CHAPTER 5

PARAGRAPHS:
COHERENCE, COHESION, AND
CONCLUDING SENTENCES
T
his chapter builds on Chapter 4 by focusing on three additional features
of writing paragraphs: coherence, cohesion, and concluding sentences.
The term coherence refers to ordering ideas logically, not randomly. ­Creating
cohesion means joining together information and ideas effectively, for example,
with linking words and phrases. Concluding sentences are the sentences used
to end paragraphs.

In this chapter, you will

• study three more key features of paragraphs
• identify paragraph features
• study conjunctive adverbs and reference words
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• shift style from informal to formal

• study relative clauses and participle phrases
• learn about logical fallacies based on generalization
• write two paragraphs presenting pros and cons of plastic products

TASK 1 EXPLORE THROUGH DISCUSSION

Do you try to limit your use of plastic products to prevent pollution?
Take five minutes to discuss the topic in pairs.

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 READING AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS
PARAGRAPHS

Coherence
It is important to organize information and ideas logically in paragraphs. This
makes it easier for readers to understand your ideas and purpose. The following
are common ways to organize information in a paragraph:
• chronological order (following a time sequence)
• listing (giving examples one after the other)
• presenting different sides of an argument (different views on a topic)
• shifting from general to specific

TASK 2 IDENTIFY COHERENCE STRATEGIES

Read the following four paragraphs. Identify the coherence strategy used to
organize the ideas in each paragraph.

Genetic Ancestry Testing

by Deborah A. Bolnick et al.

Although genetic ancestry testing is often described as “recreational genetics,”

many consumers do not take these tests lightly. Each test costs a hundred to
nine hundred dollars, and consumers often have deep personal reasons for
purchasing these products. Many individuals hope to identify biological rela-
tives, to validate genealogical records, and to fill in gaps in family histories.
Others are searching for a connection to specific groups or places in Eurasia
and Africa. This search for a “homeland” is particularly poignant for many
African Americans, who hope to recapture a history stolen by slavery. Others
seek a more nuanced picture of their genetic backgrounds than the black-and-

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white dichotomy that dominates US racial thinking.
Excerpt from Bolnick, D. A., Fullwiley, D., Duster, T., Cooper, R. S., Fujimura, J. H., Kahn, J., . . . & TallBear, K.
(2018). The science and business of genetic ancestry testing. In O. K. Obasogie & M. Darnovsky (Eds.), Beyond
bioethics: Toward a new biopolitics (pp. 422–427). Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

Coherence strategy:

History of Fuel Cell Vehicles

by Mehrdad Ehsani, Yimin Gao, and Ali Emadi

As early as 1839, Sir William Grove (often referred to as the “Father of the Fuel
Cell”) discovered that it may be possible to generate electricity by reversing the
electrolysis of water. It was not until 1889 that two researchers, Charles Langer
and Ludwig Mond, coined the term fuel cell as they were trying to engineer the
first practical fuel cell using air and coal gas. Although further attempts were

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 made in the early 1900s to develop fuel cells that could convert coal or carbon
into electricity, the advent of [the] IC engine temporarily quashed any hopes of
further development of the fledgling technology.
Excerpt from Ehsani, M., Gao, Y., & Emadi, A. (2010). Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles:
Fundamentals, theory, and design (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Coherence strategy:

EU Policy to Limit Plastic Pollution

The European Union has taken measures to reduce the sale and use of plastic
shopping bags in an attempt to reduce ocean pollution, and all member coun-
tries are bound to implement this policy. However, many environmentalists
argue that it is too little too late (Gross, 2015) and does not go far enough in
controlling the sale and disposal of many other plastic products, including the
highly damaging microbeads found in cosmetics and other products. In contrast,
many manufacturers who use plastics oppose the policy because it will increase
their production costs. They claim that people will lose their jobs as a result.
Instead, they argue, education programs and recycling should be increased
to solve the problem. While the policy is undoubtedly a good first step, further
action is clearly necessary to protect the Earth’s oceans.

Reference
Gross, M. (2015). Oceans of plastic waste. Current Biology, 25(3), R93–R96. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.038

Coherence strategy:

Negative Effects of Microbead Ocean Pollution

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Increased pollution has been the result of industrialization

across the world. Air, water, and soil have all been affected. In
recent years, ocean pollution has been the subject of considerable
discussion in the media. Not only are the Earth’s oceans becoming
increasingly polluted by chemicals, there is also a growing body
of garbage in ocean waters. Plastic waste in particular is having
a devastating effect on many marine species, from small fish to
large mammals such as whales. Most damaging of these plastics,
perhaps, are microbeads, tiny plastic particles used in the manu-
facturing of cosmetics and many other household products.
Recent social media campaigns have drawn attention to the harm
done by microbeads. Consequently, more people are aware of
the problem. . . .

Coherence strategy:

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 TASK 3 ORGANIZE A PARAGRAPH
Reorganize the following jumbled sentences from a paragraph on plastic pollution
in Canada so that they form a coherent paragraph.

Plastic Pollution in Canadian Waters

a) To sum up, while the government decides how to deal with the problem,
individual Canadians should take action by rejecting plastic bags, straws,
or products containing microbeads.
b) Plastic pollution is causing serious damage to the marine environments
­surrounding Canada (“Plastic Pollution,” n.d.).
c) While bags and straws can harm marine life, microbeads can have a negative
impact on Canadians who consume seafood from local waters.
d) Regarding the effects on people, Murphy (2018) suggests that microplastics
found in farmed and wild shellfish in western Canada can transfer to humans
through consumption.
e) Especially damaging to Canada’s oceans are single-use plastic products such
as straws and plastic bags, as well as microbeads.
f) However, any new legislation will take time because Canada currently produces
approximately three million tons of plastic waste annually, of which only 10%
to 12% is recycled (“Plastic Pollution,” n.d.).
g) To reduce the damage to marine life and the risk to human health, it is time
for the federal government to introduce laws to restrict the use of many
plastic products and microbeads.

Correct order of sentences:

Cohesion

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If your writing is cohesive, it means you are using effective linking words, phrases,
and sentence structures to join information and ideas. The following are five
useful ways to make your writing more cohesive:
• Write compound sentences (give equal emphasis to different ideas).
• Write complex sentences (express a relationship between ideas—for example,
cause and effect or contrast—and add emphasis).
See Unit 4 of the
Handbook to review • Use conjunctive adverbs (however, moreover, therefore, etc.).
sentence types, and
learn more about linking • Use “FANBOYS” coordinators (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
words in Appendix 1.
• Use subordinators (although, because, before, if, which, etc.).

TASK 4 ANALYZE COHESION

Answer the following questions about three sentences from paragraph 3 of Task 2
(“EU Policy to Limit Plastic Pollution”).

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 1. The European Union has taken measures to reduce the sale and use of plastic
shopping bags in an attempt to reduce ocean pollution, and all member
countries are bound to implement this policy.
Is the information in each independent clause of this compound sentence
given equal emphasis, or is one clause emphasized more than the other?

2. However, many environmentalists argue that it is too little too late (Gross, 2015).
Which of the following statements best describes the function of the conjunctive
adverb however at the beginning of this sentence?
 It introduces additional information that expands on the previous
sentence.
  It introduces information that is the result of the previous sentence.
  It introduces information that contrasts with the previous sentence.

3. While the policy is undoubtedly a good first step, further action is clearly
necessary to protect the Earth’s oceans.
Are the following statements about this sentence true or false?
 True False
a) It is a complex sentence because it has one dependent
clause followed by one independent clause.
b) It is a complex sentence that begins with
the subordinator while.
c) It emphasizes the need for further action.
d) It emphasizes that the policy is a good first step.
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TASK 5 ADD COHESION

Complete the paragraph below with words or phrases that make the text cohesive.
There may be more than one correct answer for each blank.

Plastic Waste in Oceans

Plastics are everywhere in our lives, their polluting effects
have gone unnoticed by many people (Kontrick, 2018). recyc-
ling rates for plastic waste have increased significantly around the world during
the last 10 years, it has been estimated that around 1.15 to 2.41 million metric
tons of plastic still enters oceans from rivers each year (“Great Pacific Garbage
Patch,” n.d.).  , it is predicted that the amount of plastic entering
our oceans will have doubled by 2025 (Dauvergne, 2018). There are five major

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 accumulations of plastic waste in the world’s oceans,
the largest of these is the Great Pacific
Garbage Patch, was ­discovered by the
oceanographer Charles Moore in 1997.

References
Dauvergne, P. (2018). Why is the global governance of plastic failing
the oceans? Global Environmental Change, 51, 22–31. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.05.002
The great Pacific garbage patch (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.
theoceancleanup.com/great-pacific-garbage-patch/
Kontrick, A. V. (2018). Microplastics and human health: Our great
future to think about now. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 14(2),
117–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-018-0661-9

Concluding Sentences
Concluding sentences are placed at the end of paragraphs to create a smooth and
effective ending. There are different ways to conclude a paragraph; the following
are four common techniques:
Summing up: Writers often conclude paragraphs by summing up the main focus
of the paragraph. They may begin the concluding sentence with a phrase such as
to sum up or in conclusion.
Giving a final example: In a paragraph that presents a list of examples, it is com-
mon to end with the last example, beginning with a linking word such as finally.
Offering a final opinion: In an argumentative paragraph, writers often end with
a closing opinion for the reader to consider. It could be introduced with a phrase
such as I would argue that, it could be argued that, clearly, or it is clear that.
Paragraph transition: Another technique is to write a transition to the topic of the

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following paragraph. For example, if the focus of the following paragraph is on the
polluting effects of microbeads, the concluding sentence can include the keyword
microbeads to form a transition: “There are evidently many plastics polluting our
oceans, from single-use plastic bags to the microbeads found in cosmetics.”

TASK 6 IDENTIFY CONCLUDING TECHNIQUES

Look back at the four paragraphs you studied in Task 2, and identify the concluding
technique used in each.

1. Paragraph 1:

2. Paragraph 2:

3. Paragraph 3:

4. Paragraph 4:

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 TASK 7 ADD A CONCLUDING SENTENCE
Complete the paragraph below by adding either a “summing up” or a “final opinion”
concluding sentence.

Microbeads and Pollution

[1] Concerns about the polluting effects of microbeads, which are the tiny plastic
beads found in many personal care products, have resulted in calls to ban them.
[2] This is because the tiny toxic beads from some soaps, scrubs, and tooth-
pastes, washed down the drain after use, eventually enter the food chain of
aquatic animals. [3] Whales, for example, swallow vast amounts of water each
day to filter small prey, and consuming microbeads can reduce their ability to
absorb nutrients (Gabbatiss, 2018). [4] In fact, the need to reduce microbead
pollution has already been addressed by governments around the world, leading
to measures to limit their use (Gross, 2015). [5] Although strict controls or a
total ban on microbeads could lead to more expensive products and some
job losses, the benefits of protecting marine life would easily outweigh the
drawbacks. [6]

References
Gabbatiss, J. (2018, February 5). Microplastics ‘pose major threat’ to whales and sharks,
scientists warn. The Independent. Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/
environment/microplastics-ocean-pollution-whales-sharks-threat-plastic-coffee-cups-
microbeads-a8194131.html
Gross, M. (2015). Oceans of plastic waste. Current Biology, 25(3), R93–R96. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.038
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TASK 8 IDENTIFY PARAGRAPH FEATURES

The paragraph in Task 7 above illustrates the features of paragraph writing you
have studied in Chapters 3, 4, and 5. Reread the paragraph with the concluding
sentence you added and identify the following features by sentence number.
Paragraph Feature Sentence(s)
a) Topic sentence
b) First supporting reason
c) Supporting example
d) Evidence from experts
e) Argument(s)
f) Concluding sentence

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 VOCABULARY
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS AND REFERENCE WORDS

See Appendix 1 for a Conjunctive Adverbs

detailed explanation of
how to use conjunctive Conjunctive adverbs are commonly used in academic writing to join ideas, often as
adverbs and other alternatives to and (to express addition), but (to express contrast), and so (to express
linking words.
a result).
Moreover, it is predicted that the amount of plastic entering (addition)
our oceans will have doubled by 2025 (Dauvergne, 2018).
However, many environmentalists argue that it is too little (contrast)
too late (Gross, 2015).
Recent social media campaigns have drawn attention to (result)
the harm done by microbeads. Consequently, more people
are aware of the problem.
Other examples of conjunctive adverbs include the following:
• For additional information: furthermore, in addition, similarly
• For contrast: nevertheless, still
• For results: as a result, therefore

TASK 9 ADD CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

Complete the sentences below with appropriate conjunctive adverbs. Refer to
the table in Appendix 1, page 249, for help if needed.

1. The city administration introduced a ban on free plastic bags.

plastic pollution in the city’s streets and rivers has fallen dramatically.

2. The city administration introduced a ban on free plastic bags.

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many supermarkets are still giving away free bags with shopping.

3. The city administration introduced a ban on free plastic bags.

it is selling discounted reusable bags to local people.

4. The world’s oceans are becoming increasingly polluted with plastics.

scientists are having problems providing evidence of the toxic
effects on some species due to the difficulty of collecting data under hazardous
conditions in open water.

5. The world’s oceans are becoming increasingly polluted with plastics.

it is time for consumers to take more care in their weekly
shopping.

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 6. The world’s oceans are becoming increasingly polluted with plastics.
plastic pollution is becoming a serious problem in fresh­water
lakes and rivers.

Reference Words
Writers often use reference words such as it, this, these, and those to refer back
to previously mentioned ideas. This allows writers to avoid repetition. Reference
words can also refer forward to ideas that are coming up, often to add emphasis
to the ideas or argument.

TASK 10 INTERPRET REFERENCE WORDS

For each of the sentences below, state whether the reference word (in bold) refers
back or forward, and write what it refers to.

1. As early as 1839, Sir William Grove (often referred to as the “Father of the Fuel
Cell”) discovered that it may be possible to generate electricity by reversing
the electrolysis of water.
It refers to

2. The European Union has taken measures to reduce the

sale and use of plastic shopping bags in an attempt
to reduce ocean pollution, and all member countries
are bound to implement this policy. However, many
environmentalists argue that it is too little too late
(Gross, 2015).
It refers to
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3. It is predicted that the amount of plastic entering our

oceans will have doubled by 2025 (Dauvergne, 2018).
It refers to

4. Writers often use reference words such as it, this, these, and those to refer
back to previously mentioned ideas. This allows writers to avoid repetition.
This refers to

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My Bookshelf > My eLab
> Exercises > Ch05 > Vocabulary
See Chapter 2, p. 22, to
review contractions and
conversational language
in informal style.
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EXTEND YOUR ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
Learn more about how to use the conjunctive adverbs and linking words from
this chapter.
as a result in addition still
consequently moreover therefore
furthermore nevertheless
however similarly
*Words in bold type are AWL entries.
WRITING WITH STYLE
SHIFTING STYLE
When writers research essay topics on the Internet, most search engines will
provide a range of newspaper articles, books, academic articles, blogs, and
information from non-governmental organizations and commercial sites. In non-­
academic texts, it is normal to write less formally than is required for academic
writing. If you want to incorporate ideas from these sources into your essays, you
need to shift style, that is, express the same idea in formal academic language.
To avoid plagiarizing another writer’s work, you also need to acknowledge the
sources of any original ideas with in-text citations. You will learn more about
avoiding plagiarism in Chapter 6.
The following are three features of informal style frequently found in non-academic
texts, including contractions and conversational language, which you studied in
Chapter 2.
Contractions
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Contractions are common in informal conversa-
tions and in less formal writing; however, many
academic writers avoid them.
Many environmentalists believe current
guidelines on limiting plastic ­p ollution
aren’t effective and don’t go far enough.
Addressing the Reader as “You”
In most forms of academic writing, writers avoid
you because it gives the writing an informal, overly
personal style.
Microbeads are tiny toxic plastic beads that
you wash down the drain every time you use
certain soaps, scrubs, and toothpastes.
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 Conversational Language
The highlighted phrases in the example below would work well in an informal
conversation or even an oral presentation; however, they are not appropriate for
academic writing.
If you ask me, people aren’t going to be letting go of their plastic shopping
bags any time soon.

TASK 11 SHIFT STYLE FROM INFORMAL TO FORMAL

See Chapter 4, p. 51, Rewrite each of the following sentences to improve the formality, changing
to review simple versus ­contractions, you, conversational language, as well as simple vocabulary (which
Latinate verbs.
you studied in Chapter 4).

1. If you can get by without plastic shopping bags, then it’ll help reduce pollution
from a lot of different plastic stuff.

2. Trying to cut back on microbeads in seawater is a bit of a problem because

lots of shoppers won’t change the way they buy things.

3. Scientists have got to back up what they say about ocean pollution with cred-
ible evidence if they’re going to get rid of single-use plastic shopping bags.

4. Recently, there’s been a really big increase in ocean pollution, which should
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make you scared, especially if you eat local fish.

GRAMMAR AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE

RELATIVE CLAUSES AND PARTICIPLE PHRASES

See Unit 5 of the Relative Clauses

Handbook for a detailed
explanation of how Relative clauses begin with the relative pronouns that, which, who(m), and whose.
to use relative clauses (Other words that function in similar ways to relative pronouns are what, when, where,
and participle phrases.
and why.) There are two types of relative clauses: defining and non-defining.

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 Defining Relative Clauses
Defining relative clauses give essential information for gaining a full understanding
of the sentence.
In my opinion, people should try to buy products that are less damaging to
the environment.
The underlined relative clause is defining because it identifies the products people
should buy. Without the relative clause, the meaning of the sentence is not
­complete. In defining relative clauses, the relative pronoun that is used to refer to
things and who, to refer to people. (That is also used informally to refer to people.)
Which is often used in defining relative clauses in British English.

Non-defining Relative Clauses

Non-defining relative clauses provide extra information; if they are not included
in a sentence, the sentence is still complete.
Concerns about the polluting effects of microbeads, which are the tiny plastic
beads found in many personal care products, have resulted in calls to
ban them.
The underlined relative clause is non-defining because it gives extra, non-essential
information about microbeads. Without the relative clause, the meaning of the
sentence would still be complete: “Concerns about the polluting effects of
microbeads have resulted in calls to ban them.”
The relative pronoun that cannot be used in non-defining relative clauses. In
addition, the clauses must be set off with commas, while defining relative clauses
must not.

Participle Phrases
In most cases, participle phrases express the same idea as a corresponding
relative clause, but in fewer words. In this sense, they can be understood as
reduced relative clauses. Instead of beginning with a relative pronoun, participle

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phrases begin with a present participle (verb + ing) or a past participle (verb +
ed). Like relative clauses, participle phrases can be defining or non-defining.

Present Participle Phrases

The need to reduce microbead pollution has already been addressed by
­governments around the world, leading to measures to limit their use.
The underlined phrase is a present participle phrase; the present participle is
leading. The phrase is non-defining because it provides extra, non-essential infor-
mation, and it is set off by a comma. It is a reduced version of the relative clause
which has led to measures to limit their use.

Past Participle Phrases

The tiny toxic beads from some soaps, scrubs, and toothpastes, washed down
the drain after use, eventually enter the food chain of aquatic animals.

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 The underlined phrase is a past participle phrase; the past participle is washed.
The phrase is non-defining because it provides extra, non-essential information,
and it is set off by commas. It is a reduced version of the relative clause which
are washed down the drain after use.

TASK 12 IDENTIFY RELATIVE CLAUSES AND

PARTICIPLE PHRASES
1. Identify the underlined part of each of the following sentences as a defining
or non-defining relative clause or a present or past participle phrase.
a) People who are willing to change their
shopping habits can have a real impact
on reducing plastic pollution.
b) People living away from the coast may
be less aware of ocean pollution.
c) Many shoppers today buy strong shop-
ping bags, which can be used for several
months.
d) EU guidelines for plastic waste reduction,
written two years ago, will take some
Do Unit 5: Relative time to have an impact.
Clauses and Participle
Phrases in the Handbook,
pp. 197–203. Then 2. Which of the participle phrases in question 1 is defining, and which is
consolidate your learning non-defining?
in the corresponding
unit of My eLab.

READING AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS

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LOGICAL FALLACIES

Logical Fallacies Based on Generalization

Generalization involves referring to all members of a group (of things or people)
in a general way. Generalization is acceptable in academic writing if the claim can
be backed up with evidence. If not, the generalization may be a logical fallacy.
The following are two common types of logical fallacy based on generalization:
Generalization without evidence: This logical fallacy involves making a general
statement about all members of a group as if it were a fact and failing to provide
evidence to back up the claim.
Stereotype: This logical fallacy involves making a judgmental, often negative
statement about a specific group of people, again without any evidence.

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My Bookshelf > My eLab
> Exercises > Ch05 > Chapter
Consolidation
My Bookshelf > My eLab
> Documents > Review Sheets
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TASK 13 IDENTIFY LOGICAL FALLACIES
Read the examples of fallacies below and indicate whether they are best described
as generalization without evidence or stereotype.
Generalization
without Stereotype
Evidence
North Americans love to drive everywhere, even to
1
stores and restaurants that are within walking distance.
The large supermarkets have done nothing to limit
2
the use of plastic shopping bags.
Genetic ancestry tests do not live up to the expectations
3
of the people who purchase them.
People who still use plastic shopping bags are too
4
lazy to change their habits.
Avoiding Logical Fallacies of Generalization
The four sentences in Task 13 could be restated in ways that avoid making logical
fallacies.
TASK 14 IDENTIFY WAYS TO AVOID LOGICAL FALLACIES
Read the rewritten sentences from Task 13 and underline the keywords that have
been added to avoid making logical fallacies.
1. Some North Americans seem to drive everywhere, even to stores and restau-
rants that are within walking distance.
2. A number of large supermarkets have not done enough to limit the use of
plastic shopping bags.
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3. Genetic ancestry tests may not live up to the expectations of all the people
who purchase them.
4. Some people who still use plastic shopping bags may need more time to change
their habits.
WRITING TASK
Write two paragraphs: one presenting the negative sides of the use of plastic
products in daily life, and one presenting the positive aspects. Put into practice
what you have learned about paragraph writing in Chapters 4 and 5.
In groups of two or three, read each other’s work and offer comments using the
Paragraph Review Sheet.
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