiplying the sight distance in Table 6.5 by the right and then merge with the stream
an adjustment factor in Table 6.6. approaching from the left. Left-turning vehicles
need only merge with the stream approaching
If these sight distances cannot be provided, from the right. As the merging manoeuvre
advisory speed signing to reduce speeds or requires that turning vehicles should be able to
installing Stop signs on one or more approach- accelerate approximately to the speed of the
B2); and from the minor road. Where the gap accept-
• Crossing the major road from the minor- ance values in Table 6.7 are used to determine
road approach (Case B3). the length of the leg of the departure sight trian-
gle along the major road, most major-road driv-
Approach sight triangles, as shown in Figure ers need not reduce speed to less than 70 per-
6-18
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
Table 6.7 applies to passenger cars. However, If the sight distances along the major road
for minor-road approaches from which substan- based on Table 6.7 (including the appropriate
tial volumes of heavy vehicles enter the major adjustments) cannot be provided, consideration
road, the values for single-unit trucks or semi- should be given to the installation of advisory
trailers should be applied. speed signs on the major-road approaches.
Table 6.7 includes adjustments to the accept- Dimension "a" in Figure 6.4 (b) depends on the
able gaps for the number of lanes on the major context within which the intersection is being
road and for the approach gradient of the minor designed. In urban areas, drivers tend to stop
road. The adjustment for the gradient of the their vehicles immediately behind the Stop line,
minor-road approach need be made only if the which may be located virtually in line with the
rear wheels of the design vehicle would be on edge of the major road. A passenger car driver
an upgrade steeper than 3 per cent when the would, therefore, be located about 2,4 metres
vehicle is at the stop line of the minor-road away from the Stop line. In rural areas, vehicles
approach. usually stop at the edge of the shoulder of the
major road. In the case of a three metre wide
The length of the sight triangle along the major
shoulder the driver would thus be approximate-
road (distance "b" in Figure 6.4) is the product of
ly 5,4 metres away from the edge of the trav-
the design speed of the major road in
elled way.
metres/second and the critical gap in seconds
as listed in Table 6.7.
6-19
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
Where the major road is a dual carriageway, two be provided, it should be kept in mind that field
departure sight triangles have to be considered: observations indicate that, in making left turns,
a sight triangle to the right, as for the crossing drivers generally accept gaps that are slightly
movement (Case B3) and one using the accept- shorter than those accepted in making right
able gap as listed in Table 6.7 for vehicles turns. The travel times in Table 6.7 can be
approaching from the left. This presupposes decreased by 1,0 to 1,5 seconds for left turn
that the width of the median is sufficient to pro- manoeuvres, where necessary, without undue
vide a refuge for the vehicle turning from the interference with major-road traffic. When the
minor road. If the median width is inadequate, recommended sight distance for a left-turn
the adjustment in Table 6.7 for multilane major manoeuvre cannot be provided, even with a
roads should be applied with the median being reduction of 1,0 to 1,5 seconds, consideration
counted as an additional lane. should be given to the installation of advisory
speed signs and warning devices on the major-
The departure sight triangle should be checked road approaches.
for various possible design vehicles because
the width of the median may be adequate for Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road (Case
one vehicle type and not for another so that two B3)
different situations have to be evaluated.
Where sight distances along the major road Table 6.8 presents travel times and appropriate
based on the travel times from Table 6.7 cannot adjustment factors that can be used to deter-
6-20
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
mine the length of the leg of the sight triangle or cross the major road without stopping. The
along the major road to accommodate crossing sight distances needed by drivers on Yield-con-
manoeuvres. trolled approaches exceed those for Stop-con-
trolled approaches because of the longer travel
At divided highway intersections, depending on time of the vehicle on the minor road.
the width of the median and the length of the
design vehicle, sight distance may be needed For four-legged intersections with Yield control
for crossing both roadways of the divided high- on the minor road, two separate sets of
way or for crossing the near lanes only and approach sight triangles as shown in Figure
stopping in the median before proceeding. 6.5(A) should be provided: one set of approach
a For minor-road approach gradients that exceed +3 per cent, multiply by the appropriate adjustment fac- t o r
b Travel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the intersection but does not stop.
Intersections with Yield control on the minor sight triangles to accommodate right and left
Geometric Design Guide
road (Case C) turns onto the major road and the other for
crossing movements. Both sets of sight trian-
Vehicles entering a major road at a Yield-con- gles should be checked for potential sight
trolled intersection may, because of the pres- obstructions.
ence of opposing vehicles on the major road, be
required to stop. Departure sight triangles as Crossing manoeuvres (Case C1)
described for Stop control must therefore be
provided for the Yield condition. However, if no The lengths of the leg of the approach sight tri-
conflicting vehicles are present, drivers angle along the minor road to accommodate the
approaching Yield signs are permitted to enter crossing manoeuvre from a Yield-controlled
6-21
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
approach (distance "a" in Figure 6.5(A) are These equations provide sufficient travel time
given in Table 6.9. The distances in Table 6.9 for the major road vehicle, during which the
are based on the same assumptions as those minor-road vehicle can:
for Case A control except that, based on field (1) Travel from the decision point to the
observations, minor-road vehicles that do not intersection, while decelerating at the rate of
stop are assumed to decelerate to 60 per cent 1.5m/s² to 60 per cent of the minor-road design
of the minor-road design speed rather than to 50 speed; and then
per cent. The distances and times in Table 6.9 (2) Cross and clear the intersection at the
should be adjusted for the gradient of the minor same speed.
road approach, using the factors in Table 6.6.
Field observations did not provide a clear indi-
The length of the leg of the approach sight tri-
cation of the size of the gap acceptable to the
angle along the major road to accommodate the
driver of a vehicle located at the decision point
crossing manoeuvre (distance "b" in Figure
on the minor road. If the required gap is longer
6.5(A)) should be calculated using the following
than that indicated by the above equations, the
equations:
driver would, in all probability, bring the vehicle
6-22
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
of the leg of the approach sight triangle along Since approach sight triangles for turning
the major road (distance "b" in Figure 6.5(B)) is manoeuvres at Yield-controlled are larger than
similar to that of the major-road leg of the depar- the departure sight triangles used at Stop-con-
ture sight triangle for Stop-controlled intersec- trolled intersections, no specific check of depar-
tions in Cases B1 and B2. ture sight triangles at Yield-controlled intersec-
tions should be necessary.
For a Yield-controlled intersection, the travel
times in Table 6.7 should be increased by 0,5
Intersections with traffic signal control (Case D)
seconds. The minor-road vehicle requires 3,5
seconds to travel from the decision point to the
intersection. These 3,5 seconds represent addi- In general, approach or departure sight triangles
tional travel time that is needed at a Yield-con- are not needed for signalised intersections.
trolled intersection (Case C). However, the Indeed, signalisation may be an appropriate Geometric Design Guide
acceleration time after entering the major road is accident countermeasure for higher volume
3,0 seconds less for a Yield sign than for a Stop intersections with restricted sight distance and a
sign because the turning vehicle accelerates history of sight-distance related accidents.
6-23
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
Case B, both to the left and to the right, should required by a stopped vehicle, the need for sight
be provided for the minor-road approaches. distance design should be based on a right turn
by a stopped vehicle.
Intersections with all-way Stop control (Case E)
The sight distance along the major road to
At intersections with all-way Stop control, the accommodate right turns is the distance that
first stopped vehicle on each approach would be would be traversed at the design speed of the
visible to the drivers of the first stopped vehicles major road in the travel time for the appropriate
on each of the other approaches. It is thus not design vehicle given in Table 6.10. This table
necessary to provide sight distance triangles at also contains appropriate adjustment factors for
intersections with All-way Stop control. All-way the number of major-road lanes to be crossed
Stop control may be an option to consider where by the turning vehicle.
the sight distance for other types of control can-
not be achieved. This is particularly the case if If stopping sight distance has been provided
signals are not warranted. continuously along the major road and, if sight
distance for Case B (Stop control) or Case C
(Yield control) has been provided for each
Right turns from a major road (Case F)
minor-road approach, sight distance should
generally be adequate for right turns from the
Right-turning drivers need sufficient sight dis-
major road. However, at intersections or drive-
tance to enable them to decide when it is safe to ways located on or near horizontal or vertical
turn right across the lane(s) used by opposing curves on the major road, the availability of ade-
traffic. At all locations, where right turns across quate sight distance for right turns from the
Geometric Design Guide
opposing traffic are possible, there should be major road should be checked. In the case of
sufficient sight distance to accommodate these dual carriageways, the presence of sight
manoeuvres. Since a vehicle that turns right obstructions in the median should also be
without stopping needs a gap shorter than that checked.
6-24
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
At four-legged intersections, opposing vehicles area within each sight triangle should be clear of
turning right can block a driver's view of oncom- sight obstructions, as described above.
ing traffic. If right-turn lanes are provided, off-
setting them to the right, to be directly opposite At skew intersections, the length of the travel
one other, will provide right-turning drivers with paths for crossing manoeuvres will be
a better view of oncoming traffic. increased. The actual path length for a crossing
manoeuvre can be calculated by dividing the
Effect of skew on sight distance total width of the lanes (plus the median width,
where appropriate) to be crossed by the sine of
When two highways intersect at an angle out- the intersection angle and adding the length of
side the range of 75O to 120O and where the design vehicle. The actual path length divid-
realignment to increase the angle of intersection ed by the lane width applied to the major road
is not justified, some of the factors for determi- cross-section gives the equivalent number of
Geometric Design Guide
nation of intersection sight distance will need lanes to be crossed. This is an indication of the
adjustment. number of additional lanes to be applied to the
adjustment factor shown in Table 6.8 for Case
Each of the clear sight triangles described B3.
above is applicable to oblique-angle intersec-
tions. As shown in Figure 6.6, the legs of the The sight distances offered for Case B can,
sight triangle will lie along the intersection regardless of the form of control, also accom-
approaches and each sight triangle will be larg- modate turning movements from the minor road
er or smaller than the corresponding sight trian- to the major road at skew intersections. In the
gle would be at a right-angle intersection. The obtuse angle, drivers can easily see the full
6-25
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
sight triangle and, in addition, often accelerate flicts that are inherent in any intersection. In that
from the minor road at a higher rate than when sub-section, nine principles of channelisation
they have to negotiate a ninety-degree change are listed. In essence, channelisation is the
of direction. In the acute-angle quadrant, driv- process whereby a vehicle can be guided safe-
ers are often required to turn their heads con- ly through the intersection area from an
siderably to see across the entire clear sight tri- approach leg to the selected departure leg.
angle. For this reason, it is suggested that Case Guidance is offered by lane markings that clear-
A should not be applied to oblique-angle inter- ly define the required vehicle path and also indi-
sections. Stop or Yield control should be cate auxiliary lanes for turning movements. A
applied and the sight distances appropriate to variety of symbols is also used as road mark-
either Case B or Case C provided. Even in a ings to indicate inter alia that turns, either to the
skew intersection it is usually possible for driv- left or to the right, from selected lanes are
ers to position their vehicles at approximately mandatory. At intersections that are complex or
90O to the major road at the Stop line, offering have high volumes of turning traffic, it is usually
added support for the application of Case B for necessary to reinforce the guidance offered by
skew intersections. road markings by the application of:
• Channelising islands;
When driving through a deflection angle greater • Medians and median end treatments;
At-grade intersections with large paved areas, Islands are included in intersections for one or
such as those with large corner radii or with more of the following purposes:
angles of skew differing greatly from 90O, permit • Separation of conflicts;
Geometric Design Guide
6-26
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
The three main functions of channelising islands Islands may be kerbed, painted or simply non-
are thus: paved. Kerbed islands provided the most posi-
• Directional - to control and direct move- tive traffic delineation and are normally used in
ments, usually turning; urban areas to provide some degree of protec-
• Division - which can be of opposing or
tion to pedestrians and traffic control devices.
same direction, usually through, move-
Painted islands are usually used in suburban
ments; and
areas where speeds are low, e.g. in the range of
• Refuge - either of turning vehicles or of
pedestrians. 50 km/h to 70 km/h and space limited. In rural
areas, kerbs are not common and, at the
Typical island shapes are illustrated in Figure speeds prevailing in these areas, typically 120
The designer should bear in mind that islands section, the use of mountable kerbing should be
are hazards and should be less hazardous than considered. As an additional safety measure, a
6-27
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
island. Non-paved islands are defined by the metres in area to ensure that they are easily vis-
pavement edges and are usually used for large ible to approaching drivers.
islands at rural intersections. These islands Directional islands are typically triangular with
may have delineators on posts and may be their dimensions and exact shape being dictat-
landscaped. ed by:
• The corner radii and associated tapers;
Islands are generally either long or triangular in • The angle of skew of the intersection;
shape, with the circular shape being limited to and
application in roundabouts. They are situated in • The turning path of the design vehicle.
areas not intended for use in vehicle paths.
A typical triangular island is illustrated in Figure
Drivers tend to find an archipelago of small 6.8. The approach ends of the island usually
islands confusing and are liable to select an have a radius of about 0,6 metres and the offset
incorrect path through the intersection area. As between the island and the edge of the travelled
a general design principle, a few large islands way is typically 0,6 to 1,0 metres to allow for the
are thus to be preferred to several small islands. effect of kerbing on the lateral placement of
Islands should not be less than about 5 square moving vehicles. Where the major road has
Geometric Design Guide
6-28
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
shoulders, the nose of the island is offset about teardrop shape. They are often employed on
one metre from the edge of the usable shoulder, the minor legs of an intersection where these
the side adjacent to the through lane being legs have a two-lane, two-way or four-lane undi-
tapered back to terminate at the edge of the vided cross-section. The principle function of a
usable shoulder, thus offering some guidance dividing island is to warn the driver of the pres-
and redirection. A kerbed cross-section on the ence of the intersection. This can be achieved
major road suggests that the nose of the island by the left edge of the island being, at the widest
should be offset by about 1,6 metres from the point of the island, in line with the left edge of the
edge of the travelled way, with the side adjacent approach leg. To the approaching driver, it
to the through lane being tapered back to termi- would thus appear as though the entire lane had
nate 0,6 metres from the edge of the through been blocked off by the island. If space does
lane. not permit this width of island, a lesser blocking
Dividing, or splitter, islands usually have a width would have to be applied but it is doubted
6-29
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
whether anything less than half of the approach right, both from the minor road to the major road
lane width would be effective. The taper that and from the major road to the minor.
can be employed to achieve this effect safely is
discussed in Section 6.5.3. A typical dividing Median islands are discussed in Section 4.4.6
island is illustrated in Figure 6.9. and outer separator islands in Section 4.4.7. At
intersections, the end treatment of median
The shape of the splitter island discussed in islands is important. The width of the opening
Section 6.6.5 is derived from the need to redi- between two median ends should match the
rect vehicles entering a roundabout through an width of the minor road, including its shoulders,
O
angle of not more than 30 . Although it serves or, where the minor road is kerbed, the opening
to create the illusion of about a half of the should not be narrower than the surfaced width
approach lane being blocked off, its true func- of the minor road plus an offset of 0,6 to 1,0
The kerb height should ensure that the island turning vehicles and an assumed nose radius of
would be visible within normal stopping sight 0,6 to 1,0 metres. It results in less intersection
distance. However, it may be advisable to draw pavement area and a shorter length of opening
the driver's attention to the island by highlighting than the semicircular end. Above a median
the kerbs with paint or reflective markings. width of five metres, the width of the minor road
controls the length of the opening. A flattened
As in the case of the triangular island, the nose bullet nose, using the arcs as for the conven-
of the dividing island should be offset by about tional bullet nose but with a flat end as dictated
by the width of the crossing road and parallel to
Geometric Design Guide
are usually kerbed to enhance their visibility and ed. These end treatments are illustrated in
the offset between the kerbing and the edge of Figure 6.10.
6-30
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
which is better placed to serve as a refuge for envisaged. Reference is typically to three types
pedestrians crossing the dual carriageway road. of operation, being:
An additional disadvantage of the use of the Case 1 One-lane one-way travel with
semicircular end treatment for wide medians is no provision for passing
that, whereas the bullet nose and the flattened stopped vehicles;
bullet nose both guide the vehicle towards the Case 2 One-lane one-way travel with
left of the centreline of the minor road, the semi- provision for passing a stopped
circular end treatment tends to direct the vehicle vehicles; and
into the opposing traffic lane of the minor road. Case 3 Two-lane one-way operation
6.5.2 Turning roadway widths Three traffic conditions should also be consid-
ered, being:
Directional islands are bounded by the major Condition A Insufficient SU vehicles in the
and minor roads and by a short length of one- turning traffic stream to influ-
way, typically one-lane, turning roadway. The ence design;
width of the turning roadway is defined by the Condition B Sufficient SU vehicles to influ-
swept area of the design vehicle for the select- ence design; and
ed radius of curvature and the type of operation Condition C Sufficient semi-trailers to
6-31
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
influence design way compared to the 6,4 metre lane width of the
single curve. The three-centred curve is partic-
Turning roadways are short so that design for ularly useful for Case C conditions because
Case 1 is usually adequate. It is reasonable to semi-trailers require an inordinate width of turn-
assume, even in the absence of traffic data, that ing roadway. For example, the required width of
there will be enough trucks in the traffic stream turning roadway for Case 1, Condition C and a
to warrant the application of Condition B to the design speed of 20 km/h is 7,9 metres whereas,
design. Turning roadway widths are listed in under the same circumstances, passenger cars
Table 6.11 require only 4,0 metres. Drivers of passenger
cars could thus quite easily perceive the turning
Three-centred curves are an effective alterna- roadway as being intended for two-lane opera-
tive to the single radius curves listed in Table tion.
6.11. These curves typically have a ratio of
3:1:3 between the successive radii. However, It is not possible to list all the possible alterna-
asymmetric combinations, e.g. 2:1:4, have also tive three-centred curve combinations. When
Geometric Design Guide
proved very useful in the past. These curves three-centred curves are considered, the
closely follow the wheel path of a vehicle nego- designer should determine the required road-
tiating the turn thus enabling the use of narrow- way width by the use of templates.
er lanes than with a single radius curve. In addi-
tion, three-centre curves allow the use of small- 6.5.3 Tapers
er central radii than do the equivalent single
curves. Under Case C conditions, a 55:20:55 There are two types of taper, each with different
metre radius three-centred curve is the equiva- geometric requirements. These are:
lent of a thirty metre single radius curve and per- • The active taper, which forces a lateral
mits the use of a 6,0 metre wide turning road- transition of traffic; and
6-32
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
• The passive taper, which allows a later- should not fall outside the range of 75O to 120O,
al transition of traffic. it is important to note that a very short active
taper may result in the creation of a local angle
The active taper is used to narrow a roadway or of skew of less than 75O. This would make it
lane or as a lane drop, i.e. when two lanes very difficult for the driver on the turning road-
merge into one. The passive taper either way to observe opposing traffic on the through
widens or adds a lane. Active tapers constitute lane. At an angle of skew of less than 5O the
a hazard insofar as that a driver that fails to per- driver should, using the rear view mirror, be able
ceive the change in circumstances, may either to observe opposing traffic comfortably. In
drive off the travelled way or hit the adjacent short, tapers in the range between 1:10 and 1:
kerbing. Passive tapers, on the other hand, cre- 0,3 should be avoided (the latter corresponding
ate space on the travelled way and, thus, are to an angle of skew of 75O).
not hazards. Consequently, active tapers
should be long and passive tapers may be short. Acceptable tapers rates are suggested in Table
6.12.
If a turning roadway is preceded by an auxiliary
lane to allow for deceleration or followed by an In entering a deceleration lane, a vehicle follows
auxiliary lane allowing for acceleration, these a reverse or S-curve alignment, which is effec-
lanes will be added or dropped by means of tively a passive taper immediately followed by
passive and active tapers respectively. In the an active taper. Four different combinations of
The turning roadway may be terminated by an In urban areas, short straight-line tapers appear
active taper connecting its left edge to the left to offer better targets for the approaching driver.
edge of the through lane. Apropos the sugges- Urban intersections operate at slow speeds dur-
tion that the angle of skew of the intersection ing peak periods and, particularly for right-turn-
6-33
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
ing traffic, the need for storage may be more vehicles already in the circle had to give way to
important than the ability to enter the decelera- those wishing to enter it. Not surprisingly, grid-
tion lane at relatively high speeds. Tapers could lock resulted at heavy flow rates. Ultimately,
therefore be as sharp as 1:2, which is about the traffic circles fell into disfavour and were
limit of manoeuvrability of a passenger car at replaced by conventional three- and four-legged
crawl speeds. intersections.
As speeds are higher in rural than in urban Modern roundabouts differ from traffic circles in
areas, the other forms of taper listed above may their uniform characteristics and operation.
warrant consideration. The partial tangent taper Internationally, roundabouts operate on the
is a straight line taper preceded by a short "Yield on entry" rule so that, where vehicles
curved section with a radius such that the drive on the left, vehicles yield to the right and
desired taper rate is achieved at a point about vice versa. South Africa applies the same rule
one third of the way across the width of the aux- except that, in the case of the mini-roundabout,
iliary lane. The symmetrical reverse curve taper the rule is slightly modified by the use of the
has curved sections of equal radius at either R2.2 sign which "....indicates to the driver of a
end. The guideline suggested for the partial tan- vehicle approaching a traffic circle that he shall
gent, i.e. the curve traversing one third of the yield right of way to any vehicle which will cross
lane width, applies to the entry and the exit any yield line at such junction before him and
curves of the taper. The asymmetrical reverse which, in the normal course of events, will cross
curve usually has an entry curve radius about the path of such driver's vehicle."
twice that of the exit curve.
Drivers are thus inclined to adopt the approach
6-34
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
Delays at roundabouts are usually less than at In spite of their undoubted advantages, round-
conventional intersections and, in consequence, abouts are not appropriate to every situation.
capacity is higher. The proviso is that the com- They may be inappropriate:
bined intersection flow should be less than 3 • Where spatial restraints (including cost
500 veh/h. Reduced delays improve vehicle of land), unfavourable topography or
operating costs. high construction costs make it impossi-
ble to provide an acceptable geometric
Roundabouts have less potential conflict points design;
than conventional intersections. In the case of • Where traffic flows are unbalanced, with
the four-legged intersection, 32 conflict points high flows on one or more approaches;
6-35
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
• In the presence of reversible lanes; the intersection flow is greater
• Where semi-trailers and/or abnormal than 1 500 veh/h or;
vehicles are a significant proportion of o on four-legged intersections, is
the total traffic passing through the inter- greater than 2 000 veh/h;
section and where there is insufficient • One major flow has a predominant
space to provide the required layout; and through movement that is:
• Where signalised traffic control down o Between 50 and 80 per cent of
stream could cause a queue to back-up the approach volume; or
through the roundabout. o Between 25 and 40 per cent of
the intersection volume; and
o High volumes of right-turning
Roundabouts can be considered when:
movements, i.e. more than 25
• Intersection volumes do not exceed 3 000
umes on the major and minor road does ideally range between 40 to 50 km/h.
not exceed 60/40 where; Unfortunately, this suggests a radius of between
o on three-legged intersections, 60 and 80 metres hence requiring an overall
6-36
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
diameter of the roundabout of the order of 150 intersection at all times. This requirement sug-
metres. Very often, the space for this size of gests that the elaborate landscaping schemes
intersection will simply not be available and sometimes placed on the central islands of
some lesser design speed will have to be roundabouts are totally inappropriate to the
accepted. intended function of the layout.
Where the design speeds on the approaches Decision sight distance for intersections as
are high, e.g. more than 15 km/h faster than the described in Table 3.5 should be provided on
design speed within the facility, it may be nec- each approach to the roundabout to ensure that
essary to consider forcing a reduction in vehicle drivers can see the nose of the splitter island. It
speed. This could be by means of horizontal follows that roundabouts should not be located
reverse curvature. The ratio between the radii on crest curves.
of successive curves should be of the order of
1,5:1. 6.6.5 Components
Speed humps should not be employed as The various components of a roundabout are
speed-reducing devices on major roads or on illustrated in Figure 6.11.
bus routes. Where design speeds are of the
order of 100 km/h or more, the speed hump Deflection
would have to be long and the height low to
ensure that the vertical acceleration caused by A very important component is the deflection
the speed hump does not cause the driver to forced on vehicles on the approach to the
lose control. It is suggested that, in practice, a roundabout. The intention is to reduce the
suitable profile would be difficult to construct. speed of vehicles so that, within limits, the
Bus passengers, particularly those sitting in the greater the deflection the better. The limit is that
rear overhang of the vehicle, would find travers- the minimum acceptable angle of skew at an
ing a speed hump distinctly uncomfortable. intersection is 60O, as discussed previously in
Speed humps should thus only be used at this chapter. This corresponds to a deflection
roundabouts in residential areas or where the on entry of 30O. The approach radius should not
Geometric Design Guide
intention is to apply traffic calming. exceed 100 metres, which corresponds to the
recommended design speed of 40 to 50 km/h.
6.6.4 Sight distance
Entries and exits
Site visibility is important in the design of round-
abouts. Specifically, approaching drivers should The widths of single lane approaches to round-
have a clear view of the nose of the splitter or abouts are typically of the order of 3,4 to 3,7
separator island. At the yield line and while tra- metres. The entry width is one of the most
versing the roundabout, they should have an important factors in increasing the capacity of
uninterrupted view of the opposing legs of the the roundabout and can be increased above the
6-37
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
width of the approach by flaring, i.e. by provid- side and inside kerbs. For a vehicle with an
ing a passive taper with a taper rate of 1:12 to overall width of 2,6 metres, the offset should
1:15. The recommended minimum width for a thus be not less than 1,6 metres with 2,0 metres
single-lane entry is 5 metres. being preferred. To ensure that vehicles do not
travel faster than the design speed, the maxi-
If demanded by high approach volumes, the mum radius on the vehicle path should be kept
flaring could add a full lane to the entry to to 100 metres or less.
increase capacity. The width of a two-lane entry
should be of the order of 8 metres. A variation
As a general guideline, the circulatory roadway
on the two-lane entry is to have, in effect, a sin-
should be sufficiently wide to allow a stalled
gle-lane circulatory roadway with an auxiliary
vehicle to be passed but without sufficient trucks
lane provided for the benefit of vehicles turning
in the traffic stream to influence design (normal-
left at the roundabout. The auxiliary lane is
ly described as Case 2, Condition A in the case
shielded from traffic approaching from the right
of turning roadways). The minimum roadway
by moving the end of the splitter island forward
width for single-lane operation under these cir-
to provide a circulatory road width adequate
cumstances would be of the order of 6,5 metres
only for single-lane travel. This approach could
between kerbs. Two-lane operation would
be adopted with advantage when left-turning
require a roadway width of about 8 metres. If
traffic represents 50 per cent or more of the
trucks are present in the traffic stream in suffi-
entry flow or more than 300 veh/h during peak
cient numbers to influence design, the circulato-
hours.
ry road width should be increased by 3 metres
both in the single-lane and in the two-lane situ-
Circulatory roadway
ation. A significant proportion of semi-trailers
would require the width of the circulatory road
The circulatory roadway width is a function of
width to be increased to 13 metres and 16
the swept path of the design vehicle and of the
metres in the single-lane and the two-lane situ-
layout of the exits and entries and generally
ation respectively.
should be either equal to or 1,2 times the width
of the entries. The width should be constant
Geometric Design Guide
In the construction of the swept path of the the roundabout on relatively large radius curves
design vehicle, it should be noted that drivers and at correspondingly high speeds. To avoid
tend to position their vehicles close to the out- this possibility, the central island should be mod-
side kerbs on entry to and exit from the round- ified as discussed below.
6-38
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
Central island cyclists and a place to mount traffic
signs.
abouts where the central island may simply be a dimensions of the central island and inscribed
painted dot. The island is often landscaped but circle. As a general guideline, they should have
it should be ensured that the landscaping does an area of at least 10 square metres so as to
not obscure the sight lines across the island. ensure their visibility to the oncoming driver.
Historically, central islands were often square or, The length of splitter islands should be equal to
if they had more than four entries, polygonal. the comfortable deceleration distance from the
Negotiating the right angle bends was only pos- design speed of the approach to that of the
Splitter islands
Geometric Design Guide
Splitter islands should be provided on the
approaches to roundabouts to:
• Allow drivers to perceive the upcoming
roundabout and to reduce entry speed;
• Provide space for a comfortable decel-
eration distance;
• Physically separate entering and exiting
traffic;
• Prevent deliberate and highly dangerous
wrong-way driving;
• Control entry and exit deflections; and
• Provide a refuge for pedestrians and
6-39
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7. INTERCHANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.1.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.1.2 Design principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2 INTERCHANGE WARRANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
7.2.1 Traffic volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
7.2.2 Freeways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
7.2.3 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
7.2.4 Topography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
7.3 WEAVING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
7.4 LOCATION AND SPACING OF INTERCHANGES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6
7.5 BASIC LANES AND LANE BALANCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
7.6 AUXILIARY LANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
7.6.1 The need for an auxiliary lane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
7.6.2 Auxiliary lane terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13
7.6.3 Driver information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13
7.7 INTERCHANGE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13
7.7.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13
7.7.2 Systems interchanges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15
7.7.3 Access and service interchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17
7.7.4 Interchanges on non-freeway roads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23
7.8 RAMP DESIGN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23
7.8.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23
7.8.2 Design speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-24
7.8.3 Sight distance on ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25
7.8.4 Horizontal alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-26
7.8.5 Vertical alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27
7.8.6 Cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28
7.8.7 Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29
7.9 COLLECTOR - DISTRIBUTOR ROADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35
7.10 OTHER INTERCHANGE DESIGN FEATURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35
7.10.1Ramp metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35
7.10.2Express-collector systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-36
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
whereas the turning movements at interchanges applied at a particular site would be selected as
are accommodated on ramps. The ramps an input into the design process. In fact, like the
replace the slow turn through an angle of skew cross-section, the interchange is the aggrega-
O
that is approximately equal to 90 by high-speed tion of various elements. A more sensible
merging and diverging manoeuvres at relatively approach is thus to select the elements appro-
Grade separations, discussed further in Chapter ments and then to aggregate them into some or
7-1
Chapter 7: Interchanges
tion of the basic principles of interchange Route continuity substantially simplifies the nav-
design. igational aspects of the driving task. For exam-
ple, if a driver simply wishes to travel on a free-
The driver has a number of tasks to execute way network through a city from one end to the
successfully to avoid being a hazard to other other it should not be necessary to deviate from
turning vehicles. The problem of extracting turn- support of operational efficiency of the inter-
ing vehicles from the median island and provid- change. Merging manoeuvres by entering vehi-
ing sufficient vertical clearance either over or cles are an interruption of the free flow of traffic
under the opposing freeway through lanes is not in the left lane of the freeway. Closely spaced
trivial. The application of right-hand entrances entrances exacerbate the problem and the
and exits should only be considered under resulting turbulence could influence the adja-
extremely limiting circumstances. Even in the cent lanes as well.
case of a major fork where two freeways are
diverging, the lesser movement should, for pref- From the standpoint of convenience and safety,
erence, be on the left. in particular prevention of wrong-way move-
7-2
Chapter 7: Interchanges
ments, interchanges should provide ramps to • The crossing road ramp terminals may
serve all turning movements. If, for any reason, include right and left turn lanes, traffic
this is not possible or desirable, it is neverthe- signals and other traffic control devices.
less to be preferred that, for any travel move- Not being obstructed by bridge piers
ment from one road to another within an inter- and the like, these would be rendered
change, the return movement should also be more visible by taking the crossing road
provided. over the freeway.
7-3
Chapter 7: Interchanges
7.2.2 Freeways 7.2.4 Topography
7-4
Chapter 7: Interchanges
Figure 7.1: Type A weaves: (a) ramp-weave
(b) major weave with crown line
Figure 7.2: Type B weaves: (a) major weave with lane balance at exit
(b) major weave with merging at entrance
(c) major weave with merging at entrance and lane
balance at exit
7-5
Chapter 7: Interchanges
Figure 7.3: Type C weaves: (a) major weave without lane balance
(b) two-sided weave
either up- or downstream of the weaving area Rural interchanges are typically spaced at dis-
and with an additional lane being provided tances of eight kilometres apart or more. This
either to the on- or to the off-ramp. It follows that distance is measured from centreline to centre-
a Type A weaving section can be easily convert- line of crossing roads.
ed into a Type B weave. At any site at which a
Type A weave appears, it would thus be prudent The generous spacing applied to rural inter-
to check the operation at the site for both types changes would not be able to serve intensively
of weave. Type C weaves rarely occur in South developed urban areas adequately. As an illus-
Africa. tration of context sensitive design, trip lengths
are shorter and speeds lower on urban free-
7.4 LOCATION AND SPACING OF ways than on rural freeways. As drivers are
7-6
Chapter 7: Interchanges
interchanges is significantly different from that conditions on the freeway. The third criterion is
between a Par-Clo-A followed by a Par-Clo-B. that of turbulence, which is applied to the
Weaving distance is defined in the Highway merge-diverge situation.
Capacity Manual 2000 and other sources as the
distance between the point at which the separa- (1) The distance required by the SADC
tion between the ramp and the adjacent lane is Road Traffic Signs Manual to provide adequate
0,5 metres to the point at the following off-ramp sign posting which, in turn, influences the safe
at which the distance between ramp and lane is operation of the freeway, is used to define the
3,7 m as illustrated in Figure 7.4. minimum distance between ramps. The mini-
mum distances to be used for detailed design
If this definition is adopted, the weaving length purposes, as measured between Yellow Line
becomes a function of the rates of taper applied Break Points, for different areas and inter-
to the on- and off-ramps. Reference to the change types should be not less than the values
Yellow Line Break Point (YLBP) distance is total- stated in Table 7.1.
ly unambiguous and is the preferred option. (2) In exceptional cases, where it is not
Three criteria for the spacing of interchanges possible to meet the above requirements, relax-
can be considered. In the first instance, the dis-
ation of these may be considered. It is, howev-
tance required for adequate signage should ide-
er, necessary to ensure that densities in the
ally dictate spacing of successive interchanges.
freeway left hand lane are not so high that the
If it is not possible to achieve these distances,
consideration can be given to a relaxation flow of traffic breaks down. Densities associat-
based on achieving Level Of Service (LOS) D ed with LOS E would make it difficult, if not actu-
7-7
Chapter 7: Interchanges
ally impossible, for drivers to be able to change merge, stacking of vehicles will occur on the on-
lanes. Formulae according to which densities ramp with the queue possibly backing up on to
can be estimated are provided in the Highway the crossing road itself. Stacking can also occur
Capacity Manual (2000). Drivers need time to on an off-ramp if the crossing road ramp termi-
locate a gap and then to position themselves nal cannot accommodate the rate of flow arriv-
correctly in relation to the gap while simultane- ing from the freeway. The queue could conceiv-
ously adjusting their speed to that required for ably back up onto the freeway, which would cre-
the lane change. The actual process of chang- ate an extremely hazardous situation.
ing lanes also requires time.
(3) In the case of the merge-diverge It should be realised that relaxations below the
manoeuvre, turbulence caused on the left lane distances recommended under (1) above will
of the freeway by a close succession of entering result in an increase in the driver workload.
and exiting vehicles becomes an issue. Failure to accommodate acceptable levels of
According to Roess and Ulerio this turbulence driver workload in relation to reaction times can
manifests itself over a distance of roughly 450 be expected to result in higher than average
metres upstream of an off-ramp and down- crash rates. Twomey et al demonstrate that, at
stream of an on-ramp. A spacing of 900 metres spacings between noses of greater than 2 500
would suggest that the entire length of freeway metres, the crash rate is fairly constant, i.e. the
between interchanges would be subject to tur- presence of the following interchange is not a
bulent flow. The likelihood of breakdown in the factor in the crash rate. At spacings of less than
traffic flow would thus be high and the designer 2500 m between noses, the crash rate increas-
should ensure that space is available for one es until, at about 500 m between noses, the
area of turbulence to subside before onset of crash rate is nearly double that of the 2500 m
the next. spacing. This is illustrated in Figure 7.2 below
(4) In off-peak periods, vehicles would be
moving between interchanges at the design The question that must be addressed is the ben-
speed or higher. The geometry of the on- and efit that the community can expect to derive in
off-ramps should be such that they can accom- exchange for the cost of the higher accident
modate manoeuvres at these speeds. rate. By virtue of the fact that freeway speeds
Geometric Design Guide
Increasing the taper rates or reducing the length tend to be high, there is a high probability that
of the speed change lanes purely to achieve many of the accidents would be fatal. It is there-
some or other hypothetically acceptable Yellow fore suggested that the decision to reduce the
Line Break Point distance does not constitute interchange spacing below those listed in Table
good design. 7.1 should not be taken lightly.
(5) The spacing between successive inter-
changes will have an impact on traffic opera- It would be necessary to undertake a full-scale
tions on the crossing roads and vice versa. If engineering analysis of the situation that would
the crossing road can deliver vehicles to the include:
freeway faster than they can carry out the • estimation of future traffic volumes at a
7-8
Chapter 7: Interchanges
Figure 7.5: Relationship between interchange spacing and accident rate
ten to twenty year time horizon, com- are not achievable and an interchange is
prising weaving and through volumes in absolutely vital for service to the community and
the design year; adjacent land uses, relaxations may be consid-
• calculation of traffic densities;
ered but then, to minimise the risk of crashes,
• assessment of the local geometry in
the density calculated according to the above-
terms of sight distances, and horizontal
mentioned formulae should not exceed 22 vehi-
and vertical alignment;
cles/kilometre/lane, which corresponds to LOS D.
• development of a sign sequence; and
• a form of benefit/cost analysis relating
7.5 BASIC LANES AND LANE BALANCE
community benefits to the decrease in
traffic safety.
Basic lanes are those that are maintained over
Density offers some indication of the level of an extended length of a route, irrespective of
exposure to risk and, for want of any better local changes in traffic volumes and require-
measure, it is suggested that a density higher ments for lane balance. Alternatively stated, the
crossroad volumes, causing back up onto the there is a significant change in the general level
7-9
Chapter 7: Interchanges
mended because this area could, at some future This can be used to drop a basic lane to match
time, become a bottleneck. Unusual traffic anticipated flows beyond the diverge.
demands, created by accidents, maintenance or Alternatively, it can be an auxiliary lane that is
special events, could also result in these areas dropped.
becoming bottlenecks.
Basic lanes and lane balance are brought into
harmony with each other by building on the
The basic number of lanes is derived from con-
basic lanes, adding or removing auxiliary lanes
sideration of the design traffic volumes and
as required. The principle of lane balance
capacity analyses. To promote the smooth flow
should always be applied in the use of auxiliary
of traffic there should be a proper balance of
lanes. Operational problems on existing road-
lanes at points where merging or diverging
ways can be directly attributed to a lack of lane
manoeuvres occur. In essence, there should be
balance and failure to maintain route continuity.
one lane where the driver has the choice of a
change of direction without the need to change
The application of lane balance and coordina-
lanes.
tion with basic number of lanes is illustrated in
Figure 7.6
At merges, the number of lanes downstream of
the merge should be one less than the number
7.6 AUXILIARY LANES
of lanes upstream of the merge. This is typified
by a one-lane ramp merging with a two-lane car- As in the case of the two-lane two-way road
riageway that, after the merge, continues as a cross-section with its climbing and passing
two-lane carriageway as is the case on a typical lanes, and the intersection with its right- and left-
Diamond Interchange layout. This rule pre- turning lanes, the auxiliary lane also has its role
cludes a two-lane ramp immediately merging to play in the freeway cross-section and the
with the carriageway without the addition of an interchange. In a sense, the application of the
auxiliary lane. auxiliary lane in the freeway environment is
identical to its application elsewhere. It is added
At diverges, the number of lanes downstream of to address a local operational issue and, as
Geometric Design Guide
the diverge should be one more than the num- soon as the need for the auxiliary lane is past, it
ber upstream of the diverge. The only exception is dropped.
to this rule is on short weaving sections, such as Important features to consider in the application
at Cloverleaf Interchanges, where a condition of and design of the auxiliary lane are thus:
this exception is that there is an auxiliary lane • The need for an auxiliary lane;
7-10
Chapter 7: Interchanges
Figure 7.6: Coordination of lane balance with basic number of lanes
ways either as: Ideally, maximum gradients on freeways are in Geometric Design Guide
• climbing lanes; or the range of three to four per cent ensuring that
• to support weaving; or most vehicles can maintain a high and fairly
• to support lane balance.
constant speed. However, in heavily rolling
The climbing lane application is similar to that
country it is not always possible to achieve this
discussed in Chapter 4 in respect of two-lane
ideal without incurring excessive costs in terms
two-way roads whereas the weaving and lane
of earthworks construction. Because of the
balance applications are unique to the freeway
heavy volumes of traffic that necessitate the
situation.
provision of a freeway, lane changing to over-
take a slow-moving vehicle is not always easy
Climbing lanes
and, under peak flow conditions, may actually
7-11
Chapter 7: Interchanges
be impossible. Speed differentials in the traffic ensure that the freeway is not unduly congested
stream are thus not only extremely disruptive because of this practice, an auxiliary lane can
but may also be potentially dangerous. Both be provided between adjacent interchanges
conditions, i.e. disruption and reduction in safe- resulting in Type A weaving as described in
ty, require consideration. Section 7.3.
If a gradient on a freeway is steeper than four If a large number of vehicles are entering at the
per cent, an operational analysis should be car- upstream interchange, it may be necessary to
ried out to establish the impact of the gradient provide a two-lane entrance ramp. Some of
on the Level of Service. A drop through one these vehicles may exit at the following inter-
level, e.g from LOS B through LOS C to LOS D, change but those wishing to travel further will
would normally suggest a need for a climbing have to weave across traffic from still further
lane. upstream that intends exiting at the following
interchange and then merge with through traffic
As discussed in Chapter 4, crash rates increase on the freeway. The auxiliary lane is then
exponentially with increasing speed differential. extended beyond the downstream interchange
For this reason, international warrants for climb- to allow a separation between the two manoeu-
ing lanes normally include a speed differential in vres. Similarly, a large volume of exiting vehi-
the range of 15 to 20 km/h. South Africa has cles may necessitate a two-lane exit, in which
adopted a truck speed reduction of 20 km/h as case the auxiliary lane should be extended
its speed-based warrant for climbing lanes. If, upstream. Type B weaving thus comes into
on an existing freeway, the measured truck being. The desired length of the extension of
speed reduction in the outermost lane is thus 20 the auxiliary lane beyond the two interchanges
km/h or higher, the provision of a climbing lane is normally assessed in terms of the probability
should be considered. In the case of a new of merging vehicles locating an acceptable gap
design, it will be necessary to construct a speed in the opposing traffic flow.
profile of the truck traffic to evaluate the need for
a climbing lane. Lane balance
Geometric Design Guide
7-12
Chapter 7: Interchanges
This is illustrated in Figure 7.6. 7.6.2 Auxiliary lane terminals
7-13
Chapter 7: Interchanges
changes. The major determinant of the type of between a major and a local road, as suggested
interchange to be employed at any particular above in the case where local topography may
site is the classification and characteristics of force a grade separation between the two roads.
the intersecting road. Intersecting roads are
typically freeways or urban arterials but may In addition to the classification and nature of the
also be collectors. intersecting road, there are a number of controls
guiding the selection of the most appropriate
In the case of freeways as intersecting roads,
interchange form for any particular situation. In
reference is made to systems interchanges.
the sense of context sensitive design, these
Systems interchanges exclusively serve vehi-
include;
cles that are already on the freeway system.
• Safety;
• Adjacent land use;
Access to the freeway system from the sur-
• Design speed of both the freeway and
rounding area is via interchanges on roads
the intersecting road;
other than freeways, for which reason these
• Traffic volumes of the through and turn-
interchanges are known as access inter-
ing movements;
changes. Service areas, providing opportunities
• Traffic composition;
to buy fuel, or food or simply to relax for a while
• Number of required legs;
are typically accessed via an interchange. In
• Road reserve and spatial requirements;
some instances, the services are duplicated on
• Topography;
either side of the freeway, in which access is via
• Service to adjacent communities;
a left-in/left-out configuration. The requirements
• Environmental considerations, and
in terms of deflection angle, length of ramp and
• Economics.
spacing that apply to interchange ramps apply
equally to left-in/left-out ramps. In effect, this sit-
The relative importance of these controls may
uation could be described as being an inter-
vary from interchange to interchange. For any
change without a crossing road.
particular site, each of the controls will have to
The primary difference between systems and
be examined and its relative importance
access/service interchanges is that the ramps
assessed. Only after this process will it be pos-
Geometric Design Guide
7-14
Chapter 7: Interchanges
7.7.2 Systems interchanges Partially directional interchanges allow the num-
ber of levels to be reduced. The Single Loop
As stated above, at-grade intersections are Partially-directional Interchange, illustrated in
inappropriate to systems interchanges and their Figure 7.7 (ii), and the Two Loop arrangement,
avoidance is mandatory. For this reason, hybrid illustrated in Figure 7.7 (iii) and (iv), require
interchanges, in which an access interchange is three levels. The difference between Figures
contained within a systems interchange, are to 7.7 (iii) and (iv) is that, in the former case, the
be avoided. freeways cross and, in the latter, route continu-
ity dictates a change in alignment. Loop ramps
Hybrid interchanges inevitably lead to an unsafe are normally only used for lighter volumes of
mix of high and low speed traffic. Furthermore, right-turning traffic. A three-loop arrangement
signposting anything up to six possible destina- is, in effect, a cloverleaf configuration, with one
tions within a very short distance is, at best, dif- of the loops being replaced by a directional
ficult. Selecting the appropriate response gen- ramp and is not likely to occur in practice, large-
erates an enormous workload for the driver so ly because of the problem of weaving discussed
that the probability of error is substantial. Past below.
experience suggests that these interchange
configurations are rarely successful. The principal benefit of the cloverleaf is that it
requires only a simple one-level structure, in
Directional interchanges provide high-speed contrast to the complex and correspondingly
connections to left and to right provided that the costly structures necessary for the directional
ramp exits and entrances are on the left of the and partially directional configurations. The
through lanes. Where turning volumes are low major weakness of the cloverleaf is that it
or space is limited, provision of loops for right requires weaving over very short distances.
turning traffic can be considered. Directional Provided weaving volumes are not high and suf-
interchanges that include one or more loops are ficient space is available to accommodate the
referred to as being partially-directional. If all interchange, the cloverleaf can, however, be
right turns are required to take place on loops, considered to be an option. If weaving is
the cloverleaf configuration emerges. Various required to take place on the main carriage-
Geometric Design Guide
forms of systems interchanges are illustrated ways, the turbulence so created has a serious
below. effect on the flow of traffic through the inter-
change area. The cloverleaf also has the char-
Four-legged interchanges acteristic of confronting the driver with two exits
from the freeway in quick succession. Both
The fully directional interchange illustrated in these problems can be resolved by providing
Figure 7.7 (i) provides single exits from all four collector-distributor roads adjacent to the
directions and directional ramps for all eight through carriageways.
turning movements. The through roads and
ramps are separated vertically on four levels.
7-15
Chapter 7: Interchanges
Figure 7.7: Four-legged systems interchanges
Geometric Design Guide
7-16
Chapter 7: Interchanges
Figure 7.8: Three-legged systems interchanges
Figures 7.8 (iv) and (v) show semi-directional vehicles entering from the crossing road may be
interchanges. Their names stem from the loop doing so from a stopped condition, so that it is
ramp located within the directional ramp creat- necessary to provide acceleration lanes to
ing the appearance of the bell of a trumpet. The ensure that they enter the freeway at or near Geometric Design Guide
letters "A" and "B" refer to the loop being in freeway speeds. Similarly, exiting vehicles
Advance of the structure or Beyond it. The should be provided with deceleration lanes to
smaller of the turning movements should ideally accommodate the possibility of a stop at the
be on the loop ramp but the availability of space crossing road.
may not always make this possible.
As previously discussed, there is distinct merit
7.7.3 Access and service interchanges in the crossing road being taken over the free-
way as opposed to under it. One of the advan-
In the case of the systems interchange, all traf- tages of the crossing road being over the free-
fic enters the interchange area at freeway way is that the positive and negative gradients
speeds. At access and service interchanges, respectively support the required deceleration
7-17
Chapter 7: Interchanges
and acceleration to and from the crossing road. crossing road, at the time of construction, stops
The final decision on the location of the crossing immediately beyond the interchange.
road is, however, also dependent on other con-
trols such as topography and cost. Diamond Interchanges
Access interchanges normally provide for all There are three basic forms of Diamond, being:
turning movements. If, for any reason, it is • The Simple Diamond;
deemed necessary to eliminate some of the • The Split Diamond, and the
turning movements, the return movement, for • Single Point Interchange.
any movement that is provided, should also be
provided. Movements excluded from a particu-
The Simple Diamond is easy for the driver to
lar interchange should, desirably, be provided at
understand and is economical in its use of
the next interchange upstream or downstream
space. The major problem with this configura-
as, without this provision, the community served
tion is that the right turn on to the crossing road
loses amenity.
can cause queuing on the exit ramp. In extreme
cases, these queues can extend back onto the
There are only two basic interchange types that
freeway, creating a hazardous situation. Where
are appropriate to access and service inter-
the traffic on the right turn is very heavy, it may
changes. These are the Diamond and the Par-
be necessary to consider placing it on a loop
Clo interchanges. Each has a variety of possi-
ramp. This is the reverse of the situation on sys-
ble configurations.
tems interchanges where it is the lesser vol-
umes that are located on loop ramps. It has the
Trumpet interchanges used to be considered advantage that the right turn is converted into a
suitable in cases where access was to provided left-turn at the crossing road ramp terminal. By
to one side only, for example to a bypass of a the provision of auxiliary lanes, this turn can
town or village. In practice, however, once a operate continuously without being impeded by
bypass has been built it does not take long traffic signals.
before development starts taking place on the The Simple Diamond can take one of two con-
Geometric Design Guide
other side of the bypass. The three-legged figurations: the Narrow Diamond and the Wide
interchange then has to be converted into a Diamond.
four-legged interchange. Conversion to a Par-
Clo can be achieved at relatively low cost. The Narrow Diamond is the form customarily
Other than in the case of the Par-Clo AB, one of applied. In this configuration, the crossing road
the major movements is forced onto a loop ramp terminals are very close in plan to the free-
ramp. The resulting configuration is thus not way shoulders to the extent that, where space is
appropriate to the circumstances. In practice, heavily constricted, retaining walls are located
the interchange should be planned as a just outside the freeway shoulder breakpoints.
Diamond in the first instance, even though the Apart from the problem of the right turn referred
7-18
Chapter 7: Interchanges
to above, it can also suffer from a lack of inter- The Split Diamond can also take one of two
section sight distance at the crossing road ramp forms: the conventional Split and the transposed
terminals. This problem arises when the cross- Split. This configuration is normally used when
ing road is taken over the freeway and is on a the crossing road takes the form of a one-way
minimum value crest curve on the structure. In pair. The problems of sight distance and
addition, the bridge balustrades can also inhibit queues backing up are not normally experi-
sight distance. In the case where the crossing enced on Split Diamonds and the most signifi-
road ramp terminal is signalised, this is less of a cant drawback is that right-turning vehicles have
problem, although a vehicle accidentally or by to traverse three intersections before being
intent running the red signal could create a dan- clear of the interchange. It is also necessary to
gerous situation. construct frontage roads linking the two one-
way streets to provide a clear route for right-
time span between construction of the Diamond two structures. This results in a very short dis-
and the intended conversion was, however, usu- tance between the entrance and succeeding
ally so great that, by the time the upgrade exit ramps, with significant problems of weaving
became necessary, standards had increased to on the freeway. Scissor ramps are the extreme
the level whereby the loop ramps could not be example of the transposed Split. These require
accommodated in the available space. The either signalisation of the crossing of the two
decline in the popularity of the Cloverleaf has ramps or a grade separation. The transposed
led to the Wide Diamond also falling out of Split has little to recommend it and has fallen
7-19
Chapter 7: Interchanges
The various configurations of the Diamond Three configurations of Par-Clo Interchange are
Interchange are illustrated in Figure 7.9 possible: the Par-Clo A, the Par-Clo B and the
Par-Clo AB. As in the case of the Trumpet
Par-Clo interchanges Interchange, the letters have the significance of
the loops being in advance of or beyond the
Par-Clo interchanges derive their name as a structure. The Par-Clo AB configurationhas the
contraction of PARtial CLOverleaf, mainly loop in advance of the structure for the one
because of their appearance, but also because direction of travel and beyond the structure for
they were frequently a first stage development the other. In all cases, the loops are on oppo-
of a Cloverleaf Interchange. In practice, they site sides of the freeway. Both the Par-Clo A
could perhaps be considered rather as a distort- and the Par-Clo B have alternative configura-
ed form of Simple Diamond Interchange. tions: the A2 and A4 and the B2 and B4. These
Geometric Design Guide
7-20
Chapter 7: Interchanges
configurations refer to two quadrants only being from the intersections on the crossing road and
occupied or alternatively to all four quadrants the only conflict is between right-turning vehi-
having ramps. The four-quadrant layout does cles exiting from the freeway and through traffic
not enjoy much, if any, usage in South Africa. on the crossing road. This makes two-phase
signal control possible.
The various layouts are illustrated in Figures
7.10, 7.11 and 7.12. The Par-Clo AB is particularly useful in the situ-
ation where there are property or environmental
Internationally, the Par-Clo A4 is generally restrictions in two adjacent quadrants on the
regarded as being the preferred option for an same side of the crossing road. Examples
interchange between a freeway and a heavily include a road running alongside a river or the
trafficked arterial. In the first instance, the loops situation, frequently found in South Africa, of a
serve vehicles entering the freeway whereas, in transportation corridor containing parallel road
the case of the Par-Clo B, the high-speed vehi- and rail links in close proximity to each other.
cles exiting the freeway are confronted by the
loop. This tends to surprise many drivers and The Rotary Interchange illustrated in Figure
loops carrying exiting traffic have higher acci- 7.12 has the benefit of eliminating intersections
dent rates than the alternative layout. Secondly, on the crossing road, replacing them by short
the left turn from the crossing road is remote weaving sections. Traffic exiting from the free-
7-21
Chapter 7: Interchanges
way may experience difficulty in adjusting speed Kingdom as systems interchanges. In this con-
and merging with traffic on the rotary. figuration, a two-level structure is employed.
One freeway is located at ground level and the
Rotaries have also been used in the United other freeway on the upper level of the structure
7-22
Chapter 7: Interchanges
with the rotary sandwiched between them. This Where the need for the interchange derives
is the so-called "Island in the Sky" concept. The purely from topographic restraints, i.e. where
Rotary is an interchange form that is unknown in traffic volumes are low, a Jug Handle
South Africa so that its application would com- Interchange, illustrated in Figure 7.13, would be
promise consistency of design and thus be con- adequate. This layout, also known as a Quarter
trary to drivers' expectations. Link, provides a two-lane-two-way connection
between the intersecting roads located in what-
7.7.4 Interchanges on non-freeway roads ever quadrant entails the minimum construction
and property acquisition cost.
Interchanges where a non-freeway is the major
route are a rarity in South Africa. This applica- Drivers would not expect to find an interchange
tion would arise where traffic flows are so heavy on a two-lane two-way road and, in terms of
that a signalised intersection cannot provide suf- driver expectancy, it may therefore be advisable
ficient capacity. In this case, the crossing road to introduce a short section of dual carriageway
terminals would be provided on the road with at the site of the interchange
the lower traffic volume. As a general rule, a
simple and relatively low standard Simple 7.8 RAMP DESIGN
Diamond or a Par-Clo Interchange should suf-
fice.
7.8.1 General
7-23
Chapter 7: Interchanges
The general configuration of a ramp is deter- between them;
mined prior to the interchange type being • The directional ramp also serving the
selected. The specifics of its configuration, right turn, with a curve only slightly in
O
being the horizontal and vertical alignment and excess of 90 degrees and free-flowing
considerations such as traffic volume and com- • The collector-distributor road intended
to remove the weaving manoeuvre from
position, the geometric and operational charac-
the freeway.
teristics of the roads which it connects, the local
topography, traffic control devices and driver The express-collector system discussed later is
expectations. a transfer roadway and is not an interchange
ramp.
A variety of ramp configurations can be used.
These include: 7.8.2 Design speed
• The outer connector, which serves the
left turn and has free-flowing terminals Guideline values for ramp design speeds are
at either end; given in Table 7.2. Strictly speaking, the design
• The diamond ramp, serving both the left- speed of a ramp could vary across its length
and right-turns with a free-flowing termi- from that of the freeway to that of the at-grade
nal on the freeway and a stop-condition intersection, with the design speed at any point
Geometric Design Guide
terminal on the crossing-road; along the ramp matching the operating speed of
• The Par-Clo ramp, which serves the the vehicles accelerating to or decelerating from
right turn and has a free-flowing terminal the design speed of the freeway. The design
on the freeway and a stop-condition ter- speeds given in the table apply to the controlling
O
minal on the crossing road, with a 180 curve on the mid-section of the ramp. The ramp
loop between them;
design speed is shown as a design domain
• The loop ramp, serving the right turn because of the wide variety of site conditions,
and which has free-flowing terminals at terminal types and ramp shapes.
O
both ends and a 270 degree loop
7-24
Chapter 7: Interchanges
In the case of a directional ramp between free- the substantial difference between the freeway
ways, vehicles must be able to operate safely at design speed and that of the loop ramp, it is
the higher end of the ranges of speeds shown in advisable not to have a loop on an exit ramp if
Table 7.2. this can be avoided.
7-25
Chapter 7: Interchanges
approaches to the ramp as well as across its only commence at the nose. The distance
length. required to achieve the appropriate supereleva-
tion thus determines the earliest possible loca-
Appropriate values of decision sight distance tion of the first curve on the ramp.
are given in Table 3.7.
Ramps are relatively short and the radii of
7.8.4 Horizontal alignment
curves on ramps often approach the minimum
for the selected design speed. Furthermore, if
Minimum radii of horizontal curvature on ramps
there is more than one curve on a ramp, the dis-
are as shown in Table 4.1 for various values of
tance between the successive curves will be
emax. In general, the higher values of emax are
short. Under these restrictive conditions, transi-
used in freeway design and the selected value
tion curves should be considered.
should also be applied to the ramps.
7-26
Chapter 7: Interchanges
enabling initiation of superelevation for the first having as little as 120 to 360 metres between
curve on the ramp earlier than would otherwise the nose and the crossing road. The effect of
be the case. The crossover crown should, how- the midsection gradient, while possibly helpful,
ever, be used with caution as it may pose a is thus restricted. However, a steep gradient (8
problem to the driver, particularly to the driver of per cent) in conjunction with a high value of
a vehicle with a high load. This is because the superelevation (10 per cent) would have a
O
vehicle will sway as it traverses the crossover resultant of 12,8 per cent at an angle of 53 to
crown and, in extreme cases, may prove difficult the centreline of the ramp. This would not con-
to control. The algebraic difference in slope tribute to drivers' sense of safety. In addition,
across the crossover crown should thus not the drivers of slow-moving trucks would have to
exceed four to five per cent. steer outwards to a marked extent to maintain
their path within the limits of the ramp width.
7.8.5 Vertical alignment This could create some difficulty for them. It is
suggested that designers seek a combination of
Gradients superelevation and gradient such that the gradi-
ent of the resultant is less than ten per cent.
The profile of a ramp typically comprises a mid- Table 7.3 provides an indication of the gradients
section with an appreciable gradient coupled of the resultants of combinations of supereleva-
with terminals where the gradient is controlled tion and longitudinal gradient.
by the adjacent road. If the crossing road is
7-27
Chapter 7: Interchanges
These values of K are based on the required On sag curves, achieving decision sight dis-
sight distance being contained within the length tance is not a problem so that the K-values
of the vertical curve. It is, however, unlikely that, shown in Table 4.14 can be applied. If the inter-
within the confined length of a ramp, it would be change area is illuminated, as would typically be
possible to accommodate the length of vertical the case in an urban area, the K-values for com-
curve required for this condition to materialise. fort can be used. Unilluminated, i.e. rural, inter-
The designer should therefore have recourse to changes would require the application of K-val-
Equation 4.21 to calculate the K-value for the ues appropriate to headlight sight distance.
condition of the curve being shorter than the
required sight distance. This equation is repeat- 7.8.6 Cross-section
ed below for convenience.
Horizontal radii on ramps are typically short and
4.21 hence are usually in need of curve widening.
The width of the ramps normally adopted is thus
where K = Distance required for a 4 metres. Because of the inconvenience of
Geometric Design Guide
7-28
Chapter 7: Interchanges
adequate. If semi trailers are infrequent users signalised or stop control at-grade intersection,
of the ramp, encroachment on the shoulders the change in speed across the ramp is sub-
could be considered. stantial. Provision should thus be made for
acceleration and deceleration to take place
The calculation of required lane width is clear of the freeway so as to minimise interfer-
described in detail in Section 4.2.6. As sug- ence with the through traffic and reduce the
gested above, regardless of the width required, potential for crashes. The auxiliary lanes pro-
it should be applied across the entire length of vided to accommodate this are referred to as
the ramp. speed-change lanes or acceleration or deceler-
ation lanes. These terms describe the area
Ramp shoulders typically have a width of the
adjacent to the travelled way of the freeway,
order of 2 metres, with this width applying both
including that portion of the ramp taper where a
to the inner and to the outer shoulder. In con-
merging vehicle is still clear of the through lane,
junction with the nominal lane width of 4 metres,
and do not imply a definite lane of uniform width.
the total roadway width is thus 8 metres. This
width would allow comfortably for a truck to pass
The speed change lane should have sufficient
a broken-down truck. In addition, it would pro-
length to allow the necessary adjustment in
vide drivers with some sense of security in the
speed to be made in a comfortable manner and,
cases where the ramp is on a high fill.
in the case of an acceleration lane, there should
7.8.7 Terminals also be sufficient length for the driver to find and
manoeuvre into a gap in the through traffic
The crossing road ramp terminals may be free- stream before reaching the end of the accelera-
flowing, in which case their design is as dis- tion lane. The length of the speed change lane
cussed below. Crossing road ramp terminals is based on:
that are at-grade intersections should be • The design speed on the through lane,
designed according to the recommendations i.e. the speed at which vehicles enter or
contained in Chapter 6. It is worth noting that, exit from the through lanes;
from an operational point of view, what appears • The control speed of the ramp midsec-
tion, i.e. the design speed of the small-
to be a four-legged intersection, e.g. the cross-
Geometric Design Guide
est radius curve on the ramp, and
ing road ramp terminals on a Diamond
• The tempo of acceleration or decelera-
Interchange, is, in fact, two three-legged inter-
tion applied on the speed change lane.
sections back-to-back. Ideally, the crossing
road ramp terminal should be channelised to
In Chapter 3, reference was made to a deceler-
reduce the possibility of wrong-way driving.
ation rate of 3 m/s2 as the basis for the calcula-
tion of stopping sight distance. Research has
Vehicles entering or exiting from a freeway shown that deceleration rates applied to off-
should be able to do so at approximately the ramps are a function of the freeway design
operating speed of the freeway. Given the fact speed and the ramp control speed. As both
that the crossing road terminal is invariably a speeds increase, so does the deceleration rate,
7-29
Chapter 7: Interchanges
which varies between 1,0 m/s2 and 2,0 m/s2. length of the entering vehicle is not relevant in
For convenience, the deceleration rate used to determination of the taper length.
develop Table 7.5 has been set at 2,0 m/s . 2
with T = Taper rate (as listed in taper or a parallel lane. The parallel lane has
ramp terminal should be not less than 437 Furthermore, in the case of the on-ramp, the
metres. parallel configuration provides an extended dis-
tance to find a gap in the adjacent traffic stream.
The acceleration rate can, according to Typical configurations of on- and off-ramp termi-
American literature, be taken as 0,7 m/s2. The nals are illustrated in Figures 7.14 to 7.17.
length of the acceleration lane is thus as shown
in Table 7.6. An important feature of the accel- Taper
eration lane is the gap acceptance length, which
should be a minimum of 100 metres to 150 Two different criteria apply to the selection of the
metres, depending on the nose width. The taper rate, depending on whether the ramp is an
7-30
Chapter 7: Interchanges
Geometric Design Guide
exit from or entrance to the freeway. rates corresponding to the condition of the
wheel path having an offset of 150 millimetres
In the first case, the vehicle is merely required to inside the Yellow Line Break Point.
achieve a change of direction from the freeway
to the ramp. The taper rate should thus be suf- These taper rates are higher than the rate of 1 :
ficiently flat to ensure that the vehicle path can 15 currently applied on South African freeways.
be accommodated within the lane width. In This rate derives from the application of an
Table 7.7, the radii of curvature corresponding "operating speed" previously assumed to be 85
to a superelevation of 2,0 per cent for the vari- per cent of the design speed and the further
ous design speeds are listed as are the taper assumption that the wheel path could be
7-31
Chapter 7: Interchanges
allowed to pass over the Yellow Line Break Point. that, in the case of existing interchanges, it is
In practice, a 1: 15 rate requires that drivers not always necessary to incur the expenditure of
accept a higher level of side friction in negotiat- upgrading to a flatter taper. Trucks do, however,
ing the change of direction. Passenger cars can sometimes roll over at the start of the ramp taper.
negotiate tapers of this magnitude with ease so
7-32
Chapter 7: Interchanges
Figure 7.16: One lane entrance
7-33
Chapter 7: Interchanges
Figure 7.18: Major fork
If there is a high percentage of truck traffic and rate does not have to be as flat as suggested
if the incidence of roll-overs is unacceptably above. As in the case of the climbing lane, a
high, it may be necessary to consider upgrading taper length of 100 metres would be adequate.
to the tapers suggested in Table 7.7.
Parallel entrances and exits have a major
In the case of the entrance ramp, the driver of advantage over straight tapers in respect of the
the merging vehicle should be afforded suffi- selection of curves on the ramps. In the case of
cient opportunity to locate a gap in the opposing a design speed of 120 km/h, a straight taper
provides a distance of just short of 300 metres
traffic and position the vehicle correctly to merge
between the Yellow Line Break Point and the
into this gap at the speed of the through traffic.
nose. A portion of this distance should ideally
Taper rates flatter than those proposed in Table
be traversed at the design speed of the freeway
7.7 should thus be applied to on-ramps. A taper with deceleration commencing only after the
of 1:50 provides a travel time of about 13 sec- vehicle is clear of the outside freeway lane.
onds between the nose and the point at which About 220 metres is available for deceleration
the wheel paths of merging and through vehi- and this suggests that a vehicle exiting at 120
cles would intersect. This has been found in km/h is likely still to be travelling at a speed of
Geometric Design Guide
7-34
Chapter 7: Interchanges
7.9 COLLECTOR - DISTRIBUTOR 7.10.1 Ramp metering
ROADS
Ramp metering consists of traffic signals
Collector-distributor roads are typically applied installed on entrance ramps in advance of the
to the situation where weaving manoeuvres entrance terminal to control the number of vehi-
would be disruptive if allowed to occur on the cles entering the freeway. The traffic signals
freeway. Their most common application, there- may be pretimed or traffic-actuated to release
fore, is at Cloverleaf interchanges. The exit and the entering vehicles individually or in platoons.
entrance tapers are identical to those applied to It is applied to restrict the number of vehicles
any other ramps. The major difference between that are allowed to enter a freeway in order to
Cloverleaf interchange C-D roads and other ensure an acceptable level of service on the
ramps is that they involve two exits and two freeway or to ensure that the capacity of the
entrances in quick succession. The two exits freeway is not exceeded. The need for ramp
are, firstly, from the freeway and, secondly, the metering may arise owing to factors such as:
split between vehicles turning to the left and • Recurring congestion because traffic
those intending to turn to the right. The two demand exceeds the provision of road
entrances are, firstly, the merge between the infrastructure in an area;
two turning movements towards the freeway • Sporadic congestion on isolated sec-
and, secondly, the merge with the freeway tions of a freeway because of short term
through traffic. traffic loads from special events, normal-
ly of a recreational nature;
The distance between the successive exits • As part of an incident management sys-
should be based on signing requirements so as tem to assist in situations where a acci-
to afford drivers adequate time to establish dent downstream of the entrance ramp
whether they have to turn to the right or to the causes a temporary drop in the capacity
left to reach their destination. Nine seconds is of the freeway; and
generally considered adequate for this purpose • Optimising traffic flow on freeways
and seeing that vehicles may be travelling at the
design speed of the freeway as they pass the Ramp metering also supports local transporta- Geometric Design Guide
nose of the first exit, the distance between the tion management objectives such as:
7-35
Chapter 7: Interchanges
tion, all alternate means of improving the capac- An express-collector system could, for example,
ity of the freeway or its operating characteristics be started upstream of one interchange and run
or reducing the traffic demand on the freeway through it and the following, possibly closely
should be explored. The application of ramp
spaced, interchange, terminating downstream
metering should be preceded by an engineering
of the second. The terminals at either end of the
analysis of the physical and traffic conditions on
express-collector system would have the same
the freeway facilities likely to be affected. These
facilities include the ramps, the ramp terminals standards as applied to conventional on- and
and the local streets likely to be affected by off-ramps. The interchange ramps are connect-
metering as well as the freeway section ed to the express-collector system and not
involved. directly to the freeway mainline lanes.
The stopline should be placed sufficiently in Traffic volumes and speeds on the express-col-
advance of the point at which ramp traffic will lector roads are typically much lower than those
enter the freeway to allow vehicles to accelerate found on the mainline lanes, allowing for lower
to approximately the operating speed of the standards being applied to the ramp geometry
freeway, as would normally be required for the of the intervening interchanges.
design of ramps. It will also be necessary to
ensure that the ramp has sufficient storage to The minimum configuration for an express-col-
accommodate the vehicles queuing upstream of lector system is to have a two-lane C-D road on
the traffic signal. either side of a freeway with two lanes in each
direction. The usual configuration has more than
The above requirement will almost certainly lead two mainline lanes in each direction
7-36
Chapter 7: Interchanges
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
indicated that up to 40 per cent or more of crash • Provide an aesthetically pleasing land-
scape;
reduction, which could reasonably be expected
• Maintain road user interest and concen-
on the road system, could accrue from the pro-
tration;
vision of safer roads. The cost of road crashes
• Not surprise road users;
to society in South Africa exceeds the annual • Give consistent messages to road
expenditure on roads, thus the expenditure of users; and
considerable sums of money can be justified in • Provide good visibility for all road users.
reducing the crash rates on roads through
improved design appropriate and standards and Numerous research projects have established
by catering for the presence of pedestrians on relationships between crashes and geometric
roads. Crashes resulting from simply leaving design elements (as well as operating speeds
the roadway regardless of the underlying cause, and traffic volumes).
represent a substantial portion of the total road
Geometric Design Guide
crash problem i.e. "run-off-the-road" (ROR) The various geometric design features of a
accidents account for 25 per cent of all road road, shown in Table 8.1, affect safety by:
crashes in South Africa. They occur on both • Influencing the ability of the driver to
straight and curved sections of road and gener- maintain vehicle control and identify
ally involve either rollover of the vehicle or colli- hazards. Significant features include:
sion with fixed objects, such as trees, roadside Lane and shoulder width;
structures etc.
Horizontal and vertical align-
ment;
8-1
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Pavement surface and drainage. roadside design can mitigate the severity of a
• Influencing the number and types of crash. This interaction between road, driver and
opportunities that exist for conflict vehicle characteristics unfortunately compli-
between vehicles. Significant features cates attempts to estimate the accident reduc-
include:
tion potential of a particular safety improvement.
o Access control;
o Intersection design;
The construction of a road is typically a trade-off
o Number of lanes;and
o Medians. between standards and the cost of providing
• Affecting the consequences of an out-of- them. High design standards might be expen-
control vehicle leaving the travel lanes. sive to provide. However, the cost to society of
Significant features include: road crashes and deaths often exceeds the total
o Shoulder width and type; annual expenditure on roads. Reducing initial
o Edge drop;
construction (or capital) costs of road projects
o Roadside conditions;
can result in increased life cycle costs if the cost
o Side slopes; and
of accidents, injuries and deaths is included in
o Traffic barriers.
the economic calculations. It is the design engi-
neer's responsibility to inform the client of the
In addition to geometric features, a variety of
consequences of inadequate expenditure on
other factors affect road safety, including other
safety.
elements of the overall road environment, such
as:
• Pavement condition; It is often extremely difficult, if not impossible, to
8-2
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
time is provided to make the decision. 8.1.2 Safety objectives
Research has shown that the number of accidents
increases as the number of decisions required Broadly, there are three avenues of action pos-
by the driver increases. This matter is dis- sible for mitigating road crashes and their con-
cussed in more detail in chapter 3 of this docu- sequences;
ment, as well as in Volume 1 of the South • By reducing the possibility that run-off
will occur;
Geometric Design Guide
African Road Safety Manual.
• Once the run-off does occur, by provid-
ing opportunities for the driver of the
Standardisation in road design features and traf- vehicle to recover and return to the road
fic control devices plays an important role in without incident, and
reducing the number of required decisions, as • If a crash does occur, by providing
the driver becomes aware of what to expect on design elements to reduce the severity
of that collision.
a certain type of road. However it should be
noted that standardization alone does not nec-
essarily ensure a safe facility, hence the require- The first of these areas of endeavour is dealt
ment for a safety audit of the design. with by incorporating features in the overall
8-3
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
design of the road which will reduce the possi- ophy and approaches. Transportation
bility that run-off will occur. These features are Research Circular 435 states that:-
influenced to a large extent by the selected
design speed. "Basically a forgiving roadside is one free of
obstacles which could cause serious injuries to
occupants of an errant vehicle. To the extent
This chapter deals with the latter two of these
possible, a relatively flat, unobstructed roadside
three possibilities. It provides the designer with
recovery area is desirable, and when these con-
guidance on the design of roadside environment
ditions cannot be provided, hazardous features
that includes elements to allow for recovery on
in the recovery area should be made breakaway
the part of the driver, as well as features which
or shielded with an appropriate barrier".
are intended to reduce the severity of such acci-
dents as do occur.
When a vehicle leaves the traffic lane, the path
of the vehicle and any object in or near that path
More specifically, it is recommended that the fol-
become contributing factors to the degree of
lowing safety objectives be adopted when a
severity of the crash. By designing a forgiving
road is designed:
roadside the severity of crashes can be
• Separate potential conflict points and
reduce potential conflict areas; reduced. The concept of designing a forgiving
• Control the relative speeds of the con- roadside should not be regarded as a by-prod-
flicting vehicles; uct of the application of safety criteria to each
• Guide the driver through unusual sec- design element, but as an integral part of the
tions;
total engineering for the road.
• Ensure that the needs of pedestrians
and cyclists (if relevant) are also consid-
The need for a forgiving roadside is paramount
ered;
• Provide a roadside environment that for- on the outside of horizontal curves with radii of
gives a driver's errant or inappropriate less than 1 000 metres, where the possibility of
behaviour, by attention to details such an errant vehicle running off the road is great-
as the safe placement of roadside furni- est. However, this statement does not imply
ture and by the location and selection of that horizontal curves with radii in excess of
Geometric Design Guide
8-4
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
ty through roadside hazard management by the ments and other aspects of the facility design,
design and provision of appropriate recovery and between the road itself, the driver and the
and protection measures. The effectiveness of vehicle. As a result, information touching on
road safety features depends greatly on five road design issues necessarily is available from
aspects; many sources. Designers should not rely on
• Knowledge of the safety characteristics this Guide as the sole source of information on
and limitations of roadside features by roadside design issues, particularly when deal-
the designer (and the maintenance per- ing with unusual or local conditions that depart
sonnel); from generally accepted situational norms.
• The correct choice of appropriate treat- Particular attention should be paid to the South
ment; Africa Road Safety Manual produced by the
• The correct installation of the roadside
South African Committee of Land Transport
safety features;
Officials (COLTO).
• The maintenance of the roadside safety
features and roadside environment; and
8.1.5 Roadside safety analysis
• Regular monitoring of installations to
ensure they perform adequately.
The design of the roadside environment is a
complex problem. Evaluation of alternative
There are two needs that are the key to effective designs and choosing between them are difficult
attention to safety in the roadside design tasks, which involve
process. • degrees of uncertainty with respect to
1. The need for explicit evaluation of the occurrence of crashes;
design trade-offs with an impact on road safety. • the outcome of crashes in terms of
severity; and
In the traditional design process, attention to
• the real costs of the property damage,
safety has usually been implicit, not explicit.
injuries, and fatalities which can result.
The common myth among designers is that if
current "standards" are met, then the road is
Nonetheless, such analysis which provides an
safe. The reality is that road design "standards"
explicit framework for considering design trade-
are often no more than a limit : one should not Geometric Design Guide
offs is a much more desirable approach to road-
provide less than the standard stipulates but,
side safety design than meeting arbitrary "stan-
within limits, to provide more is often better.
dards" whose underpinnings may or may not be
Furthermore, just meeting the standard does not
appropriate to a given situation. Figure 8.1 illus-
mean that an appropriate amount of safety has
trates an algorithm for conducting a roadside
been provided.
safety analysis.
2. The need to recognize that the design
of the roadside environment is a highly complex
and probabilistic process. There are many lev- The process is generally based on two funda-
8-5
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
estimating collision frequencies and cally investigates the roadside safety of a partic-
severities under a wide variety of condi- ular project, has a proven potential to improve
tions; and the safety of both proposed and existing facili-
• Cost-effectiveness models that provide
ties.
a way of quantifying the life-cycle costs
(and benefits) associated with any given
set of safety measures. Road safety audits, especially during the design
stage, create the opportunity to eliminate, as far
Predictive models have been developed and as possible, road safety problems in the provi-
deployed by a number of agencies in North sion of new road projects. They should be seen,
America. Although the latest AASHTO however, as part of the broader scope of the phi-
Roadside Design Guide probably represents the losophy of roadside hazard management.
most current and widely accepted effort in this
regard, designers should be aware that the state A road safety audit is a formal examination of
of the art in this area is continually developing any road project which interacts with road users,
and should be monitored regularly for new mod- in which a qualified and independent examiner
els and techniques which may have application reports on the projects accident potential and
to their design challenges. safety performance. The audit may be conduct-
ed at the project's:
The techniques of cost-effectiveness analysis • Feasibility stage;
are well established and are applied for a vari- • Draft design stage;
ety of purposes in transportation and highway • Detailed design stage;
design agencies. A number of alternative • Pre-opening stage; and
rates and unit crash costs. In order to enforce 6 of the South African Road Safety Manual.
consistent and comparable results across the
road authority, these basic assumptions are 8.2 ROADSIDE HAZARDS AND CLEAR
usually set as a matter of policy and represent a ZONE CONCEPT
"given" for designers to use in their analyses.
8.2.1 Overview
8.1.6 Road safety audits
Research has shown that in 50 per cent of all
First developed in the United Kingdom, Australia run-off-the-road accidents the vehicle leaves the
and New Zealand, this process, which specifi- road in a skidding manner. Roadside hazards
8-6
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Geometric Design Guide
Figure 8.1: Roadside safety analysis
can significantly increase the severity of crash- • Supports and poles (for lighting, utilities,
es and it is necessary to manage roadside haz- signage;
ards in such a manner as to decrease the sever- • Drainage structures such as culverts,
ity of these crashes. Figure 8.1 illustrates this drains, drop inlets;
process.
• Bridge abutments/piers;
• Side slopes such as embankments;
• Ends of traffic barriers, bridge railings;
Common existing roadside hazards include:
• Incorrectly positioned traffic barriers, i.e.
• Trees;
<3 metres off the roadway;
8-7
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
• Obsolete roadside furniture; The concept originated in the United States in
• SOS call boxes; and the early 1960's and has progressively been
• Fire hydrants refined and updated. The clear zone width
varies between 4.0 and 10 metres with the
Accidents involving roadside objects are signifi- upper end of the scale being more appropriate
cant for both the urban and rural road environ- for high-speed National Roads. More recent
ments. In South Africa, approximately 25 per studies have found that the first 4,0 - 5,0 metres
cent of all accidents involve vehicles running off provide most of the potential benefit from clear
the road. In 1996 alone, the accident costs zones.
related to fixed object accidents amounted to
R3,5 billion (1997 Rand). 8.2.2 Elements of the clear zone
• Speed;
ed at the toe of a non-recoverable slope, and is
• Traffic volumes;
available for safe use by an errant vehicle.
• Side slopes; and
• Horizontal geometry. There is also provision for a smooth transition
It should be noted that the clear zone width is between slopes to allow for the safe passage of
not a magical number and, where possible, haz- vehicles.
ards beyond the desirable clear zone should be
minimized. The clear zone is the total, fixed-object-free area
available to the errant vehicle. The design
Clear zone widths vary throughout the world domain for the clear zone width has been found
depending on land availability and design policy. to depend on traffic volume and speed, road
8-8
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Figure 8.2: Roadside recovery zone
geometry, embankment height, side slope and 80 per cent of the vehicles leaving a roadway
environmental conditions such as rain, snow, out of control to recover….."
ice, and fog. The wider the clear zone, the less
the frequency and severity of collisions with The last portion of this statement requires
fixed objects. However, there is a point beyond emphasis. Provision of the recommended clear
which any further expenditure to move or pro- zone does not guarantee that vehicles will not
tect the fixed objects is not warranted because encroach further than the recommended clear
the marginal risk reduction is too small. zone distance. Quite the contrary, the clear
zone principle embodies the explicit fact that
8.2.3 Factors influencing the clear zone some portion of the vehicles that encroach will
When originally introduced, the clear zone con- Steeper embankment slopes tend to increase
cept dictated a single value of 9 metres and was vehicle encroachment distances. Conversely,
based on limited research. The concept was on low-volume or low-speed facilities, the 9,0 m
formally introduced in the 1974 version of the distance was found to be excessive and could Geometric Design Guide
AASHTO report entitled Highway Design and seldom be justified. As a result, as the concept
Operational Practices Related to Highway evolved, design practice moved to a variable
Safety where the authors noted: clear zone distance definition and a better
understanding of the wide range of factors that
"…for adequate safety, it is desirable to provide influence the limits of its design domain was
an unencumbered roadside recovery area that gained.
is as wide as practical on a specific highway
section. Studies have indicated that on high- The approach set out in paragraph 8.2.4 below,
speed highways, a width of 9 metres or more and borrowed from Canadian practice reflects
from the edge of the travelled way permits about the influence of:
8-9
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
• Design speed; For sections of road with horizontal curvature,
• Traffic volumes; these distances should be increased on the out-
• The presence of cut or fill slopes; side of curves by a factor that depends on the
• The steepness of slopes; and operating speed and the radius of the curve.
• Horizontal curve adjustments.
Figure 8.3 provides guidelines on adjustment
factors for clear zones on the outside of curves.
Designers should, however, recognize the limi-
tations of the figures presented below. AASHTO
8.2.5 Best practices in respect of roadside
provides a caution to designers on the issue:
vegetation
"…..the numbers obtained from these curves
represent a reasonable measure of the degree Single-vehicle collisions with trees account for a
of safety suggested for a particular roadside; but sizeable proportion of all fixed object collisions.
they are neither absolute nor precise. In some Unlike typical roadside hardware, with the
cases, it is reasonable to leave a fixed object exception of landscaping, trees are not a design
within the clear zone; in other instances, an element over which the designers have direct
object beyond the clear zone distance may control. While policies and approaches vary by
require removal or shielding. Use of an appro- agency, a number of best practices are present-
priate clear zone distance amounts to a com- ed here to assist the designer in dealing with
promise between safety and construction this complex and important issue.
costs."
Depending on their size, trees within the clear
8.2.4 Determining width of clear zone zone constitute a serious hazard. Generally, a
tree with a trunk diameter greater than 150 mm
is considered a fixed object.
Table 8.2 provides an indication of the appropri-
ate width of a clear zone on a straight section of
road, measured in metres from the edge of the When trees or shrubs with multiple trunks, or
lane, according to design speed, traffic volumes groups of small trees are close together,
and cut or fill slope values. The values in Table because of their combined cross-sectional area,
they may be considered as having the effect of
Geometric Design Guide
8-10
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
While tree removal generally generates some cle/tree collision risk although some isolated
public resistance, it will reduce the severity of trees may be candidates for removal if they are
Geometric Design Guide
any crashes. noticeably close to the roadway. If a tree or
group of trees is in a vulnerable location but
Tree removal often has adverse environmental cannot be removed, traffic barriers can be used
impacts. It is important that this measure only to shield them.
be used when it is the only solution. For exam-
ple, slopes of 1:3 or flatter may be traversable Maintenance of the roadside plays an important
but a vehicle on a 1:3 slope will usually reach role in helping to control vegetation and tree
the bottom. If there are numerous trees at the problems by mowing within the clear zone and
toe of the slope, the removal of isolated trees on eliminating seedlings before they create a haz-
the slope will not significantly reduce the vehi- ard.
8-11
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Figure 8.3: Adjustment for clear zones on curves
8.3 SIGN AND OTHER SUPPORTS poles located on the outside of horizontal curves
and adjacent to pavements with low skid resist-
8.3.1 Basis for Design ance pavements is greater than at other sites.
Although the objective of roadside design is to These poles can be treated in a number of
provide an adequate clear zone to allow errant ways, namely:
vehicles to recover without a crash, this is not • By relocating them to a safer location
always possible. For various reasons, including (this can include moving a lighting pole
traffic operation, certain obstacles may have to to the inside of a horizontal curve rather
8-12
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Figure 8.1 illustrates the proposed methodology. injured by the yielding support(s). It is therefore
important that the designer should consider the
8.3.2 Breakaway supports relative risks related to each location before a
design is selected.
Definition
The term "breakaway support", developed in the A breakaway support is designed for loading in
late 1960's, refers to all types of signs, lumi- shear and normally for impact at bumper height
naires and traffic signal supports that are safely (typically 500 mm above ground level). It is crit-
displaced under vehicle impact, whether the ical that the support be properly installed as to
release mechanism is a slip plane, plastic hinge, ensure that loading takes place at the correct
fracture element or a combination of these. height. Loading above the design height may
cause the breakaway device to fail to activate
The AASHTO Standard Specifications for because the bending moment in the breakaway
Structural Supports for Highway Signs, support may be sufficient to keep the support in
Luminaires and Traffic Signals specifies that all place. Incorrect loading can also take place
supports located in the clear zone widths of when the support is installed close to ditches or
high-speed facilities should be equipped with a steep slopes, causing a vehicle to become air-
breakaway device unless they are protected borne and hit the support at the wrong position.
with a suitable traffic barrier system. In the case
of urban or low speed facilities, the use of break- The soil type of the breakaway system is impor-
away devices is not advisable. The AASHTO tant as it may also affect the activation of the
Specifications seem to be inadequate as an mechanism. In the case of fracture-type sup-
occupant can sustain serious injuries when ports such as high carbon U-channel posts, tele-
striking the car interior during a vehicle impact at scoping tubes and wood supports, the supports
40 km/h with a non-yielding object. The reason may slip through saturated or loose soil during
for this guideline, however, is that there is a impact, absorbing energy and changing the
probability of cyclists and pedestrians being breakaway mechanism.
8-13
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
If a sign support is installed at a depth less than Luminaires and Traffic Signals, should be used
1 metre, it will pull out of the soil during impact. to determine whether a sign support conforms
Installations with anchor plates or those to the criteria for a breakaway support.
installed deeper than 1 m are particularly sensi-
The broad criteria which breakaway supports
tive to the foundation conditions. For small sign
should meet include:
supports using base-bending or yielding mecha-
• Dynamic performance criteria, i.e.
nisms, the performance of the supports in strong
implicit velocity breakaway thresholds;
soils is more critical.
• Maximum remaining stub height of
100mm;
The maintenance requirements are critical in the • The need for the vehicle to remain
selection of a particular breakaway device. The upright during and after the collision;
following maintenance requirements should be and
(c) A breakaway device yields when hit if it (a) Sign supports should not be placed in
is properly installed and maintained. The mech- drainage ditches, where erosion might affect the
anism should then be replaced or repaired. proper operation of breakaway supports.
Geometric Design Guide
8-14
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
8.3.3 Design and Location Criteria for Sign The design requirements for breakaway support
Supports systems for roadside signs are documented in a
number of publications. The South African
Roadway signs fall into three primary classes: Road Safety Manual should be used as the
overhead signs, large roadside signs, and small basis for the design of these.
roadside signs. Small road side signs
All overhead sign supports located within the The bottom of the sign panel should be a mini-
clear zone should be shielded with a crashwor- mum 2100 mm above ground and the top of the
thy barrier. In such instances, the sign gantry panel should be a minimum 2700 mm above
should be located beyond the design deflection ground to minimize the possibility of the sign
distance of the barrier. panel and post rotating on impact and striking
the windshield of a vehicle.
Large Roadside Signs
The requirements for breakaway support sys-
tems for roadside signs are documented in a
Large roadside signs are generally greater than
number of publications. The South African
5,0 square metres in area. Typically, they have
Road Safety Manual should be used as the
two or more supports that are breakaway.
basis for design.
The hinge for breakaway supports on large Consideration to various factors should be given
roadside signs should be at least 2100 mm when selecting, designing and locating break- Geometric Design Guide
above ground, so that the likelihood of the sign away and other supports. These include:
or upper section of the support penetrating the • Road environment : urban or rural;
windshield of an impacting vehicle is minimized. • Terrain where device is installed;
The required impact performance is shown in • Proximity to drainage ditches or struc-
tures;
Figure 8.4.
• Soil type used as a base for the break-
away support;
No supplementary signs should be attached
• Maintenance requirements of the sup-
below the hinges if their placement is likely to
port (i.e., the simplicity of maintenance,
interfere with the breakaway action of the sup- availability of material and the durability
port post or if the supplementary sign is likely to of the support); and
strike the windscreen of an impacting vehicle. • Expected impact frequency.
8-15
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
8.3.4 Design approach for lighting sup- barrier and if it is within the design deflection
ports distance of the barrier, it should be either a
breakaway design, or the barrier should be
Lighting supports should be of the frangible
strengthened locally to minimize its deflection.
base, slip base or frangible coupling type. They
are designed to release in shear when hit at a
Higher mounting heights can reduce the number
typical bumper height of about 500 mm.
of lights needed on a facility. High mast lighting
- which requires far fewer supports located
As long as the side slopes between the roadway
much further from the roadway - can be benefi-
and the luminaire support are 6:1 or flatter, vehi- cial. While consideration of this approach is rec-
cles should strike the support appropriately, and ommended to designers, the massive nature of
breakaway action can be assured. these high mast structures requires analysis
and planning in the design and placement of the
Superelevation, side slope, rounding and vehi- high mast supports.
cle departure angle and speed will influence the
striking height of a typical bumper. Designers 8.4 TRAFFIC SAFETY BARRIERS
8-16
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Traffic barriers are either classified as being Although this approach can be used, there are
impact attenuation devices or longitudinal barri- often instances where the distinction between
ers. the two conditions is not immediately obvious.
The purpose of an impact attenuation device is In addition, this approach does not allow for
to cause a vehicle to decelerate and come to a consideration of the cost-effectiveness of treat-
halt. A longitudinal traffic barrier redirects a ment or non-treatment.
vehicle parallel to the roadway.
In recent years, techniques have been devel-
oped which allow warrants for barrier installation
Figure 8.5 shows a functional classification of
to be established on the basis of a benefit cost
traffic barriers.
analysis in which such factors as design speed,
traffic volume, installation and maintenance
8.4.2 Determining Need for Safety
costs, and collision costs are taken into consid-
Barriers
eration.
Barriers are installed on the basis of warrant Typically, such an approach is used to evaluate
analysis. Traditionally, these warrants have three options:
been based on a subjective analysis of certain • The removal or alteration of the area of
roadside elements or conditions within the clear concern so that it no longer requires
zone. If the consequences of a vehicle running shielding;
off the road and striking a barrier are believed to • The installation of an appropriate barri-
be less serious than the consequences if no er; or
8-17
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Once a barrier is found to be necessary for a a fixed object within the clear zone that is con-
embankment, it should be provided over the sidered to be a hazard and cannot be removed,
entire length of the embankment and not simply relocated, made breakaway, or adequately
terminated when the embankment height shielded by a longitudinal barrier.
becomes less than the warranted height.
In considering the use of traffic barriers, design-
Barrier warrants for roadside obstacles are ers should note that, even when these are prop-
based on their location within the clear zone and erly designed and constructed, they might not
are a function of the nature of the obstacle, its protect errant vehicles and their occupants com-
distance from the travelled portion of the road- pletely. After installation of these, the severity of
way and the likelihood that it will be hit by an collisions generally decreases but, as the num-
errant vehicle. ber of installations increases, the frequency of
minor collisions may also increase. For this rea-
Conventional criteria used for embankments
son, where cost-effective, the designer should
and roadside hazards are not usually applicable
make every effort to design without traffic barri-
to the pedestrian/bicyclist case, and these are
ers. This can be done by clearing the roadside
usually resolved through a careful individual
of obstacles, flattening embankment slopes and
evaluation of each potential project.
introducing greater median separation where
possible. It should be noted, however, that,
As with roadside barriers, warrants for median
whilst a particular barrier system is chosen
barriers have been established on the basis that
based on the containment level required, regu-
a barrier should be installed only if the conse-
lar monitoring is essential to allow the system to
quences of striking the barrier are less severe
be replaced by a more adequate one if experi-
than the consequences that would result if no
ence indicates the need for this.
barrier existed. The primary purpose of a medi-
an barrier is to prevent an errant vehicle from
8.4.3 Longitudinal roadside barriers
crossing a median on a divided highway and
encountering oncoming traffic. As such, the
Classification and performance characteristics
development of median barrier warrants has
Geometric Design Guide
ies. In determining the need for barriers on nal barriers based on their deflection character-
medians, median width and average daily traffic istics. It should be noted that the deflection
volumes are the basic factors generally used in characteristics of a barrier system are not an
the analysis. However the incidence of illegal indication of its effectiveness or safety.
8-18
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Figure 8.6: Classification of longitudinal barriers
8-19
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
range of impacts by errant vehicles and provide The requirements of NHCRP Report 350 should
a wide range of protection to the occupants of be regarded as the minimum.
such vehicles. It is therefore necessary to
determine the level of protection that they will Performance capability
provide.
8-20
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
• Life cycle costs. Warrants for use
It is prudent to realize that any barrier
system accrues costs throughout its Roadside hazards that warrant shielding by bar-
life. High initial costs could mean low riers include embankments and roadside obsta-
maintenance costs, whilst low initial cles. Warrants for the use of barriers on
costs could mean higher maintenance embankments generally use embankment
costs. In addition, expected accident
height and side slope as the parameters in the
costs should be considered in the cal-
analysis and essentially compare the collision
culation of life cycle costs.
severity of hitting a barrier with the severity of
• Maintenance.
going down the embankment. Figure 8.7,
Most systems require very little routine
maintenance. When the barrier has adapted from Australian guidelines, provides
been involved in a crash, the subse- guidance for the installation of such barriers on
quent rehabilitation costs may be signif- embankments.
icant, to the point of being excessive in
the case of a high accident location. It
However such warrant procedures are regarded
should be noted that only material
as less than adequate because they do not take
specifically designed for that particular
into account the probability of a crash occurring
system should be used for mainte-
nance, and the tendency to "mix and against the barrier or the cost of installing a bar-
match" should be avoided. rier versus leaving the slope unprotected. The
• Aesthetics. development of cost analysis techniques pro-
It is important to realize that all traffic vides the designer with an approach to
barriers are visual obstructions. Should analysing the need for roadside embankment
this become a particular concern it is protection barriers. In South Africa, however,
necessary to ensure that alternative
there is a lack of reliable data to carry out such
systems that may be considered are
analyses and it is necessary for the designer to
able to meet the performance require-
make site-specific analyses, using Figure 8.7 as
ments. Aesthetics should, under no cir-
cumstances, be given preference a guide.
before safety considerations.
• Field experience. The significance of this figure is that it provides
Geometric Design Guide
Site personnel's' experience of the per- a range of values of fill slope for which, at cer-
formance, cost and maintenance tain heights of fill, a barrier may be more or less
requirements of installed systems as hazardous than the embankment it protects.
well as the traffic police services' expe-
For example, at a fill height of 6 metres, a fill
rience of the performance of particular
slope steeper than 1:3 would warrant the use of
barrier systems under impact condi-
a barrier while a fill slope flatter than 1:4 would
tions, should not be under-estimated by
the designer. Early identification of not require protection. On the intervening
potential problems can ensure that slopes, the designer should use his or her dis-
future installations operate effectively. cretion in determining the need for a barrier.
8-21
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Figure 8.7: Warrants for use of roadside barriers
8-22
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
tion, with its associated elements for a two-lane, way;
two-way road, is illustrated in Figure 8.8. The • Rail deflection distance;
The factors to be considered in barrier installa- Barriers should ideally be set as far away from
tion are the following: the travelled way as possible. This ensures
• Offset of the barrier from the travelled that:
8-23
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Barriers should ideally be set as far away from Barrier deflection
the travelled way as possible. This ensures
that: The expected deflection of a barrier should not
• There is more recovery area to regain exceed the available space between rail and the
control of the vehicle; object being shielded. If the available space
• There is better sight distance;
between the rail and the obstacle is not ade-
• Less barrier is required to shield the
quate for non-rigid barrier systems then the bar-
hazard; and
rier can be stiffened in advance of, and along-
• Adverse driver reaction to the barrier is
reduced. side, the fixed object. This can be achieved
through reducing the post spacing, increasing
However placing the barrier away from the road- post sizes or increasing the rail stiffness by nest-
way and closer to the hazard may have disad- ing rail elements. However care should be exer-
vantages. These are: cised when considering this step since the total
8-24
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Terrain effects vehicle trajectory to stabilize. Installation of
guardrails on slopes steeper than 1:6 is not rec-
Roadside features such as kerbs and drainage ommended because inadequate lateral support
inlets affect the bumper height and suspension for the guardrail posts would result. If this loca-
and may cause errant vehicles to snag or vault tion is unavoidable, consideration should be
the barrier. given to deeper postholes.
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Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Figure 8.9: Length of need for adjacent traffic
required to provide a 1:10 approach slope to the Run-out length is the theoretical distance
barrier. required for a vehicle leaving the roadway to
come to a stop prior to impacting a hazard. The
Length of need
design of a traffic barrier requires provision to be
The variables to be considered in the design made for sufficient length to restrict such a vehi-
cle from reaching the hazard. The recommend-
process of barriers are shown in Figure 8.9 for
the approach side towards a hazard and in ed run-out lengths are shown in Table 8.6.
opposing traffic.
8-26
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
between the end of the run-out length and the median barriers are generally justified. These
far side of the hazard to be shielded. The length figures presuppose that the particular section of
of need for a standard barrier would then be the roadway under consideration does not suffer
length between the near side of the hazard and from an adverse cross-median collision history
the position where the barrier intersects the con- and that unauthorized cross-median U-turns do
trol line. If the barrier is designed for a continu- not take place.
ous hazard such as a river or a critical fill
embankment, then the control line would be Once the need for a median barrier is estab-
between the end of the run-out length and the lished, the designer should consider several fac-
end of the desirable clear zone. The same prin- tors in developing the barrier layout. These
ciple is adopted to determine the length of need include:
for opposing traffic. • Terrain effects;
• Flare rate of the barrier;
Terrain effects
An application of the length of need principles to
practical design problems is given in Volume 6 For a median barrier to be effective, it is essen-
of the South Africa Road Safety Manual. tial that, at the time of impact, the vehicle has all
its wheels on the ground and that its suspension
8.4.4 Median barriers system is neither compressed nor extended.
Kerbs and sloped medians are of particular con-
Most of the principles with respect to longitudi- cern, since a vehicle, which traverses one of
nal barriers also apply to median barriers. these features prior to impact, may go over or
Regarding warrants for their use, median barri- under the barrier or snag on its support posts.
ers should only be installed if the consequences
that would result if they did not exist are more Kerbs offer no safety benefits on high-speed
Geometric Design Guide
severe than the consequences of striking them. roads and are not recommended where median
However, excessive incidence of illegal cross- barriers are present.
median movements might justify the use of
median barriers. Medians should be relatively flat (slopes of 1:10
or less) and free of rigid objects. Where this is
For median widths of 15 metres or greater, not the case, carefully considered placement of
median barriers are generally not required, the median barrier is needed. AASHTO notes
whilst, for median widths of 10 metres and less three conditions where specific guidelines for
with ADT's in excess of 30 000 vpd, and 8 median barrier placement should be followed:
metres and less with ADTs below 30 000 vpd,
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Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
• In depressed medians or medians with a roadside barriers should be used near the
ditch section the slopes and ditch sec- shoulder adjacent to each of the travelled ways.
tion should first be checked to determine
whether a roadside barrier is warranted. Flare rates
If both slopes require shielding, a road-
side barrier should be placed near the If a median barrier has to be flared at a rigid
shoulder on each side of the median. If object in the median, the flare rates for roadside
only one slope requires shielding, a
barriers should be used for the median barrier
median barrier should be placed near
flare as well.
the shoulder of the adjacent travelled
way.
Rigid objects
For stepped medians that separate travelled tions of travel is necessary, the criteria for road-
raised medians or median berms. Research ions or earth berms to shield the barrier ends.
suggests that the cross section of a median
berm itself, if high and wide enough, can redi- Median openings as a result of underpasses
rect vehicles impacting at relatively shallow
angles. In certain instances, the cost implications of pro-
viding underpasses have the result that an
As a general rule, if the cross section is inade- opening in the median occurs. In such
quate for redirecting errant vehicles, a semi-rigid instances the use of transverse barriers (or con-
barrier should be placed at the apex of the crete balustrades) shielded by impact attenua-
cross-section. If the slopes are not traversable, tion devices should be considered.
8-28
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
End treatments Such a terminal must not spear, vault, or roll a
vehicle in either head-on or angled hits.
Traffic barriers (both roadside and median 2. Barrier end treatments should gradually
types) themselves represent fixed objects. stop or redirect an impacting vehicle when a
Impact with their untreated terminal sections barrier is hit end on. The end treatment should
can have severe consequences, primarily also be capable of redirecting a vehicle impact-
because of the very high deceleration rates ing the side of the terminal.
experienced by vehicle occupant under such cir- 3. The end treatment should have the
cumstances, but also often because penetration same redirectional characteristics as the barrier
of the passenger compartment by the barrier to which it is attached for impacts at or near the
itself is a distinct possibility. There are a number end of the terminal and within the length of
of different end treatments available for the var- need. The end should be properly anchored
ious types of barriers. and capable of developing the full tensile
strength of the barrier elements.
A proper end terminal has two functions:
4. Where space is available, a barrier can
• In any non-rigid barrier system, the end
sometimes be introduced far enough from
terminal should act as an anchor to
approaching traffic so that the end can be con-
allow the full tensile strength of the sys-
tem to be developed during downstream sidered non-hazardous and no additional end
angled impacts on the barrier. treatment is required. Flare rates, in this case,
• Regardless of the type of barrier, the should be in accordance with those mentioned
end terminal should be crashworthy, i.e. above. Positive end anchorage is required in
it must keep the vehicle stable and it semi-flexible systems in order to preclude pene-
must keep the vehicle occupants away
tration of the barrier within the length of need.
from rigid points creating high decelera-
Care should be taken, however, to ensure that
tion resulting in serious injuries or death
this flaring back does not create a hazard for
during impact.
traffic in the opposing direction.
Experience has shown that metal beam sys- 5. End treatments involving turned down
tems often result in penetration of the passenger terminals parallel to the direction of travel may
compartment, and that high-speed impacts with cause impacting vehicles to vault and roll over
Geometric Design Guide
concrete barriers result in intolerable decelera- or ride up the terminal and hit the object the bar-
tion forces. In designing crashworthy end treat- rier is intended to protect. Consequently, turned
ments, designers must create treatments that down terminals should not be used on the
provide vehicle deceleration rates that are with- approach ends of roadside or median barriers
in recommended limits for survivability. on high-speed, high-volume roads unless they
are also flared.
A number of principles relevant to barrier end 6. Termination of a barrier in a back slope
treatments are offered: eliminates the danger of an untreated barrier
1. Crashworthy end treatments are essen- end and reduces the opportunity for errant vehi-
tial if a barrier terminates within the clear zone. cles to penetrate the end of the barrier.
8-29
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
7. A number of end treatments have been thumb approach. Road designers should still
developed for metal beam barriers that utilize a investigate physical site restrictions such as lon-
combination of a breakaway mechanism and a gitudinal space, hazard width, slopes and sur-
cable with a flared configuration to address the face types. At locations with a high likelihood of
spearing and roll-over potential and to develop collisions, the costs of accidents and repair
the full tensile strength of the rail for down- should be factored into the decision matrix in
stream impacts. addition to the initial installation costs.
8. Where an end treatment is designed as
a "gating" device, i.e., to allow for controlled Designers should note that new technologies
penetration of a vehicle when impacted, through are continually being developed and tested.
a breakaway mechanism, care should be taken Nothing in this Guide relieves the designer of
to provide an adequate run-out area behind the the responsibility of keeping abreast of these
end treatment. new technologies and their potential application
9. The concrete safety shape barrier can to the roadside barrier end treatment problem.
be terminated by tapering the end. However,
this treatment should only be used where 8.5 IMPACT ATTENUATION DEVICES
speeds are low (60 km/h or less) and space is
limited. Flaring the barrier beyond the clear 8.5.1 Function
zone should be considered on higher speed
facilities where space is available. Impact attenuators, sometimes called crash
10. Proprietary mechanical end treatments cushions, are best suited for use in places
are often suitable only for limited types of barri- where fixed objects cannot be removed, relocat-
er applications. When adopting such technolo- ed or made breakaway, and cannot be ade-
gies, designers should ensure not only the effi- quately shielded by a longitudinal barrier. They
cacy of the technology of their choice but also its have proven to be an effective and safe means
compatibility with the barrier technology being of shielding particular types of roadside obsta-
used. In addition to information generally avail- cles, and accomplish their task by absorbing
able from the manufacturers and suppliers of energy at a controlled rate, thereby causing the
these treatments, road agencies and others vehicle to decelerate so as to reduce the poten-
Geometric Design Guide
compile and provide appropriate guidance in tial for serious injury to its occupants. Most
respect of crash testing results and system operational impact attenuation devices have
compatibility recommendations. been designed and tested by their manufactur-
11. All systems should be installed with a ers and acceptable units can usually be select-
level surface leading to the treatment. The use ed directly from design charts.
of kerb and gutter is discouraged, but if they are
needed, only the mountable type should be Typical objects and areas that can benefit from
specified. the use of impact attenuators include:
• A freeway exit ramp gore area in an ele-
The principles noted above provide a rule of vated or depressed structure where a
8-30
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
bridge rail end or a pier requires shield- the preliminary design of the impact attenuator:
ing; • Hazard characteristics - type width and
• The ends of roadside or median barriers; height;
• Rigid objects like cantilever sign • Site geometry - including space avail-
gantries within the clear zone; able for installation;
• Construction work zones; and • Traffic pattern - bi-directional or uni-
• Toll booths. directional traffic;
• Slopes - preferably on flat surface, but
It is difficult to develop an easy selection with a slope of no more than 1:50 over
process for determining the most appropriate the length of the attenuator;
8-31
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
from the edge of the travelled way. Typical func- tum and therefore do not need a backdrop in
tional considerations for attenuators and barrier front of the hazard being shielded.
end terminals are given in Table 8.7.
Recommendation pertaining to these devices
The designer should allow for enough space to are as follows:
install an attenuator in the most effective way • Single rows of barrels should not be
and to ensure that its performance will not be allowed for permanent installation;
• Barrels should be spaced some 150 mm
compromised by insufficient placement areas.
apart and stop 300 mm to 600 mm short
The particular system's requirements in terms of
of the hazard being shielded;
installation should also be met.
• Barrels should be positioned in such a
way that rigid corners of the hazard are
Figure 8.11 and Table 8.8 show the space to be overlapped by barrels by some 760 mm
reserved for sand-filled plastic drum attenuators (300 mm minimum) to reduce the sever-
under different design speed conditions. ity of angled impacts near to the rear of
the attenuator. Where such attenuators
are subject to bi-directional traffic flow,
8.5.4 Sand-filled plastic barrel impact
the array of barrels should be flush with
attenuators
the edge of the hazard so as to ensure
that reverse direction traffic does not
Sand-filled plastic barrel impact attenuators inadvertently impact the rear end of the
Geometric Design Guide
8-32
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
• If speeds higher than 95 km/h are antic- A number of typical arrangements of sand-filled
ipated, barriers can be lengthened. barrel attenuators are shown in Figure 8.12.
Since most serious accidents occur at The legend illustrates the mass of sand con-
excessive speeds, an "over-design" is
tained in each barrel.
acceptable where space permits.
8-33
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
8.6 RUNAWAY VEHICLE FACILITIES The purpose of escape ramps and arrestor beds
is to stop, without serious injury or serious dam-
8.6.1 Introduction age to vehicles, to adjacent property or to other
road users, those vehicles that become out-of-
Runaway-vehicle escape ramps and associated control on long downhill gradients. Deceleration
arrestor beds are specifically designed to rates of between 5 m/s2 and 6 m/s2 are obtained
reduce the safety hazard associated with out-of- by a full width level arrestor bed without the use
control heavy vehicles where long steep grades of vehicle brakes. (A 10 per cent down gradient
occur. on the bed surface can reduce the deceleration
The following factors are generally associated by about 1 m/s2). It should be noted that, under
with such incidents: high deceleration, inadequately restrained vehi-
• Gradient;
cle occupants, or insecurely attached cargo may
• Driver error such as failure to downshift
not be safely contained.
gears;
• Equipment failure such as defective
brakes; 8.6.2 Types of escape ramps
• Inexperience with the vehicle;
• Unfamiliarity with the specific location; There are six different types of truck escape
-% +%
Road
A. Sandpile
-%
Road -%
B. Descending grade
Geometric Design Guide
-%
Road 0,0%
C. Horizontal grade
-%
+%
Road
D. Ascending grade
8-34
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
• Ascending grade arrestor bed; bed increases the rolling resistance, as in the
• Horizontal grade arrestor bed; other types of ramps, while the force of gravity
• Descending grade arrestor bed; and acts in the opposite direction to the movement
• Roadside arrestor bed. of the vehicle. The loose bedding material also
Figure 8.13 illustrates four types in general use. serves to hold the vehicle in place on the ramp
grade after it has come to a safe stop.
The sand pile types are composed of loose, dry Ascending grade ramps without an arrestor bed
sand and are usually no more than 130 metres are not encouraged in areas with moderate to
in length. The influence of gravity is dependent high commercial vehicle usage as heavy vehi-
on the slope of the surface of the sand pile. The cles may roll back and jack-knife upon coming
increase in rolling resistance to reduce overall to rest.
lengths is supplied by the loose sand. The
deceleration characteristics of the sand pile are Each one of the ramp types is applicable to a
severe and the sand can be affected by weath- particular situation where an emergency escape
er. Because of these characteristics, sand piles ramp is desirable and should be compatible with
are less desirable than arrestor beds. They may the location and topography. The most effective
be suitable where space is limited and the com- escape ramp is an ascending ramp with an
pacting properties of the sand pile are appropri- arrestor bed. On low volume roads with less
ate. than approximately 1000 vehicles per day, clear
run-off areas without arrestor beds are accept-
Descending grade ramps are constructed paral- able.
lel and adjacent to the through lanes of the
highway. They require the use of loose aggre- 8.6.3 Criteria for provision of escape
gate in an arrestor bed to increase rolling resist- ramps
ance and thus slow the vehicle. The descend-
ing-grade ramps can be rather lengthy because On hills where there is a history of accidents
the gravitational effect is not acting to help involving runaway vehicles, consideration
reduce the speed of the vehicle. should always be given to the provision of
escape ramps with arrestor beds. A measure of
Geometric Design Guide
In a horizontal-grade ramp, the effect of the effectiveness can be assessed by an analysis of
force of gravity is zero and the increase in rolling personal injury and "damage only" accidents
resistance has to be supplied by an arrestor bed plus the incidence of damage to property, based
composed of loose aggregate. This type of on local records.
ramp will be longer than those using gravitation-
al forces to help stop the vehicle. On new construction, where long steep gradi-
An ascending-grade ramp uses both the arrest- ents are unavoidable, and where the probability
ing bed and the effect of gravity, in general of damage caused by runaway vehicles is
reducing the length of ramp necessary to stop greater than normal, the provision of arrestor
the vehicle. The loose material in the arresting beds should be considered as an integral part of
8-35
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
the project design. As a guide for provision, • The length of downgrade;
where gradients are over 5 per cent, an arrestor • The conditions at the bottom of the
bed should be considered if the gradient (in per grade;
cent) squared, multiplied by the approach length • The percentage of heavy vehicles;
8-36
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
Figure 8.15: Layout of arrestor bed remote from carriageway
median is not a recommended practice but, in local schools should be informed that these are
the case of a sharp curve to the left at the bot- dangerous locations so that children are dis-
tom of a steep downgrade this location may couraged from playing in them.
prove to be necessary.
Lack of suitable sites for the installation of
For safety ramps to be effective, their location is
ascending type ramps may necessitate the
critical. They should be located prior to, or at
installation of horizontal or descending arrestor
the start of, the smaller radius curves along the
beds. Suitable sites for horizontal or descend-
alignment. For example, an escape ramp after
ing arrestor beds can also be limited, particular-
the tightest curve will be of little benefit if trucks
ly if the downward direction is on the outside or
are unable to negotiate the curves leading up to
fill side of the roadway formation. The entrance Geometric Design Guide
it. As vehicle brake temperature is a function of
to the bed should be clearly signed for drivers of
the length of the grade, escape ramps are gen-
runaway vehicles and clearway restrictions
erally located within the bottom half of the steep-
should be applied so that the entrance is kept
er section of the alignment.
freely accessible. Adequate visibility to the
Where possible, arrestor beds should not be entrance must be available so as to give drivers
located in verges on the outside of right-hand time to manoeuvre their vehicles into the bed
curves, or at any other location where there is a and, as a minimum requirement, visibility equal
likelihood of vehicles mistakenly entering the to the desirable stopping sight distance appro-
bed during the hours of darkness. Where priate to the anticipated maximum speed of run-
arrestor beds are constructed in built-up areas, away vehicles should be provided.
8-37
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
8.6.5 Arrestor bed design features increased by 3 per cent for each one degree of
slope.
Suggested layouts for an arrestor bed immedi-
ately adjacent to the carriageway, are shown in Width of bed
Figure 8.14 and, in Figure 8.15, for a bed sepa-
rated from the road. Where space permits, the
As a general guide a constant bed width of 4,0 -
arrangement separated from the road should be
5,0 metres is adequate. Barrier kerbing with a
used.
300 mm up stand should be installed at the side
of the bed remote from the carriageway to assist
Length of bed
in restricting sideways movement. The use of
safety fencing may also be desirable. The bed
The length of bed required to halt runaway vehi- should be separated from the main carriageway,
cles is dependent on the predominant vehicle where possible, by at least 2,0 metres, and flush
type, the likely speed of entry into the bed, the kerbing may be required locally where the road
type and depth of aggregate used and the slope is provided with 1,0 metre wide hard strips.
of the arrestor bed. The bed length for all-pur-
pose roads should cope with the critical design Depth of bed material
vehicle, generally a large articulated vehicle with
multiple axle groups. This vehicle is likely to Beds should have depths between 300 mm and
have the highest entry velocity and the lowest 450 mm with the depth gradually increasing
average deceleration rate. over an initial length in order to provide for
smooth vehicle entry. Where entry velocities
Table 8.9 gives suggested lengths for horizontal are less than 75 km/h, vehicle deceleration is
grade arrestor beds (excluding the initial depth significantly higher for beds which contain
transition zone). Where the bed surface is greater depths of bed material, whereas, at
aligned on a downgrade its length should be speeds above 75 km/h, decelerations tend to be
Geometric Design Guide
8-38
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
independent of bed depth. The greater (450 8.7 BRAKE CHECK AND BRAKE
mm) depth gives around 50 per cent greater REST AREAS
stopping ability than the minimum (350 mm)
provision and should be considered where bed A brake check area or a compulsory truck stop
length is restricted. is an area set aside before the steep descent as
distinct from a brake rest area which is an area
Type of material
set aside for commercial vehicles part way down
or at the bottom of the descent.
To achieve a high deceleration rate it is neces-
sary that vehicle tyres sink into the bed materi-
al. Rounded uncrushed gravel and single size These facilities should be provided on routes
cubic aggregate or similar artificial lightweight that have long steep downgrades and commer-
aggregate has performed satisfactorily in tests cial vehicle numbers of around 500 per day,
and should be used in preference to angular especially on National Roads and principal traf-
gravel (i.e. crushed rock) or sand, which tend to fic routes. These areas, when used, will ensure
restrict wheel penetration and compact with time that drivers begin the descent at zero speed and
Arrestor bed material should be free draining on the downgrade. They would also provide an
and adequate drainage should be provided so opportunity to display information about the
that in freezing or saturated conditions it still grade ahead, escape ramp locations and maxi-
retains its function of wheel penetration, thereby mum safe recommended descent speeds.
8-39
Chapter 8: Roadside Safety
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
9-1
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
of consistency of design and matching driver ing short tangents and low-radius curves on a
expectations because the high-standard road road traversing an essentially flat landscape.
section may encourage speeds that are inap-
propriate to the balance of the road. Where, for either of the reasons listed above, a
road is described as being sub-standard, it may
An important feature of geometric improve- be argued that any improvement is better than
ments carried out as part of a 3R project is that, none even if the result is still modestly sub-stan-
after upgrading, there should still be balance dard. The counter argument could be that driv-
between the various elements of the road. A ers will proceed cautiously on a road which is
high-standard cross-section generally creates "obviously dangerous" and the accident rate will
the impression in the driver's mind of a high be correspondingly low. If the design speed of
design speed, which may be at variance with the road is, however, improved so as to be clos-
the reality of the situation as defined by the hor- er to the speed drivers wish to select - but with-
izontal alignment. out actually achieving it - they may be unaware
of the shortfall and thus tend to overdrive the
9.1.2 The myth of the sub-standard road alignment with a consequent increase in the
accident rate. The designer should be sensitive
In reality, there is no such thing as a sub-stan- to the merits of both arguments and, within the
dard road. Two possible situations can, howev- flexibility offered by the adoption of guidelines
er, give rise to the belief that a road is not to as opposed to rigid standards, achieve the best
standard. These are: possible compromise within the context of the
• A mismatch between the various dimen- financial and physical restraints attached to the
sions, for example a low design speed specific project.
vertical alignment superimposed on a
high design speed horizontal alignment. It is suggested that, as a general rule, improve-
Similarly, a narrow cross-section applied ments to the alignment and cross-section of a
to a road that, in all other respects, sup- road be in balance to a single design speed and
ports high-speed travel. that, if this speed is low for the circumstances,
• A low design speed of the road in rela- advisory speeds be posted.
Geometric Design Guide
9-2
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
typically available for betterment works. The is dictated by the horizontal rather than the ver-
designer should thus establish precisely where tical alignment so that a low design speed on a
dimensional mismatches occur along the road crest curve would tend to be overdriven, i.e.
and the extent of the mismatch. drivers would have less stopping sight distance
than they need for safety. The speed of trucks,
The mismatch referred to above is that between on the other hand, is dictated largely by gradi-
the horizontal and the vertical alignments and ents and it is unlikely that they would exceed the
9-3
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
The principle of balanced design should not guide at best. Costing should thus be on a proj-
however be ignored. Even if the funds for ect-by-project basis.
improvements were unlimited, it would not be Central to any system whereby geometric
wise to develop a cross-section appropriate to a improvements can be prioritised, is knowledge
high design speed when the alignment is, in of the value of the benefits that are likely to
fact, appropriate to a lower design speed. As accrue from any improvement. Benefits take
stated above, a mismatch between the dimen- the form of:
sions of the road constitutes poor design. • reduction in the number and/or severity
of crashes; and
When a table defining and prioritising all the • reduction in travel time across the
geometric improvements that should be made improved road section.
as part of the 3R project has been prepared, the The cost of crashes in 2001 Rands is listed in
final step in the process would be to locate Table 9.1. For convenience, a weighted aver-
these improvements relative to the identified age of R 30 k has been adopted.
pavement improvements. It is likely that the
best return on investment would be achieved if Crash prediction models are used in conjunction
the investment were located at a point where with average crash costs to derive the annual
both the pavement and the geometry have to be savings derived from a given geometric
improved. improvement over the design life of the improve-
ment. These models are normally structured to
9.2 COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF GEO- predict the number of crashes that are likely to
METRIC IMPROVEMENTS occur given a number of preconditions such as
lane width, shoulder width and radius of curva-
The construction costs involved in geometric ture.
improvements cannot be quantified on a coun-
trywide basis. The availability of materials, the Where road improvements are contemplated,
remoteness of sites, the presence of site-specif- the focus is on the marginal reduction in crash-
ic complications and the variation in skills levels es that is likely to be achieved by a deliberate
all contribute to variations in cost that would change in these preconditions. The lanes or the
Geometric Design Guide
tend to make a national average a very rough shoulders may be widened or the radius of a
9-4
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
horizontal curve increased. A vertical curve may • Predictions from statistical models
be flattened or an intersection relocated. It is based on regression analysis;
difficult to assign a reduction in crash rate to any • Results of before-and-after studies; or
one specific geometric element and even more • Expert judgments by experienced engi
neers.
difficult to evaluate the consequences of more
than one variation in the road geometry. For
When used alone, each of these approaches
example, it is reasonable to assume that an
has weaknesses.
increase in lane width would result in a reduc-
tion in the crash rate and an increase in shoul-
der width would also reduce the crash rate. The
9.3.1 Averages from historical data
9-5
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
9.3.2 Regression analysis would be a powerful tool in the assessment of
the safety effects of geometric and traffic control
Statistical models are developed on the basis of features.
a database of crash and roadway characteris-
tics. An appropriate functional form is selected 9.3.4 Expert judgment
for the model and its parameters are then deter-
mined by means of multiple regression analysis. Expert judgment developed after many years of
Regression models are accurate in their predic- experience in the highway safety field plays an
tion of the total crash experience for a location important role in the development of reliable
or class of locations but are less effective in iso- safety estimates. Although experts have diffi-
lating the effects of individual geometric or con- culty in providing quantitative i.e. absolute esti-
trol features. mates, they are very capable of developing rel-
ative or judgments of the form: A is likely to be
Regression models assume a statistical correla- more or less than B or C would not be more than
tion between roadway features and crashes, 20 per cent of D. They thus need a frame of ref-
although these correlations could be spurious or erence based on historical data, statistical mod-
not representative of a cause-and-effect rela- els or before-and-after studies to make useful
tionship. For example, the fact that crash rates judgments.
tend to decrease with time could suggest that
the passage of time is sufficient to cause the 9.4 A NEW APPROACH
reduction. Furthermore, a strong correlation
between independent variables would make it Having discussed the weaknesses of the four
impossible to isolate their individual effects. basic forms of assessment of safety, it is sug-
gested that combining all four into a single form
of assessment would lead to a more reliable
9.3.3 Before-and-after studies
estimate of safety than could be achieved if
each one were used individually.
The principal weakness of before-and-after
studies has already been discussed. Because
The Interactive Highway Safety Design Model
Geometric Design Guide
9-6
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
ment project. The roadway segment algorithm The effect of average daily traffic (ADT) on pre-
predicts all non-intersection-related crashes. dicted crash frequency is incorporated as part of
For example, a ran-off-road crash within 15 the base condition and the effects of geometric
metres of an intersection could be considered design and traffic control measures are incorpo-
by the investigating officer to be unrelated to the rated through the CMFs.
intersection. For modeling purposes, crashes
occurring within 76 metres (250 feet) of an inter- South African fatality and crash rates are higher
section because of the presence of the intersec- than those of the United States for which the
tion are considered to be intersection-related relationships were derived. The differences
crashes. between South African and American road safe-
ty indicators are illustrated in Figures 9.1, 9.2
Each of these algorithms is composed of two and 9.3.
components, being the base model and crash
modification factors (CMF). They take the form; Although Figures 9.1 and 9.2 display an encour-
9.1 aging trend in the South African rates, the ratio
where Nrs = predicted number of total road between South African and American crash
way segment crashes per year rates for all types of crashes has stayed fairly
after application of accident constant at a factor of 2,5 over the period shown
modification factors in the graphs.
Nbr= predicted number of total road
way segment crashes per year In the American application of IHSDM,
for nominal or base condition allowance is made for a calibration procedure to
CMF= crash modification factors for modify the national relationship to the accident
roadway segments history of the individual States or local areas
9-7
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
Figure 9.2: Fatility rates
within each State. A calibration factor of 2,5 involves developing an inventory of the road
should, on the basis of Figure 9.3, be applied to network stratified in terms of ADT in order to
Equation 9.1 to match South African conditions. extract:
• Number of kilometres of tangent road
9-8
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
• Number of kilometres of roadway on The roadside hazard rating is that devised by
grade; and Zegeer et al and has the following structure:
• Average percentage of gradient for Rating = 1
roadway on grade. • Wide clear slopes not less than
Values for the various geometric parameters, 9 metres from the pavement
i.e.: edgeline;
• Average lane and shoulder width; • Side slopes flatter than 1:4;
• Shoulder type (paved, gravel or turf); • Recoverable.
• Driveway density (number per kilome- Rating = 2
tre); and • Clear zone for 6 to 7,5 metres
• Average roadside hazard rating from pavement edgeline;
• For horizontal curves; • Side slope ofabout 1:4;
o No spiral transition present; • Recoverable.
o Super elevation not deficient
Rating = 3
also have to be derived. • Clear zone for 3 metres from
pavement edgeline;
The above information is input into the crash • Side slope of about 1: 3 to 1:4;
9.2
Geometric Design Guide
where Nbr = Predicted number of crashes for base condition
EXPO = Exposure (106 veh km/year)
= ADT x 365 x L/106
LW = Lane width (metres)
SW = Shoulder width (metres)
RHR = Roadside hazard rating (integer value between 1 and 7)
DD = Driveway density (number /km)
W = Weighting factor for specific road segment
9-9
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
Rating = 5 9.4.2 Base model for intersections
• Clear zone of 1,5 to 3 metres Base models have been developed for:
from pavement edgeline; • Three-legged STOP-controlled inter
• Side slope of about 1:3; sections;
• May have guardrail 0 to 1,5 • Four-legged STOP-controlled intersec
metres from pavement edgeline; tions; and
• May have rigid obstacles or • Four-legged signalised intersections.
embankment within 2 to 3
metres of pavement edgeline;
• Virtually non-recoverable. These predict crash frequency per year for inter-
9.3
9-10
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
crashes at intersections for the nominal or base o Intersection sight distance
condition. The CMF's in respect of lane widths and shoul-
der types and widths are shown in Tables 9.2
As shown in Equation 9.1, the Crash The CMF in respect of horizontal curvature is
9-11
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
Geometric Design Guide
The CMF for gradient is given in Equation 9.9. CMF = 1 + 0,035 G 9.9
The equation is based on the absolute value of where G = Gradient (%)
gradient simply because an upgrade in one
direction is a downgrade in the opposite direc- The crash rate is strongly correlated with the
tion. The gradient factor is applied to the entire number of accesses or driveways along the
grade, i.e. from one Vertical Point of Intersection road. Expressed in terms of a driveway density
(VPI) to the next. in driveways per kilometre, the CMF is shown in
9-12
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
Equation 9.10 as and four-legged STOP-controlled intersections
respectively.
9.10
CMF = exp (0,0040 θ)
where DD = Driveway density 9.12(a)
(Driveways/km) CMF = exp (0,0054 θ)
ADT = Average daily traffic 9.12(b)
Where θ = intersection skew angle
The CMF for passing lanes or climbing lanes is expressed as the absolute value of the differ-
taken as 0,75 for total crashes in both directions ence between 90O and the actual intersection
of travel over the length of the passing or climb- angle.
ing lane. Where auxiliary lanes are provided on
both sides of the road over a short length of the Signal control separates the movements from
road segment, the CFM improves to 0,65 for the conflicting approaches so that the CMF for skew
length of the auxiliary lanes. at signalized four-legged intersections is 1,00
for all angles.
The quality of roadside design is represented by
the roadside hazard rating described in Section The safety differences between STOP-con-
9.4.1. The calculated CMF applies to the total trolled and signalized intersections are account-
roadway segment over which the roadside haz- ed for by separate base models rather than by a
ard rating applies and is thus independent of the CMF. The nominal case for STOP-control has
length of the segment. The CMF is calculated STOP-control on the minor approaches only.
as shown in Equation 9.11. Minor-road YIELD-control is treated identically
to STOP-control. A CMF of 0,53 is applied to
CMF = 0,7915 + 0,0718.RHR the CMF for minor-road STOP control to provide
9.11 for conversion to all-way STOP control. This
Where RHR = Roadside hazard rating suggests that all-way STOP control has a crash
rate that is 47 per cent lower than that for minor-
The number of legs in an intersection has a sig- leg STOP control. This should not, however be
Geometric Design Guide
nificant effect on the crash rate. This is attribut- interpreted as an argument in favour of arbitrar-
able to the difference in the number of conflict ily replacing minor-leg control by all-way control.
points in four- as opposed to three-legged inter- The CMF applies only when all-way STOP con-
sections. These differences are accommodated trol is, in fact, warranted.
in the base models described in Section 9.4.2
and thus do not generate a CMF. It is, however, The nominal or base condition for provision of
widely accepted that departures from an angle right-turn lanes at intersections is the absence
of skew of 90O, whether positive or negative, is of turning lanes. No data are available to quan-
detrimental to safety. This impact is captured in tify the effect of right-turn lanes on the minor
Equations 9.12(a) and 9.12(b) for three-legged legs of intersections. The CMFs for right-turn
9-13
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
lanes on the major legs are presented in Table In the case of all-way STOP and signal control,
9.4. The CMFs for installation of right-turn lanes a CMF of 1 applies.
on both major legs of a four-legged intersection
are simply the square of the value for a right- 9.5 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF GEO-
turn lane on a single approach. The CMFs METRIC IMPROVEMENTS
apply to total intersection-related crashes.
tion. Where, for reasons of road alignment and was offered. This methodology supports the
terrain, sight distance is less than that specified derivation of the probable difference in accident
for a design speed of 20 km/h less than the rate resulting from a specific geometric improve-
design speed of the major road, it is considered ment. The procedure involved would be to cal-
to be limited. Restrictions of sight distance by culate the number of crashes that could be
specific obstructions such as trees and bushes expected to occur:
do not qualify for consideration of CMFs, it being • if the geometry of the road was unal-
9-14
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
approach would involve calculating the predict- 9.5.2 Time savings
ed number of crashes with and without the pro-
posed upgrades for each successive year on Improvements in geometry can lead to increas-
the basis of an annually increasing ADT, attach- es in travel speed on a road and hence to reduc-
ing a cash value to the reduction in crashes, tions in travel time. The travel speed will vary
thereafter discounting benefits to the current along the length of the road because of changes
year and summing them for comparison with the in the geometry as well as changes in traffic-
9-15
Chapter 9: Road Betterment
The benefit, AT, is inserted into Equation 9.7 to all of them. Summing the benefits resulting from
derive the Net Present Worth of the time savings safety improvements and time saving improve-
accruing over the design life of the geometric ments is thus pointless. A further argument
upgrades. against summing all benefits is that the prime
objective of a 3R project is to extend the life of
9.5.3 The speed profile the pavement. Savings arising from geometric
improvements should be seen as a bonus and
Development of the speed profile requires an not as a prime objective.
ability to predict speed on the basis of the geo-
metric elements that present themselves. Much The designer should create a strip map listing all
research on speed prediction has been carried the planned pavement enhancement activities
out worldwide and some of this work is dis- by stake value along the road segment under
cussed in Chapter 4. In general it has been consideration. Brief descriptions of the nature
found that lane and shoulder widths are not sta- of proposed geometric improvements and their
tistically significant as descriptors of speed and Net Present Worth should then be added to the
they do not thus appear in the prediction mod- strip map. With this strategic overview of the 3R
els. project, it should be possible to select the geo-
metric improvements that could form part of the
For convenience, Equation 4.1 is repeated project.
below
V85 = 105,31 + 1,62 x 10-5 x It is not possible to lay down hard and fast rules
B2 - 0,064 x B (4.1) concerning the further definition of the project.
where V85 = 85th percentile speed A geometric improvement may have such a high
(km/h) Net Present Worth that it changes the prioritiza-
B = Bendiness tion of the pavement remedial works. On the
= 57 300/R (degrees/km) other hand, an improvement, even with a high
= 57 300 θ/L Net Present Worth, may fall in an area where no
R = Radius (metres) remedial works are intended and, because of
θ = Deviation angle this, is abandoned. Clearly, a high level of engi-
Geometric Design Guide
9-16
Chapter 6: Intersection Design
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 10.1: National Road underpasses - Two-lane single carriageway bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
Figure 10.2: National Road underpasses- Dual carriageways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
Figure 10.3: Two-lane cross road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
Figure 10.4: Four-lane cross roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5
Figure 10.5: Four- and six-lane cross roads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5
Figure 10.6: Six-lane cross-roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6
Figure 10.7: Bridge width for agricultural overpass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6
Chapter 10
GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURES
10.1 DESIGN CONSISTENCY
The provisions contained in this chapter should In this guideline, the words “underpass” and
be used in conjunction with the SANRAL Code “overpass” refer to the position of the minor road
of Procedure for the Planning and Design of relative to the major road.
Structures. In the event of inconsistencies, the
Code of Procedure for the Planning and Design 10.2 FUTURE CAPACITY REQUIRE-
of Structures shall be the governing document. MENTS
This chapter relates primarily to clearances for For capacity analysis in respect of structures, a
structures for geometric design purposes and design life of 50 years should be used, and any
the clearances given should be regarded as structure over or under a national road should
minimum requirements. Any variations to these provide for the eventual development of the
clearances should be agreed with the client national road to its full standard during this life-
prior to the incorporation into the design. time. At the time of construction of a structure
Nevertheless, the onus rests on the designer to over a single-carriageway national road on per-
ascertain their applicability to given conditions manent alignment, the matter of the construc-
and the designer should ensure that the clear- tion of either one or both spans of the eventual
ances provided do not impede the required sight two-span structure should be discussed with the
distance. Due cognisance should be taken of Road Agency's Regional Manager.
possible future carriageway or road widening in
accommodating the specific clearances and no In the case where a double carriageway nation-
part of the structure should encroach on the al road crosses over a secondary road, the deci-
envelope defining the clearance requirements. sion on whether or not to fill in the gap in the
However, where the specific horizontal clear- median caused by not "decking" the two sepa-
ance cannot be achieved, a longitudinal protec- rate sections of the underpass under the
Geometric Design Guide
tive barrier should be provided. National road carriageway, should be carefully
considered with adequate weight being given to
Where structures either over or under railway safety as a result of the creation of a hazardous
lines are required, the regulations of the Code of situation for vehicles on the national road.
Procedure issued by the relevant railway
authority should be applied to the geometric In general on divided carriageways a bridge
design. In cases where these regulations differ median with a width of 10 metres or less should
from the suggestions contained in these guide- be decked.
lines, the matter should be discussed with the
Roads Agency's Regional Manager.
10-1
Chapter 10: Grade Seperation Structures
Figure 10.1: National Road underpasses - Two-lane single carriageway bridges
10-2
Chapter 10: Grade Seperation Structures
Note: For four- and six-lane underpass cross roads, a five metre median is employed.
Bridge designers will normally make use of the be avoided and crossings should be straight so
median to accommodate a centre pier. The that the entire length can be seen from each
median would normally accommodate an ade- end.
quate length of right turn slot 3,7 metres wide,
except where the first intersection on the cross- 10.3.5 Pedestrian underpasses
road is very close to the structure.
Pedestrian underpasses should only be consid-
10.3.3 Agricultural underpasses ered in cases where an overhead structure is
impractical. The minimum vertical and horizon-
The normal horizontal clearance between abut- tal clearances for pedestrian underpasses will
ments for an agricultural underpass is 4,0 be 2,5 metres x 2,5 metres.
metres. If local conditions allow, this dimension
may be reduced. Proposals for wider clear- In urban areas, lighting should be provided for
ances should be motivated and referred to the pedestrian underpasses, as well as for pedestri-
National Road Agency's Regional Manager. If an ramps.
the agricultural underpass provides the only
access to the farm, it should have a minimum The maximum longitudinal slope on ramps
Geometric Design Guide
vertical clearance of 4,3 metres. Any other agri- should not exceed 9 per cent.
cultural underpasses provided would normally
have a vertical clearance of 4 metres, or 2,5 10.4 OVERPASSES
metres if this is acceptable to the farmer.
10.4.1 Cross roads
10.3.4 Cattle and equestrian underpasses
Table 10.2 gives the standard widths in metres
The vertical and horizontal clearance for cattle between guardrails on overpasses for roads
and equestrian underpasses should normally be crossing the national road. These overpasses are
3 metres x 3 metres. Skewed crossings should dimensioned in more detail in Figures 10.3 to 10.6.
10-3
Chapter 10: Grade Seperation Structures
Notes structure. The geometry of each individual case
must be evaluated in terms of the local gradient
1. In this type of road there is no median and superelevation, if any, as well as the shape
but an extra lane is added for back-to- of the structure, which may also be carrying a
back right hand turn storage. road with its own gradient and superelevation.
2. All roads having 4 or more lanes shall be Due to the vulnerability of the individual beams
constructed as two separate carriage of precast prestressed beam and slab decks to
ways with, in the interests of safety, a impact, a minimum vertical clearance of 5,6
median of adequate width. metres should be used for this type of deck.
Alternatively, the beam bottom flanges should
The vertical clearance above any point of the be joined together to form a continuous solid
road surface which is under a structure should, soffit.
for new bridges, be not less than 5,2 metres.
This allows for future resurfacing under the In the case of existing bridges, a relaxation to
bridge. The critical point is not necessarily on not less than 4,9 metres can be considered to
the centreline of the road passing under the make provision for rehabilitation of the pave-
Geometric Design Guide
10-4
Chapter 10: Grade Seperation Structures
Figure 10.4: Four-lane cross roads
ment without having to raise the bridge deck. It case of interchanges, this is normally
should be noted that the maximum permissible made up of 1,0 metre of shoulder and a
height of a double-decker bus is 4,6 metres and, 1,5 metre sidewalk or a 2,5 metre shoul-
for any other vehicle, 4,3 metres. der and no sidewalk. Where there is no
interchange, the controlling local author-
On routes that serve as Superload routes, addi- ity may use the 2,5 metres as it sees fit.
Geometric Design Guide
tional clearances may be necessary. The
designer should check whether a route is b. In the case of minor roads, the clear
intended for super loads and, if so, what require- width between guardrails or handrails
ments exist for it.. may be reduced to 9,4 metres.
10-5
Chapter 10: Grade Seperation Structures
Figure 10.6: Six-lane cross-roads
10-6
Chapter 10: Grade Seperation Structures
Because of the relative lightness of pedestrian provided on bridges carrying National Road
footbridges, a vehicle impacting the structure is freeways.
likely to cause considerable damage, including
the possibility of the deck dropping onto the 10.4.6 Balustrades and parapets
roadway below. A vertical clearance of 5,9
metres is thus normally required for footbridges. Details for balustrades and parapets should be
as specified in the Code of Procedure for the
Ramp approaches should be designed to Planning of Design Structures.
encourage pedestrian usage by following estab-
lished routes. Where appropriate, these may be
provided with steps on the steeper slopes near
the ends of the bridge to encourage usage of
the bridge.
10.4.4 Services
10-7
Chapter 10: Grade Seperation Structures
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
Considerable experience in the planning, design The road geometry through the plaza and on its
and operation of toll plazas has been gained in approaches is the major determinant of road
South Africa on our National Highways. This user safety. The plaza should preferably be
section summarises the important factors as located on a tangent and meet the following
they impact on the planning and design of major measures of sight distance.
roads. The purpose is to familiarize designers
with the concepts and constraints of toll plaza Stopping sight distance must be continuously
design and provide information for use in layout available along the road. At the approach to the
design and basic planning. plaza court, vehicles, and heavy vehicles in par-
ticular, require sufficient distance to stop at the
11.2 PLANNING rear of a 5-vehicle queue. Because of speed
restrictions in the plaza area, an approach
11.2.1 Positioning of the Plaza speed of 100km/hr can be assumed for design.
See Sections 3.5.4 to 3.5.6.
A network analysis of travel volumes, origins
and destination and the relative costs of using
Decision sight distance must be available to the
the tolled road is a prerequisite. Once the finan-
start of the approach tapers as discussed in
cial viability is established i.e. the income
Section 3.5.8. The column "Interchanges: Sight
stream is in balance with the overall project
distance to nose" in Table 3.7 should be used.
costs, it is then necessary to position the plaza
so as to maximize the defined catchment. This
would normally require the evaluation of a num- 11.2.3 Land required
11-1
Chapter 11: Toll Plazas
11.2.4 Cost 11.2.6 Security
The construction cost and operational cost Location factors that influence toll plaza securi-
determine the economy of the toll plaza loca- ty and which should be evaluated are;
tion. The measure of effectiveness is the pres- • Land use in the vicinity
ent value of future expenditure. The following • Other access routes to the toll plaza
are the important items that should be consid- • Vegetation
ered.
• Land costs 11.3 Design Norms and Dimensions
• Mass earthworks
• Geotechnical conditions The toll plaza layout will ultimately be governed
• Cost of services by the number of lanes required. The standard
• Cost of relocating services toll booth module is 5,0 m wide. The lane width
• Stormwater drainage is 3,0 metres and the toll island is 2,0 metres
• Pavement widening wide. The general layout of a plaza, lane
• Plaza construction and running costs arrangement and island details are shown in
• Accommodation of traffic Figures 11.1 to 11.4. An extra 3,0 m shoulder is
• Maintenance costs. recommended at the toll lanes on the periphery
to accommodate abnormal vehicles.
11.2.5 Operational Efficiency
For planning purposes, the average queuing
The geometry of the road at the approaches and and processing time per vehicle can be taken as
within the plaza court influences the operational 30 seconds and the maximum queue length
efficiency. Tapers should be such that vehicles should not exceed 5 vehicles.
can spread comfortably and merge without
undue constraint. Approach tapers of 1:8 and
merge tapers of 1:5 are acceptable to and from
a point 50 metres from the centre line across the
plaza.
Geometric Design Guide
11-2
Chapter 11: Toll Plazas
Geometric Design Guide
11-3
Chapter11: Toll Plazas
Geometric Design Guide
11-4
Chapter11: Toll Plazas
Geometric Design Guide
11-5
Chapter11: Toll Plazas
Geometric Design Guide
11-6
Chapter11: Toll Plazas
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Geometric Design Guide
IV
Bibliography
South African
National Roads Agency Limited
Historically Geometric Design was predicated
on the capabilities of the design vehicle.
Comparatively recently, Geometric Design has
undergone a paradigm shift of note. It is now
accepted that a road designed to “standards”
is not necessarily safe and, furthermore, that
human factors play a greater role in the
determination of geometric design standards
than do the limitations of the various design
vehicles.