A

Springer
of Nanotechnology
Bharat Bhushan (Ed.)

2nd revised and extended edition

With CD-ROM, 1593 Figures and 109 Tables

<£J Springer
 XXVII

Contents

List of Abbreviations. XLI

Introduction

1 Introduction to Nanotechnology
Bharat Bhushan 1
1.1 Nanotechnology - Definition and Examples 1
1.2 Background and Research Expenditures h
1.3 Lessons from Nature (Biomimetics) 6
l.k Applications in Different Fields 7
1.5 Various Issues 8
1.6 Research Training 8
1.7 Organization of Handbook 9
References 9

Part A Nanostructures, Micro/Nanofabrication and Materials

2 Nanomaterials Synthesis and Applications:

Molecule-Based Devices
Frangisco M. Raymo 13
2.1 Chemical Approaches to Nanostructured Materials 13
2.2 Molecular Switches and Logic Gates 18
2.3 Solid State Devices 26
2.k Conclusions and Outlook 38
References 39

Introduction to Carbon Nanotubes

Marc Monthioux, Philippe Serp, Emmanuel Flahaut,
Manitra Razafinimanana, Christophe Laurent, Alain Peigney,
Wolfgang Bacsa, Jean-Marc Broto k3
3.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes kk
3.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes k9
3.3 Growth Mechanisms of Carbon Nanotubes 65
3.k Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 69
3.5 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nano-Objects 7k
3.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 80
3.7 Concluding Remarks 95
References 95
XXVIII Contents

Nanowires
Mildred S. Dresselhaus, Yu-Ming Lin, Oded Rabin, Marcie R. Black,
Jing Kong, Gene Dresselhaus 113
4.1 Synthesis 115
4.2 Characterization and Physical Properties of Nanowires 124
4.3 Applications 145
4.4 Concluding Remarks 152
References 153

Template-Based Synthesis of Nanorod or Nanowire Arrays

Huamei (Mary) Shang, Guozhong Cao 161
5.1 Template-Based Approach 162
5.2 Electrochemical Deposition 163
5.3 Electrophoretic Deposition 167
5.4 Template Filling 172
5.5 Converting from Reactive Templates 174
5.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks 174
References 175

Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication

by Focused Ion Beam Chemical Vapor Deposition
Shlnji Matsui 179
6.1 Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication 180
6.2 Nanoelectromechanics 183
6.3 Nanooptics: Brilliant Blue from a Morpho Butterfly Scale
Quasi-Structure 190
6.4 Nanobiology 191
6.5 Summary 194
References 195

Introduction to Micro/Nanofabrication
Babak Ziaie, Antonio Baldi, Massood Z. Atashbar 197
7.1 Basic Microfabrication Techniques 197
7.2 MEMS Fabrication Techniques 210
7.3 Nanofabrication Techniques 222
7.4 Summary and Conclusions 233
References 233

Nanoimprint Lithography
Helmut Schift, Anders Kristensen 239
8.1 Emerging Nanopatterning Methods 241
8.2 Nanoimprint Process 244
8.3 Tools and Materials for Nanoimprint 255
8.4 Applications 262
8.5 Conclusion and Outlook 268
References 270
 Contents XXIX

9 Stamping Techniques for Micro- and Nanofabrication

Etienne Menard, John A. Rogers 279
9.1 High-Resolution Stamps 280
9.2 Microcontact Printing 282
9.3 Nanotransfer Printing 284
9.4 Applications 288
9.5 Conclusions 295
References 295

10 Material Aspects of Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical Systems

Christian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany 299
10.1 Silicon 299
10.2 Germanium-Based Materials 306
10.3 Metals 307
10.4 Harsh-Environment Semiconductors 309
10.5 GaAs, InP, and Related III—V Materials 314
10.6 Ferroelectric Materials 316
10.7 Polymer Materials 317
10.8 Future Trends 318
References 319

11 Complexity and Emergence as Design Principles for Engineering

Decentralized Nanoscale Systems
David Wendell, Dean Ho, Carlo D. Montemagno 323
11.1 Definitions 324
11.2 Examples and Experimental Analysis
of Decentralized Systems in Nature 331
11.3 Engineering Emergent Behavior into Nanoscale Systems:
Thematic Examples of Synthetic Decentralized Nanostructures 334
11.4 Conclusion 343
References 343

12 Nanometer-Scale Thermoelectric Materials

Joseph P. Heremans 345
12.1 The Promise of Thermoelectricity 347
12.2 Theory of Thermoelectric Transport in Low-Dimensional Solids 349
12.3 Two-Dimensional Thermoelectric Transport in Quantum Wells 359
12.4 One-Dimensional Thermoelectric Transport in Quantum Wires 360
12.5 Quasi-Zero-Dimensional Systems, Solids Containing Quantum Dots. 366
12.6 Conclusions 370
References 370

13 Nano- and Microstructured Semiconductor Materials for

Macroelectronics
Yugang Sun, Seung-Hyun Hur, John A. Rogers 375
13.1 Classes of Semiconductor Nanomaterials and their Preparation 377
XXX Contents

13.2 Generation of Thin Films of Ordered Nanostructures on Plastic

Substrates 384
13.3 Applications for Macroelectronics 389
13.4 Outlook 395
References 395

Part B MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/NEMS

14 Next-Generation DNA Hybridization and Self-Assembly

Nanofabrication Devices
Michael J. Heller, Benjamin Sullivan, Dietrich Dehlinger, Paul Swanson,
Dalibor Hodko 401
14.1 Electronic Microarray Technology 403
14.2 Electric Field-Assisted Nanofabrication Processes 409
14.3 Conclusions 411
References 411

15 MEMS/NEMS Devices and Applications

Darrin J. Young, Christian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany 415
15.1 MEMS Devices and Applications 417
15.2 Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) 436
15.3 Current Challenges and Future Trends 439
References 440

16 Nanomechanical Cantilever Array Sensors

Hans Peter Lang, Martin Hegner, Christoph Gerber 443
16.1 Technique 443
16.2 Cantilever Array Sensors 445
16.3 Modes of Operation 446
16.4 Microfabrication 450
16.5 Measurement Set-Up 450
16.6 Functionalization Techniques 453
16.7 Applications 455
16.8 Conclusions and Outlook 455
References 456

17 Therapeutic Nanodevices
Stephen C. Lee, Mark Ruegsegger, Philip D. Barnes, Bryan R. Smith,
Mauro Ferrari 461
17.1 Definitions and Scope of Discussion 462
17.2 Synthetic Approaches: "Top-Down" Versus "Bottom-Up"
Approaches for Nanotherapeutic Device Components 467
17.3 Technological and Biological Opportunities 470
17.4 Applications of Nanotherapeutic Devices 488
17.5 Concluding Remarks: Barriers to Practice and Prospects 496
References 499
 Contents XXXI

18 G-Protein Coupled Receptors:

Surface Display and Biosensor Technology
Edward J. McMurchie, Wayne R. Leifert 505
18.1 The GPCR:G-Protein Activation Cycle 507
18.2 Preparation of GPCRs and G-proteins 509
18.3 Measurement of GPCR Signaling 509
18.4 GPCR Biosensing 511
18.5 Protein Engineering in GPCR Signaling 517
18.6 The Future of GPCRs in Nanobiotechnologies 520
References 520

19 Microfluidics and Their Applications to Lab-on-a-Chip

Chong H. Ahn, Jin-Woo Choi 523
19.1 Materials for Microfluidic Devices
and Micro/Nanofabrication Techniques 524
19.2 Active Microfluidic Devices 527
19.3 Smart Passive Microfluidic Devices 532
19.^ Lab-on-a-Chip for Biochemical Analysis 540
References 545

20 Centrifuge-Based Fluidic Platforms

Jim Zoval, Guangyao Jia, Horacio Kido, Jitae Kim, Nahui Kim,
MarcJ. Madou 549
20.1 Why Centripetal Force for Fluid Propulsion? 550
20.2 Compact Disc or Micro-Centrifuge Fluidics 552
20.3 CD Applications 556
20.4 Conclusion 567
References 568

21 Micro/Nanodroplets in Microfluidic Devices

"Mike" Yung-Chieh Tan, Abraham "Abe" Lee 571
21.1 Active or Programmable Droplet System 572
21.2 Passive Droplet Control Techniques 575
21.3 Applications 582
21.4 Conclusion 584
References 584

Part C Scanning Probe Microscopy

22 Scanning Probe Microscopy -

Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and Probes
Bharat Bhushan, Othmar Marti 591
22.1 ScanningTunneling Microscope 593
22.2 Atomic Force Microscope 597
22.3 AFM Instrumentation and Analyses 613
References 630
XXXII Contents

23 Probes in Scanning Microscopies

Jason H. Hafner 637
23.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 638
23.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 648
References 649

24 Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy and Related Topics

Franz J. Giessibl, Yasuhim Sugawara, Seizo Morita, Hirotaka Hosoi,
Kazuhisa Sueoka, Koichi Mukasa, Akira Sasahara, Hiroshi Onishi 651
24.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 652
24.2 Applications to Semiconductors 657
24.3 Applications to Insulators 663
24.4 Applications to Molecules 670
References 673

25 Low-Temperature Scanning Probe Microscopy

Markus Morgenstern, Alexander Schwarz, Udo D. Schwarz 679
25.1 Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures 680
25.2 Instrumentation 681
25.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy 685
25.4 Scanning Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy 698
References 710

26 Higher-Harmonic Force Detection in Dynamic Force Microscopy

Ozgur Sahin, Calvin F. Quate, Olav Solgaard, Franz J. Giessibl 717
26.1 Modeling of Tip-Sample Interaction Forces
in Tapping-Mode AFM 718
26.2 Enhancing a Specific Harmonic of the Interaction Force
Using a Flexural Resonance 721
26.3 Recovering the Time-Resolved Tip-Sample Forces
with Torsional Vibrations 724
26.4 Application Examples 727
26.5 Higher Harmonic/Atomic Force Microscopy
with Small Amplitudes 731
References 735

27 Dynamic Modes of Atomic Force Microscopy

A. Schirmeisen, B. Anczykowski, Harald Fuchs 737
27.1 Motivation: Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond 737
27.2 Harmonic Oscillator: A Model System for Dynamic AFM 741
27.3 Dynamic AFM Operational Modes 743
27.4 g-Control 754
27.5 Dissipation Processes Measured with Dynamic AFM 758
27.6 Conclusion 762
References 762
 Contents XXXIII

28 Molecular Recognition Force Microscopy:

From Simple Bonds to Complex Energy Landscapes
Peter Hinterdorfer, Ziv Reich 767
28.1 Ligand Tip Chemistry 768
28.2 Immobilization of Receptors onto Probe Surfaces 770
28.3 Single-Molecule Recognition Force Detection 771
28.^ Principles of Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy 773
28.5 Recognition Force Spectroscopy:
From Isolated Molecules to Biological Membranes 775
28.6 Recognition Imaging 782
28.7 Concluding Remarks 784
References 784

Part D Nanotribology and Nanomechanics

29 Nanotribology, Nanomechanics and Materials Characterization
BharatBhushan 791
29.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 793
29.2 Surface Imaging, Friction and Adhesion 804
29.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining.... 829
29.4 Indentation 837
29.5 Boundary Lubrication 841
29.6 Closure 852
References 853

30 Surface Forces and Nanorheology of Molecularly Thin Films

Marina Ruths, Jacob N. Israelachvili 859
30.1 Introduction: Types of Surface Forces 860
30.2 Methods Used to Study Surface Forces 862
30.3 Normal Forces Between Dry (Unlubricated) Surfaces 866
30.4 Normal Forces Between Surfaces in Liquids 870
30.5 Adhesion and Capillary Forces 880
30.6 Introduction: Different Modes of Friction and the Limits
of Continuum Models ,, 886
30.7 Relationship Between Adhesion and Friction Between Dry
(Unlubricated and Solid Boundary Lubricated) Surfaces 887
30.8 Liquid Lubricated Surfaces 898
30.9 Effects of Nanoscale Texture on Friction 909
References 913

31 Interfacial Forces and Spectroscopic Study of Confined Fluids

Y. Elaine Zhu, Ashis Mukhopadhyay, Steve Granick 925
31.1 Hydrodynamic Force of Fluids Flowing in Micro- to Nanofluidics:
A Question About No-Slip Boundary Condition 926
31.2 Hydrophobic Interaction and Water at a Hydrophobicity Interface ... 932
31.3 Ultrafast Spectroscopic Study of Confined Fluids:
Combining Ultra-Fast Spectroscopy with Force Apparatus 938
•XXXIV Contents

31.4 Contrasting Friction with Diffusion in Molecularly Thin Films 941 35

31.5 Diffusion of Confined Molecules During Shear 945
31.6 Summary 946
References 946

32 Scanning Probe Studies of Nanoscale Adhesion Between Solids in

the Presence of Liquids and Monolayer Films
Robert W. Carpick, James Batteas, Maarten P. de Boer 951
32.1 The Importance of Adhesion at the Nanoscale 951
32.2 Techniques for Measuring Adhesion 952
32.3 Calibration of Forces, Displacements, and Tips 957
32.4 The Effect of Liquid Capillaries on Adhesion 959
32.5 Self-Assembled Monolayers 968
32.6 Concluding Remarks 973
References 974

33 Friction and Wear on the Atomic Scale

Enrico Gnecco, Roland Bennewitz, Oliver Pfeiffer, Anisoara Socoliuc,
Ernst Meyer. 981
33.1 Friction Force Microscopy in Ultrahigh Vacuum 982
33.2 TheTomlinson Model 986
33.3 Friction Experiments on the Atomic Scale 988
33.4 Thermal Effects on Atomic Friction 992
33.5 Geometry Effects in Nanocontacts 996
33.6 Wear on the Atomic Scale 999
33.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulations
of Atomic Friction and Wear 1001
33.8 Energy Dissipation in Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy 1004
33.9 Conclusion 1006
References 1007

34 Velocity Dependence of Nanoscale Friction, Adhesion and Wear

Nikhil S. Tambe, Bharat Bhushan 1011
34.1 Bridging Science and Engineering for Nanotribological
Investigations 1012
34.2 Instrumentation 1014
34.3 Velocity Dependence of Nanoscale Friction and Adhesion 1017
34.4 Dominant Friction Regimes and Mechanisms 1020
34.5 Nanoscale Friction Mapping 1035
34.6 Wear Studies at High Sliding Velocities 1037
34.7 Identifying Materials with Low Friction and Adhesion
for Nanotechnological Applications 1043
34.8 Closure 1045
References 1046
 Contents XXXV

35 Computer Simulations of Nanometer-Scale Indentation

and Friction
Susan B. Sinnott, Seong-Jun Heo, Donald 1/1/. Brenner, Judith A. Harrison .. 1051
35.1 Computational Details 1052
35.2 Indentation 1057
35.3 Friction and Lubrication 1072
35.4 Conclusions 1096
References 1097

36 Nanoscale Mechanical Properties -

Measuring Techniques and Applications
Andrzej J. Kulik, Andras Ids, Gerard Gremaud, Stefan Hengsberger,
Gustavo S. Luengo, Philippe K. Zysset, Laszlo Form 1107
36.1 Local Mechanical Spectroscopy via Dynamic Contact AFM 1108
36.2 Static Methods - Mesoscopic Samples, Shear and Young's Modulus. 1113
36.3 Scanning Nanoindentation as a Tool to Determine Nanomechanical
Properties of Biological Tissue Under Dry and Wet Conditions 1121
36.it General Summary and Perspectives 1132
References 1133

37 Nanomechanical Properties of Solid Surfaces and Thin Films

Adrian B. Mann 1137
37.1 Instrumentation 1138
37.2 Data Analysis 1144
37.3 Modes of Deformation 1152
37.4 Thin Films and Multilayers 1156
37.5 Developing Areas 1161
References 1161

38 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties and Tribology

Bharat Bhushan, Michael Nosonovsky 1167
38.1 Nomenclature 1167
38.2 Introduction 1169
38.3 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties 1171
38.4 Scale Effect in Surface Roughness and Contact Parameters 1175
38.5 Scale Effect in Friction 1178
38.6 Scale Effect in Wear 1190
38.7 Scale Effect in Interface Temperature 1190
38.8 Closure 1191
38.A Statistics of Particle Size Distribution 1192
References 1196

39 Mechanics of Biological Nanotechnology

Rob Phillips, Prashant K. Purohit, Jane Kondev 1199
39.1 Science at the Biology-Nanotechnology Interface 1200
39.2 Scales at the Bio-Nano Interface 1206
39.3 Modeling at the Nano-Bio Interface 1212
XXXVI Contents

39.it Nature's Nanotechnology Revealed: Viruses as a Case Study 1215

39.5 Concluding Remarks 1220
References 1220

40 Structural, Nanomechanical and Nanotribological

Characterization of Human Hair Using Atomic Force Microscopy
and Nanoindentation
Bharat Bhushan, Carmen LaTorre, Guohua Wei 1223
40.1 Human Hair, Skin and Hair Care Products 1226
40.2 Experimental Techniques 1235
40.3 Structural Characterization Using an AFM 1246
40.4 Nanomechanical Characterization Using Nanoindentation and
Nanoscratch 1252
40.5 Macroscale Tribological Characterization 1266
40.6 Nanotribological Characterization Using an AFM 1269
40.7 Closure 1300
40.A Conditioner Thickness Approximation 1302
References 1302

41 Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures

Bharat Bhushan 1305
41.1 Experimental Techniques for Measurement of Mechanical
Properties of Nanostructures 1307
41.2 Experimental Results and Discussion 1312
41.3 Finite Element Analysis of Nanostructures with Roughness and
Scratches 1326
41.4 Closure 1332
References 1333

Part E Molecularly Thick Films for Lubrication

42 Nanotribology of Ultrathin and Hard Amorphous Carbon Films
Bharat Bhushan 1339
42.1 Description of Common Deposition Techniques 1343
42.2 Chemical and Physical Coating Characterization 1347
42.3 Micromechanical and Tribological Coating Characterization 1353
42.4 Closure 1374
References 1375

43 Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs) for Controlling Adhesion,

Friction, and Wear
Bharat Bhushan 1379
43.1 A Brief Organic Chemistry Primer 1382
43.2 Self-Assembled Monolayers: Substrates, Spacer Chains; and End
Groups in the Molecular Chains 1386
43.3 Tribological Properties of SAMs 1389
 Contents XXXVII

43.4 Closure
References

44 Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication Studies

Bharat Bhushan, Huiwen Liu 1417
44.1 Lubricants Details 1418
44.2 Nanodeformation, Molecular Conformation,
and Lubricant Spreading 1420
44.3 Boundary Lubrication Studies 1422
44.4 Closure 1436
References 1436

45 Kinetics and Energetics in Nanolubrication

Rene M. Overney, George 1/1/. Tyndall, Jane Frommer 1439
45.1 Background: From Bulk to Molecular Lubrication 1441
45.2 Thermal Activation Model of Lubricated Friction 1443
45.3 Functional Behavior of Lubricated Friction 1444
45.4 Thermodynamical Models Based on Small
and Nonconforming Contacts 1446
45.5 Limitation of the Gaussian Statistics - The Fractal Space 1447
45.6 Fractal Mobility in Reactive Lubrication 1448
45.7 Metastable Lubricant Systems in Large Conforming Contacts 1450
45.8 Conclusion 1451
References 1451

Part F Industrial Applications

46 The "Millipede" -
A Nanotechnology-Based AFM Data-Storage System
Gerd K. Binnig, G. Cherubini, M. Despont, Urs T. Dung,
Evangelos Eleftheriou, H. Pozidis, Peter Vettiger 1457
46.1 The Millipede Concept 1459
46.2 Thermomechanical AFM Data Storage 1460
46.3 Array Design, Technology, and Fabrication 1462
46.4 Array Characterization 1463
46.5 x/y/z Medium Microscanner 1465
46.6 First Write/Read Results with the 32><32 Array Chip 1467
46.7 Polymer Medium 1469
46.8 Read Channel Model 1475
46.9 System Aspects 1479
46.10 Conclusions 1484
References 1484

47 Nanotechnology for Data Storage Applications

DrorSarid, Brendan McCarthy, Ghassan E. Jabbour 1487
47.1 Current Status of Commercial Data Storage Devices 1489
XXXVIII Contents

47.2 Opportunities Offered by Nanotechnology for Data Storage 1495

47.3 Conclusion 1506
References 1507

48 Microactuators for Dual-Stage Servo Systems

in Magnetic Disk Files
Roberto Horowitz, Tsung-Lin (Tony) Chen, Kenn Oldham, Yunfeng Li,
Xinghui Huang, Shih-Chung Kon, Ryozo Nagamune 1509
48.1 Design of the Electrostatic Microactuator 1511
48.2 Fabrication 1520
48.3 Servo Control Design
of MEMS Microactuator Dual-Stage Servo Systems 1528
48.4 Conclusions and Outlook 1541
References 1542

49 Nanorobotics
Bradley J. Nelson, Lixin Dong 1545
49.1 Overview of Nanorobotics 1546
49.2 Actuation at Nanoscales 1547
49.3 Nanorobotic Manipulation Systems 1549
49.4 Nanorobotic Assembly 1555
49.5 Applications 1563
References 1566

Part G Micro/Nanodevice Reliability

50 Nanotribology and Materials Characterization of MEMS/NEMS and

BioMEMS/BioNEMS Materials and Devices
Bharat Bhushan 1575
50.1 Introduction 1576
50.2 Tribological Studies of Silicon and Related Materials 1593
50.3 Lubrication Studies for MEMS/NEMS 1600
50.4 Tribological Studies of Biological Molecules on Silicon-Based
Surfaces and of Coated Polymer Surfaces 1606
50.5 Nanopatterned Surfaces 1611
50.6 Component-Level Studies 1616
50.7 Conclusion 1627
50.A Appendix Micro/Nanofabrication Methods 1628
References 1631

51 Experimental Characterization Techniques for Micro/Nanoscale

Devices
Kimberly L. Turner, Peter G. Hartwell 1639
51.1 Motivation 1639
51.2 Applications Utilizing Dynamic MEMS/NEMS 1640
51.3 Test/Characterization Techniques 1640
 Contents XXXIX

51.4 Example: Characterizing an In-Plane MEMS Actuator 1654

51.5 Design for Test 1659
References 1659

52 Failure Mechanisms in MEMS/NEMS Devices

1/1/. Merlijn van Spengen, Robert Modlinski, Robert Puers, Anne Jourdain.... 1663
52.1 Failure Modes and Failure Mechanisms 1663
52.2 Stiction and Charge-Related Failure Mechanisms 1665
52.3 Creep, Fatigue, Wear, and Packaging-Related Failures 1671
52. 4 Conclusions 1681
References 1681

53 Mechanical Properties of Micromachined Structures

Harold Kahn 1685
53.1 Measuring Mechanical Properties of Films on Substrates 1685
53.2 Micromachined Structures for Measuring Mechanical Properties 1686
53.3 Measurements of Mechanical Properties 1696
References 1699

54 Thermo- and Electromechanical Behavior of Thin-Film Micro and

Nanostructures
Martin L. Dunn, Shawn J. Cunningham 1703
54.1 Thermomechanics of Multilayer Thin-Film Structures 1705
54.2 Electromechanics of Thin-Film Structures 1726
54.3 Summary and Topics not Covered 1744
References 1745

55 High Volume Manufacturing and Field Stability

of MEMS Products
Jack Martin 1749
55.1 Manufacturing Strategy 1752
55.2 Robust Manufacturing 1754
55.3 Stable Field Performance 1769
References 1772

56 Packaging and Reliability Issues in Micro/Nano Systems

Jongbaeg Kim, Yu-Ting Cheng, Mu Chiao, Liwei Lin 1777
56.1 Introduction to Micro-/Nano-Electromechanical (MEMS)/
(NEMS) Packaging 1777
56.2 Hermetic and Vacuum Packaging and Applications 1783
56.3 Thermal Issues and Packaging Reliability 1791
56.4 Future Trends and Summary 1798
References 1799
XL Contents

Part H Technological Convergence and Governing

Nanotechnology

57 Technological Convergence from the Nanoscale

William Sims Bainbridge 1807
57.1 Nanoscience Synergy 1807
57.2 Dynamics of Convergence from the Nanoscale 1810
57.3 Ethical, Legal and Social Implications 1811
57.4 Transformative Synthesis 1814
57.5 Cultural Implications of Convergence 1816
57.6 Conclusion 1819
References 1819

58 Governing Nanotechnology: Social, Ethical and Human Issues AFAM

William Sims Bainbridge 1823 AFM
58.1 Social Science Background 1823 AIDI3
AM
58.2 Human Impacts of Nanotechnology 1827
ASA
58.3 Regulating Nanotechnology 1830 ASR
58.4 The Cultural Context for Nanotechnology 1832 ATP
58.5 Conclusions 1835
References 1835 B
BE
Acknowledgements 1841 BFP
About the Authors 1845 BP
Subject Index 1877 BPI
bpsi
BSA
BW
bioME]

CD
CD
CDS
CDW
CE
CG
CMOS
CNT
coc
COF
CSM
CTE
CVD
CW