PART 2

DEVELOPING ARGUMENTS IN
PARAGRAPHS

CHAPTER 3

DEVELOP YOUR
ARGUMENTS
S
uccessful academic writing is not just the result of accurate language
and appropriate style. It should also include well-supported, convincing
arguments and reflect the critical thinking that writers apply as they form
their arguments.
© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

In this chapter, you will

• learn how to develop effective arguments
• study language of opinions, arguments, and concession
• infer meaning from a text
• study independent and dependent clauses
• learn how to incorporate in-text citations
• write two argumentative paragraphs

TASK 1 EXPLORE THROUGH WRITING

What makes an argument convincing?
Take four minutes to write as much as you can about the question. Then share
what you have written in pairs or small groups.

CHAPTER 3 DEVELOP YOUR ARGUMENTS 27

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 27 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 READING AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS
DEVELOPING ARGUMENTS

Distinguish Opinions from Facts

To convince your readers, you should avoid presenting opinions as facts. The examples
below show a fact, an opinion stated as a fact, and three clear opinions.
1. Many countries charge tuition fees for higher education.
2. Tuition fees are unfair.
3. In my opinion, tuition fees are unfair.
4. Tuition fees are unfair to poor families (Singh & Morrison, 2018).
5. Many students believe that tuition fees are unfair.
Sentence 1 is acceptable because it is a verifiable fact. Sentence 2 is problematic
because the opinion is presented as if it were a fact. This is an emphatic way to
state an opinion; however, it may not be very convincing.
Sentences 3, 4, and 5 strengthen the argument of sentence 2 in different ways:
• Sentence 3 is introduced with the phrase in my opinion. This signals to the
reader that the writer is presenting the information as an opinion, not a fact.
• In sentence 4, the writer has added information and evidence, attributing the
opinion to two authors.
• In sentence 5, the writer has attributed the opinion to a group of people by
adding the phrase many students believe.

TASK 2 IDENTIFY STATEMENTS AS FACTS OR OPINIONS

Indicate whether each of the following statements is a fact or an opinion.
Fact Opinion
1 Tuition fees should be abolished.

© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

Colleges and universities rely on tuition fees to fund teaching
2
and research.
International students should not pay higher tuition fees than
3
domestic students.
International students often pay higher tuition fees than
4
domestic students.

TASK 3 MAKE OPINION STATEMENTS MORE EFFECTIVE

Improve the opinion statements on the next page by rewriting them with language
from the following list. Each option can be used with any of the statements.
a) (Martínez & Schmitt, 2018)
b) In my opinion / I believe / I would argue that
c) Many students believe that / It is generally accepted that

28 ADVANCE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 1

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 28 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 1. Tuition fees should not be abolished.

2. Colleges and universities should not have to rely on tuition fees to fund
teaching and research.

3. Many students do not get good value for the money they pay.

4. It is not fair to charge international students higher tuition fees.

Support Your Arguments

If you state an opinion or argument without support, your reader is unlikely to be
convinced. Support your arguments by adding reasons and examples.
Argument: I strongly believe that tuition fees for higher education should
be abolished.
Add a reason: This is because the system disadvantages poorer families
who cannot afford to pay the fees.
Add an example: For example, students from families that are struggling
financially may avoid expensive courses, worry about taking out large student
loans, and opt for low-paying jobs instead.
© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

Concession: Consider Counter-Arguments

A counter-argument is the argument that people with an opposite opinion would
make. When you concede a point, you recognize a counter-argument or alternative
point of view as valid, but not strong enough to disprove your own arguments.
Add a counter-argument: However, if tuition fees were abolished at all
colleges and universities, governments would have to increase taxes, which
could be unpopular.

Add Evidence
See Chapter 2, p. 25, for
criteria that can be used By doing research and adding reliable evidence, your presentation of arguments,
to assess the reliability reasons, examples, and counter-arguments will become more convincing. Read
of sources.
the fully supported model argument on the next page for an example.

CHAPTER 3 DEVELOP YOUR ARGUMENTS 29

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 29 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 I strongly believe that tuition fees for higher education should
be abolished. This is because the system disadvantages poorer
families who cannot afford to pay the fees. For example, students
from families that are struggling financially may avoid expensive
courses, worry about taking out large student loans, and opt for
low-paying jobs instead. In an analysis of policy and evidence
related to student loan access in the United States, Lochner and
Monge-Naranjo (2016) found that many students from poor
backgrounds had problems accessing loans and repaying them.
In the UK, however, it has been argued that tuition fees can play
a role in increasing the quality of higher education (Murphy,
Scott-Clayton, & Wyness, 2017). Moreover, if tuition fees were
abolished at all colleges and universities, governments would
have to increase taxes, which could be unpopular.

References
Lochner, L., & Monge-Naranjo, A. (2016). Student loans and repayment: Theory, evidence,
and policy. In E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin, & L. Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of the
economics of education (Vol. 5, pp. 397–478). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Murphy, R. J., Scott-Clayton, J., & Wyness, G. (2017, April 27). Lessons from the end of free
college in England [Report]. Retrieved from The Brookings Institution website: https://
www.brookings.edu/research/lessons-from-the-end-of-free-college-in-england/

TASK 4 ADD SUPPORT TO ARGUMENTS

Add reasons, examples, and counter-arguments to one of the following unsupported
arguments:
1. International students should not pay higher tuition fees than domestic
students.
2. International students should pay higher tuition fees than domestic
students.

© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

Add a reason:

Add an example:

30 ADVANCE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 1

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 30 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 Consider counter-arguments:

Present a Closing Position

Close by stating your final position, which would normally be a confirmation of your
initial argument, expressed in a more developed way. It should reflect the process
of argumentation you have gone through.

TASK 5 ADD A CLOSING POSITION

The following paragraph illustrates the development of argument 1 in Task 4, that
international students should not pay higher tuition fees. Evidence is added (in
bold) to bolster the claims. The paragraph follows MLA citation style. (You will
study citation styles in the Writing with Style section of this chapter, on page 38.)
Write a closing position that restates the original argument in a more developed
way, reflecting the argumentation of the paragraph.

International students should not pay higher tuition fees than domestic students.
This is because they receive the same education as domestic students and
should not have to pay more. Such unfairness is a feature of unsustainable
internationalization in Canadian higher education (Ilieva, Beck, and
Waterstone 875). In fact, according to Marshall and Walsh Marr, in some
Canadian universities, international students pay quadruple tuition fees (40).
Admittedly, if tuition fees were the same for everyone, colleges and universities
© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

would have to receive extra government funding to make up the difference.

This could be unpopular with taxpayers and voters.

Works Cited
Ilieva, Roumiana, Kumari Beck, and Bonnie Waterstone. “Towards Sustainable
Internationalisation of Higher Education.” Higher Education, vol. 68, no. 6, Dec. 2014,
pp. 875–889, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9749-6.
Marshall, Steve, and Jennifer Walsh Marr. “Teaching Multilingual Learners in Canadian
Writing-Intensive Classrooms: Pedagogy, Binaries, and Conflicting Identities.” Journal
of Second Language Writing, vol. 40, June 2018, pp. 32–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jslw.2018.01.002.

CHAPTER 3 DEVELOP YOUR ARGUMENTS 31

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 31 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 TASK 6 ORGANIZE JUMBLED SENTENCES
The following sentences form a paragraph that develops argument 2 in Task 4,
in support of charging international students higher tuition fees. Organize the
sentences according to the following process of argumentation: (1) argument,
(2) reason, (3) example, (4) evidence, (5) counter-argument, and (6) closing ­position.
Write the corresponding number before each sentence.
Many educators and policy-makers feel that it is fair to charge inter-
national students higher tuition fees than domestic students.
I strongly believe that international students should pay higher fees, but
that the difference in fees should not be more than double, and addi-
tional support services should be provided to students who pay more.
This is because taxpayers should not have to fund international students,
whose families have not paid taxes into the education system.
Admittedly, charging international students higher tuition fees should
not be a means for colleges and universities to make unnecessary profit;
this would not be fair.
If, for example, tuition fees were the same for all students, domestic fees
would have to increase, putting more pressure on home students.
It has been found that domestic university fees are already increasing
in 50% of OECD countries (Ball, 2017); further increases would add to
a trend of unaffordable tuition for home students.

TASK 7 ANALYZE A MODEL PARAGRAPH

Read the following model paragraph and match the sentence numbers to the
parts of the argumentation process that you have studied.
initial argument
[1] It was recently suggested that all college and university students should be
required to study a foreign language before graduating. [2] This would benefit reason

© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

example
counter-argument
counter-argument
counter-argument
many organizations that require multilingual employees who can communicate
with partners around the world. [3] For example, if students graduated with
knowledge of languages such as Mandarin, Japanese, or Spanish, they would
have better career prospects and could help their employers succeed. [4]
Granted, many commercial partners around the world do business in English,
so learning a foreign language may not always be worth the investment. [5]
Moreover, studying languages would reduce the time students have to specialize
in their chosen fields. [6] It could be argued, therefore, that making foreign-­
language study compulsory is a step too far. [7] Nevertheless, learning addi- evidence
tional languages would benefit all students by increasing their employability
and intercultural competence (Byram & Zarate, 1997). [8] For these reasons,
colleges and universities should actively promote foreign-language courses but closing position
not make them mandatory.

Reference
Byram, M., & Zarate, G. (Eds.). (1997). The sociocultural and intercultural dimension of lan-
guage learning and teaching (Vol. 2). Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

32 ADVANCE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 1

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 32 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 Process of Argumentation Sentence(s)
Initial argument
Reason(s)
Example
Concession or counter-argument(s)
Evidence
Closing position

VOCABULARY
LANGUAGE OF OPINIONS, ARGUMENTS, AND
CONCESSION
Opinions and Arguments
You studied several sentences earlier that showed how to make it clear to your
reader that you are presenting an opinion or an argument. For example:
Tuition fees are unfair. In my opinion, tuition fees are unfair.
The following phrases are common ways to introduce your opinion or arguments
to readers, using either personal or impersonal language.
Personal Language
I believe/think (that) tuition fees should be abolished.
In my opinion,
It is my view that
I feel strongly that
I would argue that
I agree (that)
© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

I disagree that

I support/oppose the abolition of tuition fees.

I agree/disagree with

Impersonal Language
Clearly, tuition fees should be abolished.
Evidently,
Without doubt,

It is clear/evident that tuition fees should be abolished.

There is little doubt (that)
It could be argued that
Many would argue (that)
Many believe/think (that)

Many support/oppose the abolition of tuition fees.

Many would argue for/against

CHAPTER 3 DEVELOP YOUR ARGUMENTS 33

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 33 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 Concession: Recognizing Counter-Arguments
In sentence 4 of the model paragraph you studied in Task 7, the writer introduces
a counter-argument using the linking word granted. Another linking word com-
monly used for concession is admittedly.
Granted, many commercial partners around
the world do business in English, so learning
a foreign language may not always be worth
the investment.
Admittedly, English speakers do not always
need a foreign language for business.
Other linking words and phrases express an idea
of ­contrast, which can also be used to introduce
counter-arguments:
However/Nevertheless/Nonetheless,
English speakers do not always need a for-
eign language for business.

TASK 8 REWRITE ARGUMENTS AND CONCESSIONS

Rewrite the following arguments and concessions, following the prompts. Make
any necessary changes to the grammar and sentence structure.

1. In my opinion, tuition fees for international students should be reduced.

I support

2. I strongly oppose the increase in the number of prerequisite courses.

Clearly, the number of prerequisite courses

© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

3. It could be argued that international students should always pay higher tuition.

I would argue that higher tuition

4. It is evident that universities benefit greatly from international students.

In my opinion,

5. A reduction in international tuition fees, however, could result in increases

for domestic students.

Admittedly,

34 ADVANCE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 1

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 34 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 READING AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS
INFERENCE
Sometimes you may understand the individual words in a sentence, but not the
writer’s intended meaning. In such cases, you need to infer what the writer wants
to say. Inference involves interpreting meaning that is not obvious—in other words,
“reading between the lines.”
The following excerpts are from the conclusion of a book chapter on funding in
German higher education. Read the excerpts and do the task that follows.

illusion: false or
misleading representation
equal opportunity: same
chance to achieve
something
disadvantaged: lacking
(social and financial)
opportunities
© ERPI Reproduction prohibited
Conclusions
by Andrea Óhidy
Revisiting the question of whether German policies have led to real reforms
or have only created an illusion of equal opportunity, we can say that
there has been an expansion in higher education participation. Today there
are more young people in higher education than ever before and also the
5 number of students who achieve a higher education degree has increased
significantly.
But there is still a big group which is disadvantaged. Access to
higher education is still based on socio-economic background.
There are still 3.3 times more students in higher education who
10 are children of families with higher levels of education compared
with families with lower educational levels. Children of recent
immigrants are also under-represented in higher education. . . .
Empirical data show clearly that access to higher education
still reflects social inequalities. People from less socially advan-
15 taged backgrounds have benefited less from the expansion of
higher education than their more advantaged peers, and

peers: people with the
same status or from the
same group
attain: reach or achieve
(something)
women have benefited more than men. Young men from low
income migrant families still find it very difficult to attain
higher education. For them there is still no social equality in
20 the education system, only an illusion of it. They are a group
which is excluded within the system, because their chances
to participate in higher education and achieve a degree are
‘maximally minimalised’ (Bourdieu, 1997, 2001).
References
Bourdieu, P. (1997). Die verborgenen Mechanismen der Macht [The hidden mechanisms
of power]. Hamburg: VSA Verlag.
Bourdieu, P. (2001). Wie die Kultur zum Bauer kommt: Über Bildung, Schule und Politik
[How culture comes to the farmer: About education, school and politics]. Hamburg:
VSA Verlag.
Excerpts from Óhidy, A. (2018). Widening participation in higher education: Policies and outcomes in
Germany. In S. Riddell, S. Minty, E. Weedon, & S. Whittaker (Eds.), Higher education funding and access
in international perspective (pp. 163–183). Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing.

CHAPTER 3 DEVELOP YOUR ARGUMENTS 35

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 35 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 TASK 9 SHOW YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Answer the following questions to show your understanding of the Óhidy excerpt.
You will need to infer the possible meanings of sentences.

1. The first sentence states that “revisiting the question of whether German
policies have led to real reforms or have only created an illusion of equal
opportunity, we can say that there has been an expansion in higher education
participation.” Which of the following statements best sums up the message
being conveyed by the author?
T he author believes that German policies have increased opportunities
for all social groups.
The author believes that the reforms are not real.
T he author believes that the reforms have led to more students in higher
education but have not led to equal opportunities for all.

2. The second paragraph focuses on lack of access to higher education. Which

of the following statements best sums up the message being conveyed by
the author?
 tudents from families who are not recent immigrants and have high
S
levels of education benefit most from the reforms.
 tudents from immigrant families and families with lower levels of edu-
S
cation are 3.3 times less likely to pursue higher education.
 tudents whose parents are recent immigrants are even more disadvan-
S
taged than students whose parents have high levels of education.

3. The final sentence states that men from low-income migrant families are
excluded within the system because “their chances to participate in higher
education and achieve a degree are ‘maximally minimalised’ (Bourdieu, 1997,
2001).” How do you interpret the expression maximally minimalised?

GRAMMAR AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE © ERPI Reproduction prohibited

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a corresponding verb
(a verb that agrees with the subject). A phrase is a group of words that functions
as a unit in a sentence, for example, a verb phrase, a noun phrase, or a preposition
phrase. Phrases do not have a subject and a corresponding verb.
In Germany, tuition fees have been abolished.
In Germany is a preposition phrase: it is made up of a preposition, in, and a
related object, Germany. However, tuition fees have been abolished is a clause
because it contains a subject, tuition fees, and a verb that agrees with the subject,
have been abolished.

36 ADVANCE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 1

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 36 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 You will study two types of clauses in this chapter: independent and dependent.

Independent Clauses
An independent clause contains a subject and a corresponding verb, can stand
Learn more about
simple, compound, and alone as a sentence, and forms a complete idea. Independent clauses can be
complex sentences in joined to form compound sentences or connected to dependent clauses to form
Unit 4 of the Handbook.
complex sentences.
1. Universities should promote foreign languages.
2. Universities should promote foreign languages, independent clause
but they should not make language courses mandatory.

independent clause

3. If universities promote foreign language courses, they should be optional.

dependent clause independent clause

In sentence 1, the independent clause stands alone as a simple sentence. In

sentences 2 and 3, the independent clauses are parts of a longer sentence:
example 2 is a compound sentence, and example 3, a complex sentence.

Dependent Clauses
A dependent clause contains a subject and a corresponding verb, cannot stand
alone as a sentence, and does not form a complete idea.
Although many universities promote foreign languages
When Germany abolished tuition fees

TASK 10 IDENTIFY INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT

CLAUSES
© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

Indicate whether the underlined clauses in the following sentences are independent
or dependent.
Independent Dependent
There are tuition fees for higher education in many
1
countries.
2 In my opinion, tuition fees are unfair.
However, if tuition fees were abolished at all colleges
3 and universities, governments would have to increase
taxes, which could be unpopular.
However, if tuition fees were abolished at all colleges
Do Unit 3: Independent
and Dependent Clauses 4 and universities, governments would have to increase
in the Handbook, taxes, which could be unpopular.
pp. 185–189. Then
consolidate your learning However, if tuition fees were abolished at all colleges
in the corresponding 5 and universities, governments would have to increase
unit of My eLab. taxes, which could be unpopular.

CHAPTER 3 DEVELOP YOUR ARGUMENTS 37

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 37 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 WRITING WITH STYLE
INCORPORATING IN-TEXT CITATIONS
Whenever you incorporate another writer’s original idea, interpretation, statistic,
or image into your own writing, you need to include an in-text citation and list a
Learn more about APA complete reference for each in-text citation at the end of your essay. Two common
and MLA citation styles citation styles are those of the APA (American Psychological Association) and the
in Appendices 2 and 3.
MLA (Modern Language Association).

APA Citation Style

APA in-text citations are presented in parentheses and consist of the author’s
surname and the year of publication, separated by a comma and a space. For direct
quotations, page numbers must be added.
1. University tuition fees have increased in half of the OECD countries
(Ball, 2017).
2. Marshall and Walsh Marr (2018) mention tuition fees as a factor to consider
in international students’ academic development.
3. Regarding the impact of high tuition fees on students’ ­decisions, “little is
known about the effects on subject choice” (Ball, 2017, p. 544).
In sentence 1, the in-text citation is placed at the end of the sentence to indicate
the source of the statistic. This position emphasizes the information more than
the author. In sentence 2, the authors’ names are included in the citation phrase:
Marshall and Walsh Marr (subject) mention (verb). This phrase gives more emphasis
to the authors.
Sentence 3 contains a direct quotation from Ball’s 2017 article. As a result, the
page number is included in the parentheses, introduced by the abbreviation p.,
followed by a space and the page number: p. 544.

MLA Citation Style

© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

MLA in-text citations are also placed in parentheses; they require the author’s
surname and the page number of the source, with no comma separating them.
Unlike APA citations, MLA citations do not include the year of publication.
1. University tuition fees have increased in half of the OECD countries
(Ball 544).
2. Marshall and Walsh Marr mention tuition fees as a factor to consider in
international students’ academic development (40).
3. Regarding the impact of high tuition fees on students’ ­decisions, “little is
known about the effects on subject choice” (Ball 544).
Sentence 1 emphasizes the information, while sentence 2 gives greater emphasis
to the authors. The page numbers are indicated, not the publication dates as in
APA style. In sentence 3, the direct quotation is followed by a citation including
the author’s name and the page number, but no comma or abbreviation for page:
(Ball 544).

38 ADVANCE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 1

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 38 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 TASK 11 ANALYZE APA AND MLA IN-TEXT CITATIONS
Answer the questions that follow the examples of in-text citations below.

1. In 50% of OECD countries, domestic university fees have increased (Ball, 2017).

Is the citation style APA or MLA?

Does the citation emphasize the author or the information?

2. Lochner and Monge-Naranjo (2016) found that an increasing number

of ­students from poor backgrounds had problems accessing loans and repay-
ing them.

Is the citation style APA or MLA?

Explain how the citation emphasizes the authors.

3. This type of unfairness is a feature of unsustainable internationalization in

Canadian higher education (Ilieva, Beck, and Waterstone 875).

Is the citation style APA or MLA?

What do you notice about the punctuation in the parentheses when you
compare it to example 1 above?

4. According to Marshall and Walsh Marr, in some Canadian universities, inter-

national students pay quadruple tuition fees (40).
Is the citation style APA or MLA?
© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

Why is only the page number indicated in the parentheses?

My Bookshelf > My eLab
> Exercises > Ch03 > Chapter
Consolidation

CHAPTER 3 DEVELOP YOUR ARGUMENTS 39

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 39 2019-02-01 8:21 AM

 EXTEND YOUR ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
Learn how to form sentences with the following adjectives from this chapter.

additional dependent initial

compulsory evident unfair
convincing increasing unpopular

My Bookshelf > My eLab *Words in bold type are AWL entries.

> Exercises > Ch03 > Vocabulary

WRITING TASK
Following the structure of the model paragraph on page 32, write one argumen-
tative paragraph on each of the following topics:
1. The advantages of making academic writing courses compulsory for all first-
year students
2. The disadvantages of studying in a foreign country
You do not have to include evidence or in-text citations in your paragraphs for
this task.

© ERPI Reproduction prohibited

40 ADVANCE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 1

82025250_adv1_03_ch3_p27-40.indd 40 2019-02-01 8:21 AM