CEBU DOCTORS’ UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Department of Psychology

MODULE 1.2 – THE NERVE IMPULSE

Compiled by: Joselito R. Tumulak Jr., RChT, MS (cand.)
Physiological Psychology Professor

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Explain how the sodium-potassium pump and the properties of the membrane lead to
the resting potential of a neuron;
2. Describe how the movement of sodium and potassium ions produce the action potential
and recovery after it; and
3. State the all-or-none law of the action potential.

MODULE OUTLINE
Topic Page
I. The Resting Potential of the Neurons
A. Some Important Concepts to Remember
1
B. The Sodium-Potassium Pump and its role in the Resting Potential
C. Importance of Resting Potential
II. The Action Potential of the Neurons
A. Polarization, Hyperpolarization, and Depolarization
B. The Molecular Basis of Action Potential 4
C. The All-or-None Law
D. Refractory Period

I. THE RESTING POTENTIAL OF THE NEURONS

A. Some Important Concepts to Remember

 The Cell Membrane of a Neuron: Just like any other animal cell, a neuron is covered
with cell membrane that separates its internal inclusions to the outside of the cell. The
figure below shows a schematic structure of a cell membrane.

 Comprises of 2 layers of
fatty substances
(phospholipid), and some
proteins embedded into
the fatty layer
 The membrane is semi-
permeable, meaning
most chemicals cannot
cross directly through it.
The rule of thumb is:
Small and uncharged
molecules can cross, but large and charged cannot.
 Some of these chemicals may cross through the membrane with the aid
of specialized protein channels.

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 Atoms and Ions:

1. An atom is the basic unit of matter comprising of the 3 subatomic particles, the
electrons, protons, and neutrons. These subatomic particles differ in:
 Charges: Electron has negative charge, proton has positive charge,
and neutron has zero charge.
 Location in the atom: The protons and neutrons are located in the
middle of the atom known as the nucleus, while the electrons move
around the nucleus.

2. A neutral atom is an atom that contains the same number of protons and
electrons resulting to net neutral charge.
3. An ion is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons. There are 2
types of ions:
 Cation – an ion formed when an atom loses an electron resulting to a
positive charge.
o Example:
A neutral sodium atom has 11 electrons and 11 protons. When it
loses one electron, then it will have more protons left resulting to a
+1 net charge. Therefore, the sodium becomes a cation after
losing an electron.
 Anion – an ion formed when an atom gained an electron resulting to a
negative charge.
o Example:
A neutral chlorine atom has 17 electrons and 17 protons. When it
gains one electron, then it will have more electrons that usual
resulting to a -1 net charge. Therefore, the chlorine becomes an
anion after gaining an electron.

B. The Sodium-Potassium Pump and its Role in the Resting Potential

 In the absence of any disturbance (stimulus), the membrane of a resting neuron

maintains an electrical gradient, meaning there is a difference of electrical charge on
one side and on the other side. The inside of a neuron has a slightly negative charge
with respect to the outside.

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 Moreover, the resting neuron also maintains a chemical gradient between sodium
ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+), meaning there is a difference of concentration of
these ions on one side and on the other side. The outside of a neuron has more Na+
than inside, while the inside of a neuron has more K+ than outside.
 Resting Potential of a Neuron: These electrical and chemical gradients result in a
membrane potential of -70 mV in a resting neuron (free of stimulus). This is known as
the neuron's resting potential. Simply put, the membrane potential is a measurement
of the potential difference between a neuron's interior and exterior.
 Molecular basis for the Resting Potential:
o Recall that the resting potential results from the electrical and chemical gradients
of a resting neurons. How are these gradients formed?
o The chemical gradient is formed because of a protein complex known as the
sodium-potassium ion pump. What it does is it repeatedly transports 3
sodium ions (Na+) out of the neuron while drawing 2 potassium ions (K+)
into it. This clearly results to an accumulation of the sodium ion (Na+) outside of
the neuron. This gradient is maintained because of the selective permeability of
the membrane disallowing sodium ions that were pumped out from leaking back
in again.

Outside of the cell

Inside of the cell

o The sodium-potassium pump can also explain the electrical gradient.

Because there are three positive sodium ions leaving the neuron and only
two positive potassium ions entering it, we are dumping more positive
charges outside the cell, making it more positive than the inside. Moreover,
some potassium ions may leak out through leaky potassium channels
increasing the electrical gradient across the membrane.

C. Importance of the Resting Potential

 Because of the electrical and chemical gradients of a resting neuron, sodium tends to
push its way into the cell.
1. First, consider the electrical gradient. Sodium is positively charged and the
inside of the cell is negatively charged. Opposite electrical charges attract, so the
electrical gradient tends to pull sodium into the cell.
2. Second, consider the concentration gradient, the difference in distribution of
ions across the membrane. Sodium is more concentrated outside than inside, so

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just by the laws of probability, sodium is more likely to enter the cell than to leave
it.
 Given that both the electrical gradient and the concentration gradient tend to move
sodium ions into the cell, sodium certainly would move rapidly if it had the chance.
 This condition of the resting potential prepares the neuron to respond rapidly to
stimulus. As we shall see in the later section, excitation of a neuron by a stimulus
opens channels that let sodium ions in rapidly. Because the membrane did its work
in advance by maintaining the concentration gradient for sodium ions, the cells is
prepared to respond strongly and rapidly to a stimulus.

II. THE ACTION POTENTIAL OF THE NEURONS

A. Polarization, Hyperpolarization, and Depolarization

 Remember that a resting neuron has an electrical gradient, which means it has a
positive charge on the outside and a negative charge on the inside. In physiology,
this is known as polarization, and a neuron that has this charge difference is said to be
polarized.
 Recall, as well, that polarized neurons has a resting potential of around -70 mV, and as
long as there is no stimulation, this will not change over time.
 Suppose, however, we apply a negative charge inside the neuron. What happens is
polarization of the neuron will increase resulting to a more negative potential as shown in
the graph below. This is known as hyperpolarization.

 Now, let us apply a small current that will reduce its polarization towards zero. This will
result to depolarization. We will see a sudden rise in the potential, but returns again to
the resting level as soon as the stimulation ceases. The response is proportional
amount of the current.

 However, a neuron has a threshold of excitation at around -55 mV. Any stimulation
beyond the threshold of excitation produces a sudden, massive depolarization of the
membrane resulting to potential shooting up far beyond the strength of the stimulus:

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 Any stimulation beyond the threshold, regardless of how far beyond, produces the same
response, like the one just shown. That response, a rapid depolarization and slight
reversal of the usual polarization, is referred to as an action potential. The peak of the
action potential as shown is at +30 mV.

B. Molecular Basis of the Action Potential

 At rest, the sodium ions tend to enter the neurons due to the electrical and chemical
gradient. However, the membrane is highly impermeable to sodium ions. If a stimulus
exists however, the permeability of membrane to sodium ion increases sharply.
 Sodium crosses through the membrane by protein channels.
 A stimulus from the synapse slightly opens the ligand-gated sodium channels allowing
for some sodium ions to enter the neuron. This causes a slight depolarization.
 If the depolarization reaches the threshold of excitation (-55 mV), the voltage-gated
sodium channels starts to open widely which causes the sodium ions to rush into the
neuron until the electrical potential across the membrane passes beyond zero to a
reversed polarity.
 Sodium ions continue to enter from the channels until the potential reaches its peak at
+30 mV. At this point, the sodium channels quickly close and resist re-opening.
 This is also when the voltage-gated potassium channels start to open causing
potassium ions to flow out of the neuron carrying with them positive charges. Because
the potassium channels open wider than usual and remain open after the sodium
channels close, enough potassium ions leave to drive the membrane beyond the normal
resting level to a temporary hyperpolarization. This is around -90 mV. When a neuron
is hyperpolarized, it cannot be stimulated again unless it goes back to its resting
potential.
 At the end of this process, the membrane has returned to its resting potential and
everything is back to normal, except that the inside of the neuron has slightly more
sodium ions and slightly fewer potassium ions than before. Eventually, the sodium-
potassium pump restores the original distribution of ions.
 The figure below summarizes the events of the action potential:

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+30 mV

0 mV

-55 mV
-70 mV
-90 mV

 Some Application Concepts of the Action Potential:

1. Recall that at the end of the action potential, the sodium-potassium pump
restores the original distribution of ions. But this process takes time. In fact, after
an unusually rapid series of action potentials, the pump cannot keep up with the
action, and sodium may begin to accumulate within the axon. Excessive buildup
of sodium can be toxic to a cell. Excessive stimulation occurs only under
abnormal conditions, however, such as during a stroke or after the use of certain
drugs. Don’t worry that thinking too hard will explode your brain cells!
2. For the neuron to function properly, sodium and potassium must flow across the
membrane at just the right pace. Scorpion venom attacks the nervous system by
keeping sodium channels open and closing potassium channels. As a result, the
membrane goes into a prolonged depolarization and accumulates dangerously
high amounts of sodium.
3. Local anesthetic drugs, such as Novocain and Xylocaine, attach to the sodium
channels of the membrane, preventing sodium ions from entering. In doing so,
the drugs block action potentials. If anesthetics are applied to sensory nerves
carrying pain messages, they prevent the messages from reaching the brain.

C. The All-or-None Law

 For a given neuron, all action potentials are approximately equal in amplitude
(intensity) and velocity under normal circumstances. This is the all-or-none law. The
amplitude and velocity of an action potential are independent of the intensity of the
stimulus that initiated it. By analogy, imagine flushing a toilet: You have to make a press
of at least a certain strength (the threshold), but pressing even harder does not make the
toilet flush any faster or more vigorously.
 The all-or-none law puts some constraints on how an axon can send a message. To
signal the difference between a weak stimulus and a strong stimulus, the axon can’t
send bigger or faster action potentials. All it can change is the timing and rhythm.
Researchers have long known that a greater frequency of action potentials per second

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indicates “stronger” stimulus. In some cases, a different rhythm of response also carries
information. For example, an axon might show one rhythm of responses for sweet tastes
and a different rhythm for bitter tastes.
 By analogy, suppose you agree to exchange coded messages with someone in another
building who can see your window by occasionally flicking your lights on and off. The two
of you might agree, for example, to indicate some kind of danger by the frequency of
flashes. (The more flashes, the more danger.) You could also convey information by a
rhythm.

D. The Refractory Period

 While the electrical potential across the membrane is returning from its peak
toward the resting point, it is still above the threshold. Why doesn’t the cell
produce another action potential during this period? Immediately after an action
potential, the cell is in a refractory period during which it resists the production of further
action potentials.
1. In the first part of this period, the absolute refractory period, the membrane
cannot produce an action potential, regardless of the stimulation.
2. During the second part, the relative refractory period, a stronger than usual
stimulus is necessary to initiate an action potential.
 The refractory period is based on two mechanisms: The sodium channels are
closed, and potassium is flowing out of the cell at a faster than usual rate. Most
of the neurons that have been tested have an absolute refractory period of about 1
ms and a relative refractory period of another 2–4 ms. (To return to the toilet
analogy, there is a short time right after you flush a toilet when you cannot make it
flush again—an absolute refractory period. Then follows a period when it is possible
but difficult to flush it again—a relative refractory period—before it returns to normal.)

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