Solutions for MATH 4603 (Advanced Calculus I)

Fall 2017

Homework 14: Due on Tuesday 12 December

66. Let s P pR2 qN and let a, b P R. Define p, q : R2 Ñ R by ppx, yq “ x

and qpx, yq “ y. Show:
r s‚ Ñ pa, bq in R2 s
ô r ppp ˝ sq‚ Ñ a in Rq & ppq ˝ sq‚ Ñ b in Rq s.

Proof: Proof of ñ: Assume: s‚ Ñ pa, bq in R2 . We wish to show:

(1) pp ˝ sq‚ Ñ a in R and
(2) pq ˝ sq‚ Ñ b in R.
Proof of (1): We wish to show: @ε ą 0, DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpp ˝ sqj s ´ a | ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpp ˝ sqj s ´ a | ă ε s.
Let z :“ pa, bq. Then s‚ Ñ z in R2 , so choose K P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r |sj ´ z|2 ă ε s.
We wish to show: @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpp ˝ sqj s ´ a | ă ε s.
Let j P N be given. We wish to show:
rjěK s ñ r | rpp ˝ sqj s ´ a | ă ε s.
Assume that j ě K. We wish to show that | pp ˝ sqj ´ a | ă ε.
Since j P N and j ě K, by our choice of K, we have |sj ´ z|2 ă ε.
Let x :“ ppsj q,a y :“ qpsj q. Then sj “ px, yq. So, since z “ pa, bq, we
get |sj ´ z|2 “ px ´ aq2 ` py ´ bq2 . Then
a
| pp ˝ sqj ´ a | “ | pppsj qq ´ a | “ |x ´ a| “ px ´ aq2
a
ď px ´ aq2 ` py ´ bq2 “ |sj ´ z|2 ă ε,
as desired. End of proof of (1).
Proof of (2): We wish to show: @ε ą 0, DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpq ˝ sqj s ´ b | ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpq ˝ sqj s ´ b | ă ε s.
Let z :“ pa, bq. Then s‚ Ñ z in R2 , so choose K P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r |sj ´ z|2 ă ε s.
We wish to show: @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpq ˝ sqj s ´ b | ă ε s.
Let j P N be given. We wish to show:
rjěK s ñ r | rpq ˝ sqj s ´ b | ă ε s.
Assume that j ě K. We wish to show that | pq ˝ sqj ´ b | ă ε.
Since j P N and j ě K, by our choice of K, we have |sj ´ z|2 ă ε.
Let x :“ ppsj q,a y :“ qpsj q. Then sj “ px, yq. So, since z “ pa, bq, we
get |sj ´ z|2 “ px ´ aq2 ` py ´ bq2 . Then
a
| pq ˝ sqj ´ b | “ | pqpsj qq ´ b | “ |y ´ b| “ py ´ bq2
a
ď px ´ aq2 ` py ´ bq2 “ |sj ´ z|2 ă ε,
as desired. End of proof of (2). End of proof of ñ:
Proof of ð: Assume:
(A) pp ˝ sq‚ Ñ a in R and
(B) pq ˝ sq‚ Ñ b in R.
We wish to show: s‚ Ñ pa, bq in R2 . Let z :“ pa, bq. We wish to show:
s‚ Ñ z in R2 . We wish to show: @ε ą 0, DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r |sj ´ z|2 ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: DK P N s.t., @j P N,
r j ě K s ñ r |sj ´ z|2 ă ε s.
?
Let λ :“ ε{ 2. By (A), choose L P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěLs ñ r | ppp ˝ sqj q ´ a | ă λ s.
By (B), choose M P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěM s ñ r | ppq ˝ sqj q ´ b | ă λ s.
Let K :“ maxtL, M u. Then K P N and we wish to show: @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r |sj ´ z|2 ă ε s.
Let j P N be given. We wish to show:

rjěK s ñ r |sj ´ z|2 ă ε s.

Assume that j ě K. We wish to show: |sj ´ z|2 ă ε.

Let x :“ ppsj q and
a y :“ qpsj q. Then sj “ px, yq. So, since z “ pa, bq,
we get |sj ´ z|2 “ px ´ aq2 ` py ´ bq2 .
As j P N and j ě K ě L, by our choice of L, | ppp ˝ sqj q ´ a | ă λ.
We have pp ˝ sqj “ ppsj q “ x. Then |x ´ a| ă λ.
As j P N and j ě K ě M , by our choice of M , | ppq ˝ sqj q ´ b | ă λ.
We have pq ˝ sqj “ qpsj q “ y. Then |y ´ b| ă λ.
We have 0 ď px ´ aq2 ` py ´ bq2 . Since 0 ď |x ´ a| ă λ, we get:
px ´ aq2 ă λ2 . Since 0 ď |y ´ b| ă λ, we get: py ´ bq2 ă λ2 . Then

px ´ aq2 ` py ´ bq2 ă λ2 ` λ2 “ 2λ2

?
“ 2 ¨ pε{ 2q2 “ 2 ¨ pε2 {2q “ ε2 .
a ?
Then 0 ď px ´ aq2 ? ` py ´ bq2 ă ε2 , so px ´ aq2 ` py ´ bq2 ă ε2 .
Since ε ą 0, we get ε2 “ ε. Then
a ?
|sj ´ z|2 “ px ´ aq2 ` py ´ bq2 ă ε2 “ ε,

as desired. End of proof of ð: QED

67. Let Y be a topological space, let A Ď Y and let z P Y . Show:

p z P ClY A q ñ p @V P NY pzq, V X A ‰ H q.

Proof: Assume z P ClY A. We wish to show: @V P NY pzq, V X A ‰ H.

Let V P NY pzq be given. We wish to show: V X A ‰ H. Assume that
V X A “ H. We aim for a contradiction.
As V P NY pzq, choose an open set U in Y s.t. z P U Ď V . Let
C :“ Y zU . Then C is closed in Y . We have U X A Ď V X A “ H, so
U X A “ H, so A Ď Y zU . Then A Ď Y zU “ C, so, since C is closed,
by definition of ClY A, we get ClY A Ď C. Then z P ClY A Ď C “ Y zU ,
so z R U . By choice of U , we have z P U . Contradiction. QED

68. Let Y be a topological space and let A Ď Y . Show: sClY A Ď ClY A.

Proof: Want: @z P sClY A, z P ClY A. Let z P sClY A be given. We wish
to show: z P ClY A. By HW#67, want: @V P NY pzq, V X A ‰ H. Let
V P NY pzq be given. We wish to show: V X A ‰ H.
 Since z P sClY A, choose s P AN s.t. s‚ Ñ z in Y . Because we have
both s‚ Ñ z in Y and V P NY pzq, choose K P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r sj P V s.
Then, as K ě K, we get sK P V . Also, since s P AN , we get sK P A.
Then sK P V X A. Then V X A ‰ H, as desired. QED

69. Let pY, dq be a metric space, let s P Y N and let z P Y . Show:

p s‚ Ñ z in Y q ô p dps‚ , zq Ñ 0 in R q.

Proof: Proof of ñ: Assume that s‚ Ñ z in Y . We wish to show that

dps‚ , zq Ñ 0 in R. We wish to show: @ε ą 0, DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpdps‚ , zqqj s ´ 0 | ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpdps‚ , zqqj s ´ 0 | ă ε s.
Since s‚ Ñ z in Y , choose K P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r dpsj , zq ă ε s.
We wish to show: @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpdps‚ , zqqj s ´ 0 | ă ε s.
Let @j P N be given. We wish to show:
rjěK s ñ r | rpdps‚ , zqqj s ´ 0 | ă ε s.
Assume that j ě K. We wish to show: | rpdps‚ , zqqj s ´ 0 | ă ε.
Since j P N and j ě K, by choice of K, dpsj , zq ă ε. Also, since
dpsj , zq ě 0, we get: | dpsj , zq | “ dpsj , zq. Then
| rpdps‚ , zqqj s ´ 0 | “ | rdpsj , zqs ´ 0 | “ | dpsj , zq | “ dpsj , zq ă ε,
as desired. End of proof of ñ.
Proof of ð: Assume that dps‚ , zq Ñ 0 in R. We wish to show that
s‚ Ñ z in Y . We wish to show: @ε ą 0, DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r dpsj , zq ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r dpsj , zq ă ε s.
 Since s‚ Ñ z in Y , choose K P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r | rpdps‚ , zqqj s ´ 0 | ă ε s.
We wish to show: @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r dpsj , zq ă ε s.
Let @j P N be given. We wish to show:
rjěK s ñ r dpsj , zq ă ε s.
Assume that j ě K. We wish to show: dpsj , zq ă ε.
Since j P N and j ě K, by choice of K, | rpdps‚ , zqqj s ´ 0 | ă ε. Also,
since dpsj , zq ě 0, we get: | dpsj , zq | “ dpsj , zq. Then
dpsj , zq “ | dpsj , zq | “ | rdpsj , zqs ´ 0 | “ | rpdps‚ , zqqj s ´ 0 | ă ε,
as desired. End of proof of ð. QED

70. Let Y be a metrizable topological space and let A Ď Y . Show that

ClY A “ sClY A.
Proof: By HW#68, sClY A Ď ClY A. We wish to show: ClY A Ď sClY A.
We wish to show: @z P ClY A, z P sClY A. Let z P ClY A be given. We
wish to show: z P sClY A. We wish to show: Ds P AN s.t. s‚ Ñ z in Y .
As Y is metrizable, choose d P MpY q s.t. Td “ topen subsets of Y u.
Claim: @j P N, Ds P A s.t. dps, zq ă 1{j. Proof of Claim: Let j P N
be given. We wish to show: Ds P A s.t. s P Bd pz, 1{jq.
Let V :“ Bd pz, 1{jq. Then V is an open subset of Y and z P V , so
V P NY pzq. Then, by HW#67, we have V XA ‰ H. Choose s P V XA.
Then s P V X A Ď A, and we wish to show: dps, zq ă 1{j.
We have s P V X A Ď V “ Bd pz, 1{jq. Then dps, zq ă 1{j, as desired.
End of proof of Claim.
By the Claim and by the Axiom of Choice, choose s P AN s.t.,
@j P N, dpsj , zq ă 1{j. We wish to show: s‚ Ñ z in Y . We wish
to show: @ε ą 0, DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r dpsj , zq ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r dpsj , zq ă ε s.
By the Archimedean Principle, choose K P N s.t. K ą 1{ε. We wish
to show: @j P N, p r j ě K s ñ r dpsj , zq ă ε s q. Let j P N be given.
We wish to prove: r j ě K s ñ r dpsj , zq ă ε s. Assume that j ě K.
We wish to show that dpsj , zq ă ε.
By the choice of s‚ , we have dpsj , zq ă 1{j. Since j ě K ą 0, we get
1{j ď 1{K. Since K ą 1{ε ą 0, we get 1{K ă ε.
Then dpsj , zq ă 1{j ď 1{K ă ε, as desired. QED

Homework 13: Due on Tuesday 5 December

61. Define s P RN by sj “ p´1qj . Show:

(a) s‚ ­Ñ 1 and
(b) s‚ Ñ­ ´1.

Proof: Proof of (a): We wish to show: Dε ą 0 s.t. @K P N, Dj P N s.t.

rjěK s and r |sj ´ 1| ě ε s.
Let ε :“ 2. We wish to show: @K P N, Dj P N s.t.
rjěK s and r |sj ´ 1| ě ε s.
Let K P N be given. We wish to show: Dj P N s.t.
rjěK s and r |sj ´ 1| ě ε s.
By the Archimedean Principle, choose i P N s.t. i ą pK ´ 2q{2. Let
j :“ 2i ` 1. We wish to show:
rjěK s and r |sj ´ 1| ě ε s.
Since i ą pK ´ 2q{2, it follows that 2i ą K ´ 2. So, since 2i P Z and
K ´ 2 P Z, we conclude that 2i ě K ´ 1. Then j “ 2i ` 1 ě K. It
remains to show: |sj ´ 1| ě ε.
We have sj “ p´1qj “ p´1q2i`1 “ pp´1q2 qi ¨p´1q “ 1i ¨p´1q “ 1¨p´1q.
Then sj “ ´1. Then |sj ´ 1| “ | ´ 1 ´ 1| “ | ´ 2| “ 2 “ ε ě ε, as
desired. End of proof of (a).
Proof of (b): We wish to show: Dε ą 0 s.t. @K P N, Dj P N s.t.
rjěK s and r |sj ´ p´1q| ě ε s.
Let ε :“ 2. We wish to show: @K P N, Dj P N s.t.
rjěK s and r |sj ´ p´1q| ě ε s.
Let K P N be given. We wish to show: Dj P N s.t.
rjěK s and r |sj ´ p´1q| ě ε s.
By the Archimedean Principle, choose i P N s.t. i ą pK ´ 1q{2. Let
j :“ 2i. We wish to show:
rjěK s and r |sj ´ p´1q| ě ε s.
Since i ą pK ´ 1q{2, it follows that 2i ą K ´ 1. So, since 2i P Z and
K ´ 1 P Z, we conclude that 2i ě K. Then j “ 2i ě K. It remains to
show: |sj ´ p´1q| ě ε.
We have sj “ p´1qj “ p´1q2i “ pp´1q2 qi “ 1i “ 1. It follows that
|sj ´ p´1q| “ |sj ` 1| “ |1 ` 1| “ 2 “ ε ě ε. End of proof of (b). QED

62. Let f : R Ñ R2 be defined by f ptq “ p3t ´ 6, ´4t ` 1q. Show that

f is uniformly continuous.
Proof: We wish to show: @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0 s.t., @t, u P R,
r |t ´ u| ă δ s ñ r | rf ptqs ´ rf puqs |2 ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: Dδ ą 0 s.t., @t, u P R,
r |t ´ u| ă δ s ñ r | rf ptqs ´ rf puqs |2 ă ε s.
Let δ :“ ε{5. We wish to show: @t, u P R,
r |t ´ u| ă δ s ñ r | rf ptqs ´ rf puqs |2 ă ε s.
Let t, u P R be given. We wish to show:
r |t ´ u| ă δ s ñ r | rf ptqs ´ rf puqs |2 ă ε s.
Assume |t ´ u| ă δ. We wish to show: | rf ptqs ´ rf puqs |2 ă ε.
Let v :“ t ´ u Then |v| ă δ. Then 5 ¨ |v| ă 5 ¨ δ. We have
f ptq “ p3t ´ 6, ´4t ` 1q and
f puq “ p3u ´ 6, ´4u ` 1q,
so rf ptqs ´ rf puqs “ p3pt ´ uq, ´4pt ´ uqq “ p3v, ´4vq. Then
| rf ptqs ´ rf puqs |2 “ |p3v, ´4vq|2
a ?
“ p3vq2 ` p4vq2 “ 9v 2 ` 16v 2
? ? ?
“ 25v 2 “ 25 ¨ v 2 “ 5 ¨ |v|
ă 5δ “ 5 ¨ pε{5q “ ε,
as desired. QED

63. Let f : R Ñ R be defined by f ptq “ t2 . Show that f is NOT

uniformly continuous.
Proof: We wish to show: Dε ą 0 s.t., @δ ą 0, Ds, t P R s.t.
r |t ´ s| ă δ s and r | rf ptqs ´ rf psqs | ě ε s.
Let ε :“ 1. We wish to show: @δ ą 0, Ds, t P R s.t.
r |t ´ s| ă δ s and r | rf ptqs ´ rf psqs | ě ε s.
Let δ ą 0 be given. We wish to show: Ds, t P R s.t.
r |t ´ s| ă δ s and r | rf ptqs ´ rf psqs | ě ε s.
Let s :“ 1{δ. Then sδ “ 1. Let t :“ s ` pδ{2q. We wish to show:
r |t ´ s| ă δ s and r | rf ptqs ´ rf psqs | ě ε s.
We have t ´ s “ δ{2. Then |t ´ s| “ |δ{2| “ δ{2 ă δ. It remains to
show: | rf ptqs ´ rf psqs | ě ε. We will show: | rf ptqs ´ rf psqs | ą ε.
We have f ptq “ f ps ` pδ{2qq “ ps ` pδ{2qq2 “ s2 ` 2s ¨ pδ{2q ` pδ 2 {4q.
Also, we have f psq “ s2 . Since
f ptq “ s2 ` sδ ` pδ 2 {4q and
f psq “ s2 ,
we get rf ptqs ´ rf psqs “ sδ ` pδ 2 {4q. Since δ ą 0, we get δ 2 {4 ą 0.
Then rf ptqs ´ rf psqs ą sδ “ 1. We conclude that rf ptqs ´ rf psqs ą 0,
and it follows that | rf ptqs ´ rf psqs | “ rf ptqs ´ rf psqs.
Then | rf ptqs ´ rf psqs | “ rf ptqs ´ rf psqs ą 1 “ ε, as desired. QED

64. Let Y be a metric space and let Z be a normed vector space. Let
f, g : Y 99K Z. Assume that both f and g are uniformly continuous.
Show that f ` g is uniformly continuous.
Proof: Let d :“ dY and | ‚ | :“ | ‚ |Z . We wish to show: @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0
s.t., @w, x P dom rf ` gs,
r dpw, xq ă δ s ñ r | rpf ` gqpwqs ´ rpf ` gqpxqs | ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: Dδ ą 0 s.t., @w, x P dom rf ` gs,
r dpw, xq ă δ s ñ r | rpf ` gqpwqs ´ rpf ` gqpxqs | ă ε s.
Since f : Y 99K Z is u.c., choose β ą 0 s.t., @w, x P dom rf s,
r dpw, xq ă β s ñ r | rf pwqs ´ rf pxqs | ă ε{2 s.
Since g : Y 99K Z is u.c., choose γ ą 0 s.t., @w, x P dom rgs,
r dpw, xq ă γ s ñ r | rgpwqs ´ rgpxqs | ă ε{2 s.
Let δ :“ mintβ, γu. We wish to show: @w, x P dom rf ` gs,

r dpw, xq ă δ s ñ r | rpf ` gqpwqs ´ rpf ` gqpxqs | ă ε s.

Let w, x P dom rf ` gs be given. We wish to show:

r dpw, xq ă δ s ñ r | rpf ` gqpwqs ´ rpf ` gqpxqs | ă ε s.

Assume that dpw, xq ă δ. Want: | rpf ` gqpwqs ´ rpf ` gqpxqs | ă ε.

Since w P dom rf ` gs Ď dom rf s and dpw, xq ă δ ď β, we get

| rf pwqs ´ rf pxqs | ă ε{2.

Since w P dom rf ` gs Ď dom rgs and dpw, xq ă δ ď γ,

| rgpwqs ´ rgpxqs | ă ε{2.

Then

| rpf ` gqpwqs ´ rpf ` gqpxqs |

“ | rf pwqs ` rgpwqs ´ rf pxqs ´ rgpxqs |
“ | rf pwqs ´ rf pxqs ` rgpwqs ´ rgpxqs |
ď | rf pwqs ´ rf pxqs | ` | rgpwqs ´ rgpxqs |
ă pε{2q ` pε{2q “ ε,

as desired. QED

65. Let Y :“ r1, 2q Y r3, 4q and Z :“ r5, 7q. Define f : Y Ñ Z by

#
s ` 4, if s P r1, 2q
f psq “
s ` 3, if s P r3, 4q.

Show
(a) f : Y ãÑą Z,
(b) f is continuous and
´1
(c) f is NOT continuous.

Proof: Let I :“ r1, 2q, J :“ r3, 4q, K :“ r5, 6q and L :“ r6, 7q. Then
I Y J “ Y and K Y L “ Z. Then f : I Y J Ñ K Y L. Also, @s P I Y J,
#
s ` 4, if s P I
f psq “
s ` 3, if s P J.
Define g : K Y L Ñ I Y J by
#
u ´ 4, if u P K
gpuq “
u ´ 3, if u P L.
For all s P I, we have f psq “ s ` 4 P K, so
gpf psqq “ rf psqs ´ 4 “ rs ` 4s ´ 4 “ s.
Also, for all s P J, we have f psq “ s ` 3 P L, so
gpf psqq “ rf psqs ´ 3 “ rs ` 3s ´ 3 “ s.
Then, for all s P I Y J, we have gpf psqq “ s. That is, g ˝ f “ idIYJ .
For all u P K, we have gpuq “ u ´ 4 P I, so
f pgpuqq “ rgpuqs ` 4 “ ru ´ 4s ` 4 “ u.
Also, for all u P L, we have gpuq “ u ´ 3 P J, so
f pgpuqq “ rgpuqs ` 3 “ ru ´ 3s ` 3 “ u.
Then, for all u P K Y L, we have f pgpuqq “ u. That is, f ˝ g “ idKYL .
Then f : I Y J ãÑą K Y L and g “ f ´1 .
Proof of (a): We have f : I Y J ãÑą K Y L. So, as Y “ I Y J and
Z “ K Y L, we get f : Y ãÑą Z, as desired. End of proof of (a).
Proof of (b): We wish to show: @s P Y , f is continuous at s.
Let s P Y be given. We wish to show: f is continuous at s. That is,
we wish to show: @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0 s.t., @t P Y ,
r |s ´ t| ă δ s ñ r | rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: Dδ ą 0 s.t., @t P Y ,
r |s ´ t| ă δ s ñ r | rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | ă ε s.
Let δ :“ ε. We wish to show: @t P Y ,
r |s ´ t| ă δ s ñ r | rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | ă ε s.
Let t P Y be given. We wish to show:
r |s ´ t| ă δ s ñ r | rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | ă ε s.
Assume that |s ´ t| ă δ. We wish to show: | rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | ă ε. Since
we have |s ´ t| ă δ “ ε, it suffices to show: | rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | ď |s ´ t|.
One of the following is true:
(b1) ( s P I and t P I ) or
(b2) ( s P I and t P J ) or
 (b3) ( s P J and t P I ) or
(b4) ( s P J and t P J ).
Case b1: Since s, t P I, we have f psq “ s ` 3 and f ptq “ t ` 3. Then
rf psqs ´ rf ptqs “ s ´ t. Then | rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | “ |s ´ t| ď |s ´ t|, as
desired. End of Case b1.
Case b2: Since s P I and t P J, we have f psq “ s`4 and f ptq “ t`3.
Since s P I “ r1, 2q, we get s ` 1 P r2, 3q. So, since t P J “ r3, 4q, we
conclude that s ` 1 ă t. Then t ´ s ´ 1 ą 0. Then |t ´ s ´ 1| “ t ´ s ´ 1.
We have t ´ s ą t ´ s ´ 1 ą 0. Then |t ´ s| “ t ´ s. We have
rf ptqs ´ rf psqs “ rt ` 3s ´ rs ` 4s “ t ´ s ´ 1. Then

| rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | “ | rf ptqs ´ rf psqs |

“ |t ´ s ´ 1| “ t ´ s ´ 1
ă t ´ s “ |t ´ s| “ |s ´ t|,

as desired. End of Case b2.

Case b3: Since s P J and t P I, we have f psq “ s`4 and f ptq “ t`3.
Since t P I and s P J, we have f ptq “ t ` 4 and f psq “ s ` 3.
Since t P I “ r1, 2q, we get t ` 1 P r2, 3q. So, since s P J “ r3, 4q, we
conclude that t ` 1 ă s. Then s ´ t ´ 1 ą 0. Then |s ´ t ´ 1| “ s ´ t ´ 1.
We have s ´ t ą s ´ t ´ 1 ą 0. Then |s ´ t| “ s ´ t. We have
rf psqs ´ rf ptqs “ rs ` 3s ´ rt ` 4s “ s ´ t ´ 1. Then

| rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | “ |s ´ t ´ 1| “ s ´ t ´ 1
ă s ´ t “ |s ´ t|,

as desired. End of Case b3.

Case b4: Since s, t P J, we have f psq “ s ` 4 and f ptq “ t ` 4. Then
rf psqs ´ rf ptqs “ s ´ t. Then | rf psqs ´ rf ptqs | “ |s ´ t| ď |s ´ t|, as
desired. End of Case b4.
End of proof of (b).
Proof of (c): Since g “ f ´1 , we wish to show: g is not continuous.
We will show: g is not continuous at 6. We wish to show: Dε ą 0 s.t.,
@δ ą 0, Du P Z s.t.

r |u ´ 6| ă δ s and r | rgpuqs ´ rgp6qs | ě ε s.

Let ε :“ 1. We wish to show: @δ ą 0, Du P Z s.t.

r |u ´ 6| ă δ s and r | rgpuqs ´ rgp6qs | ě ε s.

Let δ ą 0 be given. We wish to show: Du P Z s.t.
r |u ´ 6| ă δ s and r | rgpuqs ´ rgp6qs | ě ε s.
Let γ :“ mintδ{2, 1u. Then γ ą 0 and γ ď δ{2 and γ ď 1. Let
u :“ 6 ´ γ. We have 0 ă γ ď 1, so 6 ´ 0 ą 6 ´ γ ě 6 ´ 1, so 6 ą u ě 5,
so u P r5, 6q “ K Ď Z. We wish to show:
r |u ´ 6| ă δ s and r | rgpuqs ´ rgp6qs | ě ε s.
We have 6 ´ u “ γ ą 0, so |6 ´ u| “ 6 ´ u. Then
|u ´ 6| “ |6 ´ u| “ 6 ´ u “ γ ď δ{2 ă δ.
It remains to show: | rgpuqs ´ rgp6qs | ě ε.
We will show: | rgpuqs ´ rgp6qs | ą ε.
Since u P K, we have gpuq “ u´4. Since 6 P L, we have gp6q “ 6´3.
Then rgp6qs ´ rgpuqs “ r6 ´ 3s ´ ru ´ 4s “ 7 ´ u. Since u ă 6, we get
7 ´ u ą 1. Then rgp6qs ´ rgpuqs “ 7 ´ u ą 1. Then rgp6qs ´ rgpuqs ą 0,
so | rgp6qs ´ rgpuqs | “ rgp6qs ´ rgpuqs. Then
| rgpuqs ´ rgp6qs | “ | rgp6qs ´ rgpuqs | “ rgp6qs ´ rgpuqs ą 1 “ ε,
as desired. End of proof of (c). QED

Homework 12: Due on Tuesday 28 November

56. Let f, g : R˚ 99K R˚ and let a P R. Assume:

r p f Ñ 8 near a q and p g Ñ 8 near a q s.
Show: f g Ñ 8 near a.
Proof: We wish to show: @M P R, Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x P dom rf gs,
r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ s ñ r pf gqpxq ą M s.
Let M P R be given. We wish to show: Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x P dom rf gs,
r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ s ñr pf gqpxq ą M s.
?
Let M0 :“ maxtM, 0u. Then M0 ě 0, so M0 ě 0. Also, we have
M0 ě M . Since f Ñ 8 near a, choose β ą 0 s.t., @x P dom rf s,
a
r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă β s ñ r f pxq ą M0 s.
Since g Ñ 8 near a, Choose γ ą 0 s.t., @x P dom rf s,
a
r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă γ s ñ r gpxq ą M0 s.
Let δ :“ mintβ, γu. We wish to show: @x P dom rf gs,
r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ s ñ r pf gqpxq ą M s.
Let x P dom rf gs be given. We wish to show:
r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ s ñ r pf gqpxq ą M s.
Assume 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ. We wish to show: pf gqpxq ą M .
We have x P dom rf gs Ď dom rf s and 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ď β. Then,
?
by choice of β, we get f pxq ą M0 . We have x P dom rf gs Ď dom rgs
?
and 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ď γ. Then, by choice of γ, we get gpxq ą M0 .
? ?
Since we have both f pxq ą M0 ě 0 and gpxq ą M0 ě 0, we see
? ?
that rf pxqsrgpxqs ą r M0 sr M0 s.
? ?
Then pf gqpxq “ rf pxqsrgpxqs ą r M0 sr M0 s “ M0 ě M . QED

57. Let Y be a topological space. Let g : Y 99K R˚ and let a P Y .

Assume: g Ñ 8 near a. Show: 1{g Ñ 0 near a.
Proof: We wish to show: @ε ą 0, D∆ P N ˆ paq s.t., @x P dom r1{gs,
rxP∆s ñ r | rp1{gqpxqs ´ 0 | ă ε s.
Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: D∆ P N ˆ paq s.t., @x P dom r1{gs,
rxP∆s ñ r | rp1{gqpxqs ´ 0 | ă ε s.
Since g Ñ 8 near a, choose ∆ P N ˆ paq s.t., @x P dom rgs,
rxP∆s ñ r gpxq ą 1{ε s.
We wish to show: @x P dom r1{gs,
rxP∆s ñ r | rp1{gqpxqs ´ 0 | ă ε s.
Let x P dom r1{gs be given. We wish to show:
rxP∆s ñ r | rp1{gqpxqs ´ 0 | ă ε s.
Assume that x P ∆. We wish to show: | rp1{gqpxqs ´ 0 | ă ε.
Since x P dom r1{gs Ď dom rgs and x P ∆, by choice of ∆, we
get gpxq ą 1{ε. As gpxq ą 1{ε ą 0, we get 0 ă 1{rgpxqs ă ε.
Since 1{rgpxqs ą 0, we conclude that | 1{rgpxqs | “ 1{rgpxqs. Then
| rp1{gqpxqs ´ 0 | “ | rp1{gqpxqs | “ | 1{rgpxqs | “ 1{rgpxqs ă ε. QED

58. Let Y be a topological space. Let f, g : Y 99K R˚ and let a P Y .

Assume: DP P N ˆ paq such that f ď g on P . Assume: f Ñ 8 near a.
Show: g Ñ 8 near a.
Proof: We wish to show: @M P R, D∆ P N ˆ paq s.t., @x P dom rgs,
rxP∆s ñ r gpxq ą M s.
Let M P R be given. We wish to show: D∆ P N ˆ paq s.t., @x P dom rgs,
rxP∆s ñ r gpxq ą M s.
Choose P P N ˆ paq s.t. f ď g on P . Since f Ñ 8 near a, choose
Q P N ˆ paq s.t., @x P dom rf s,
rxP∆s ñ r f pxq ą M s.
Let ∆ :“ P XQ. Then ∆ P N ˆ paq, and we wish to show: @x P dom rgs,
rxP∆s ñ r gpxq ą M s.
Let x P dom rgs be given. We wish to show:
rxP∆s ñ r gpxq ą M s.
Assume x P ∆. We wish to show: gpxq ą M .
Since x P P , by choice of P , we have:
p x P dom rf s q and p x P dom rgs q and p f pxq ď gpxq q.
Since x P dom rf s and x P ∆, by choice of ∆, we have f pxq ą M . Then
gpxq ě f pxq ą M , as desired. QED

59. Find f : R Ñ R and g : R Ñ R such that

‚ f Ñ 2 near 1,
‚ g Ñ 3 near 2 and
‚ g ˝ f Ñ 4 near 1.

Solution: Let f :“ CR2 . Define g : R Ñ R by

#
3, if y ‰ 2
gpyq “
4, if y “ 2.
gp2q
Then g ˝ f “ g ˝ CR2 “ CR “ CR4 .

60. Let X, Y and Z be topological spaces. Let f : X 99K Y , and

let g : Y 99K Z. Let a P X, and let b P Y . Assume: f Ñ b near a.
Assume: g is continuous at b. Show: g ˝ f Ñ gpbq near a.
Proof: Want: @W P N pgpbqq, DU P N ˆ paq s.t., @x P dom rg ˝ f s,
rxPU s ñ r pg ˝ f qpxq P W s.
Let W P N pgpbqq be given. Want: DU P N ˆ paq s.t., @x P dom rg ˝ f s,
rxPU s ñ r pg ˝ f qpxq P W s.
Since g is continuous at b and since W P N pgpbqq, choose V P N pbq
s.t., @y P dom rgs, we have: r y P V s ñ r gpyq P W s. Since f Ñ b
near a and since V P N pbq, choose U P N ˆ paq s.t., @x P dom rf s, we
have: r x P U s ñ r f pxq P V s. We wish to show: @x P dom rg ˝ f s,
rxPU s ñ r pg ˝ f qpxq P W s.
Let x P dom rg ˝ f s be given. We wish to show:
rxPU s ñ r pg ˝ f qpxq P W s.
Assume x P U . We wish to show: pg ˝ f qpxq P W .
Since x P dom rg ˝ f s, we get x P dom rf s and f pxq P dom rgs. Since
x P dom rf s and since x P U , by choice of U , we have f pxq P V . Let
y :“ f pxq. Since y “ f pxq P dom rgs and since y “ f pxq P V , by choice
of V , we have gpyq P W . Then pg ˝ f qpxq “ gpf pxqq “ gpyq P W . QED

Homework 11: Due on Tuesday 21 November

51. Let Y and Z be topological spaces, Y0 Ď Y , Z0 Ď Z, f : Y0 99K Z0 ,

a P Y0 , b P Z0 . Assume that f Ñ b in Z0 near a in Y0 . Show that f Ñ b
in Z near a in Y .
Proof: We wish to show: @V P NZ pbq, DU P NYˆ paq s.t. f˚ pU q Ď V . Let
V P NZ pbq be given. We wish to show: DU P NYˆ paq s.t. f˚ pU q Ď V .
Let V0 :“ V X Z0 . Then, by restriction, V0 P NZ0 pbq. So, since
f Ñ b in Z0 near a in Y0 , choose U0 P NYˆ0 paq s.t. f˚ pU0 q Ď V0 . Then,
by extension, choose U P NYˆ paq s.t. U X Y0 “ U0 . We wish to prove:
f˚ pU q Ď V . We wish to prove: @x P dom rf s,
rxPU s ñ r f pxq P V s.
Let x P dom rf s be given. We wish to prove:
rxPU s ñ r f pxq P V s.
Assume x P U . We wish to prove: f pxq P V .
Since f : Y0 99K Z0 , it follows that dom rf s Ď Y0 . We have x P U
and x P dom rf s Ď Y0 , so x P U X Y0 . So, since U X Y0 “ U0 , we get
x P U0 . Since x P dom rf s and x P U0 , it follows that f pxq P f˚ pU0 q.
Then f pxq P f˚ pU0 q Ď V0 “ V X Z0 Ď V , as desired. QED
52. Let f, g : R˚ 99K R˚ , a P R. Assume that f Ñ 8 in R˚ near a
in R˚ and that g Ñ 8 in R˚ near a in R˚ . Show that f ` g Ñ 8 in R˚
near a in R˚ .
Proof: We wish to show: @M P R, Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x P dom rf ` gs,

r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ s ñ r pf ` gqpxq ą M s.

Let M P R be given. We wish to show: Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x P dom rf ` gs,

r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ s ñ r pf ` gqpxq ą M s.

Since f Ñ 8 in R˚ near a in R˚ , choose β ą 0 s.t., @x P dom rf s,

r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă β s ñ r f pxq ą M {2 s.

Since g Ñ 8 in R˚ near a in R˚ , choose γ ą 0 s.t., @x P dom rgs,

r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă γ s ñ r gpxq ą M {2 s.

Let δ :“ mintβ, γu. Then δ ą 0, and we wish to show: @x P dom rf `gs,

r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ s ñ r pf ` gqpxq ą M s.

Let x P dom rf ` gs be given. We wish to show:

r 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ s ñ r pf ` gqpxq ą M s.

Assume 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ. We wish to show: pf ` gqpxq ą M .

Since x P dom rf ` gs Ď dom rf s and 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ď β, we get
f pxq ą M {2. Since x P dom rf ` gs Ď dom rgs and 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ď γ,
we get gpxq ą M {2. Then

pf ` gqpxq “ rf pxqs ` rgpxqs ą rM {2s ` rM {2s “ M,

as desired. QED

53. Find functions f, g, h : R Ñ R such that

(1) f Ñ 8 in R˚ near 8 in R˚ ,
(2) g Ñ 8 in R˚ near 8 in R˚ ,
(3) h Ñ 0 in R˚ near 8 in R˚ ,
(4) f h Ñ 8 in R˚ near 8 in R˚ and
(5) gh Ñ 0 in R˚ near 8 in R˚ .
Solution: Let f, g, h : R Ñ R be defined by
f pxq “ x3 ,
gpxq “ x and
hpxq “ 1{px2 ` 1q.

54. Let s P pR˚ qN , and assume that s1 ď s2 ď s3 ď ¨ ¨ ¨ . Define

z :“ supts1 , s2 , s3 , . . .u, and assume that z “ 8. Show: s‚ Ñ z in R˚ .
Proof: We wish to show: s‚ Ñ 8 in R˚ . We wish to show: @M P R,
DK P N s.t., @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r xj ą M s.
Let A :“ ts1 , s2 , . . .u. Then z “ sup A. We have
M ă 8 “ z “ sup A “ minpUBpAqq,
so M R UBpAq. Then NOTpA ď M q. Choose c P A such that c ą M .
Since c P A “ ts1 , s2 , . . .u, choose K P N such that c “ sK . We wish
to show: @j P N,
rjěK s ñ r sj ą M s.
Let j P N be given. We wish to show:
rjěK s ñ r sj ą M s.
Assume j ě K. We wish to show: sj ą M .
Claim: @i P N, [ sK`i´1 ě sK ]. Proof of claim: For all i P N, let
Pi :“ r sK`i´1 ě sK s. We wish to show: @i P N, Pi . We have
sK`1´1 “ sK ě sK .
Then P1 . By the PMI, we wish to show: @i P N, [ Pi ñ Pi`1 ]. Let
i P N be given. We wish to show: Pi ñ Pi`1 . Assume Pi . We wish
to show: Pi`1 . We know: sK`i´1 ě sK . We wish to show: sK`i ě sK .
By hypothesis, sK`i ě sK`i´1 . Then sK`i ě sK`i´1 ě sK , as de-
sired. End of proof of claim.
Since j P N and K P N and j ě K, it follows that j ´ K P N0 , so
j ´ K ` 1 P N. Replacing i by j ´ K ` 1 in the claim, we get sj ě sK .
Then sj ě sK “ c ą M , as desired. QED

55. Find s, t, σ, τ P RN such that

(1) @j P N, [ ( σj ‰ 0 ‰ τj ) and ( σj ` τj ‰ 0 ) ],
 (2) ps{σq‚ Ñ 1 in R,
(3) pt{τ q‚ Ñ 1 in R and
(4) pps ` tq{pσ ` τ qq‚ Ñ 2 in R.

Solution: Let s, t, σ, τ P RN be defined by

sj “ j ` 2,
tj “ ´j,
σj “ j ` 1 and
τj “ ´j.

Homework 10: Due on Tuesday 14 November

46. Let Z be a topological space, let W be an open subset of Z and

let S Ď W . Show: ( S is open in Z ) ô ( S is open in W ).
Proof: Proof of ñ: Assume: S is open in Z. Want: S is open in W .
Since S is open in Z, by restriction, we know that S X W is open
in W . Since S Ď W , it follows that S X W “ S. Then S is open in W ,
as desired. End of proof of ñ.
Proof of ð: Assume: S is open in W . Want: S is open in Z.
Since S is open in W , by extension, choose an open subset T of Z
such that S “ T X W . Since T and W are both open in Z, it follows
that T X W is open in Z. So, since S “ T X W , we conclude that S is
open in Z, as desired. End of proof of ð. QED

47. Let Z be a topological space, let C be a closed subset of Z and let

S Ď C. Show: ( S is closed in Z ) ô ( S is closed in C ).
Proof: Proof of ñ: Assume: S is closed in Z. Want: S is closed in C.
Since S is closed in Z, by restriction, we know that S X C is closed
in C. Since S Ď C, it follows that S X C “ S. Then S is closed in C,
as desired. End of proof of ñ.
Proof of ð: Assume: S is closed in C. Want: S is closed in Z.
Since S is closed in C, by extension, choose a closed subset T of Z
such that S “ T X C. Since T and C are both closed in Z, it follows
that T X C is closed in Z. So, since S “ T X C, we conclude that S is
closed in Z, as desired. End of proof of ð. QED
48. Let Z be a topological space, C :“ tclosed subsets of Zu. Show:
xCyZX “ C “ xCyfin Y .

Proof: For all Q Ď Z, let Q1 :“ ZzQ. Let T :“ topen subsets of Zu.

We wish to show:
(1) xCyZX “ C and
(2) C “ xCyfin Y .
Proof of (1): By the superset property, C Ď xCyZX . It remains to show
that xCyZX Ď C. We wish to show: @S P xCyZX , S P C. Let S P xCyZX be
given. We wish to show that S P C. That is, we wish to show: S is
closed in Z. !Ş )
Z
Since S P xCyZX “ xCyX Y tZu “ A | A Ď C , choose A Ď C such
that S “ Z A. Let A˚ :“ tB 1 | B P Au.
Ş

Claim: A˚ Ď T . Proof of claim: We wish to show: @U P A˚ , U P T .

Let U P A˚ be given. We wish to show: U P T .
Since U P A˚ , by definition of A˚ , choose B P A such that U “ B 1 .
We have B P A Ď C, so B is closed in Z. Then B 1 is open in Z. So,
since U “ B 1 , we see that U is open in Z. Then U P T , as desired.
End of proof of claim. ´Ş ¯1
Ť ˚ Z
By De Morgan’s Laws, A “ A . By the claim, A˚ Ď T ,
Ť ˚
and so A P xT yY . Since T is a topology, we get xT yY “ T . Then
´č ¯1 ď
Z
S1 “ A “ A˚ P xT yY “ T .
Then S 1 is open in Z. Then pS 1 q1 is closed in Z. So, since pS 1 q1 “ S,
we see that S is closed in Z, as desired. End of proof of (1).
Proof of (2): By the superset property, C Ď xCyfin Y . It remains
to show that xCyfin Y Ď C. We wish to show: @S P xCyfin Y , S P C. Let
S P xCyfin Y be given. We wish to show that S P C. That is, we wish
to show: S is closed in Z.
Ť
Since S P xCyfin Y “ t A | pA Ď Cq&p#A ă 8qu, choose A Ď C
Ť
such that S “ A and such that #A ă 8. Let A˚ :“ tB 1 | B P Au.
The map B ÞÑ B 1 : A Ñ A˚ is a bijection onto A˚ , so #A “ #A˚ .
Since #A˚ “ #A ă 8, we get #A˚ ă 8.
Claim: A˚ Ď T . Proof of claim: We wish to show: @U P A˚ , U P T .
Let U P A˚ be given. We wish to show: U P T .
Since U P A˚ , by definition of A˚ , choose B P A such that U “ B 1 .
We have B P A Ď C, so B is closed in Z. Then B 1 is open in Z. So,
since U “ B 1 , we see that U is open in Z. Then U P T , as desired.
End of proof of claim.
By De Morgan’s Laws, Z A˚ “ p Aq1 . By the claim, A˚ Ď T ,
Ş Ť

and so, as #A˚ ă 8, we see that Z A˚ P xT yfin X Y tZu. Then

Ş
ŞZ ˚
A P xT yfin X Y tZu “ xT yZfin X . As T is a topology, xT yfin X “ T .
Then xT yZfin X “ xT yfin X Y tZu “ T . Then
´ď ¯1 č
Z ˚
S1 “ A “ A P xT yZfin X “ T .

Then S 1 is open in Z. Then pS 1 q1 is closed in Z. So, since pS 1 q1 “ S,

we see that S is closed in Z, as desired. End of proof of (2). QED

49. Let Z be a topological space, let Z0 be an open subset of Z and

let p P Z0 . Let B0 be a neighborhood base at p in Z0 . Show that B0 is
a neighborhood base at p in Z.
Proof: Since B0 is a neighborhood base at p in Z0 , we know:
(A) B0 Ď NZ0 ppq and
(B) @V0 P NZ0 ppq, DU P B0 s.t. U Ď V0 .
We wish to show:
(1) B0 Ď NZ ppq and
(2) @V P NZ ppq, DU P B0 s.t. U Ď V .
Proof of (1): We wish to show: @U P B0 , U P NZ ppq Let U P B0 be
given. We wish to prove: U P NZ ppq.
Since U P B0 , by (A), we see that U P NZ0 ppq. So, by definition
of neighborhood, choose an open set S in Z0 such that p P S Ď U .
By HW#46 (with W replaced by Z0 ), we see that S is open in Z. So,
since p P S Ď U , it follows that U is an open neighborhood of p in Z.
Then U P NZ ppq, as desired. End of proof of (1).
Proof of (2): Given V P NZ ppq. Want: DU P B0 s.t. U Ď V .
Since V P NZ ppq, by restriction, we have V X Z0 P NZ0 ppq. Let
V0 :“ V X Z0 . Then V0 P NZ0 ppq. Then, by (B), choose U P B0
s.t. U Ď V0 . We wish to show: U Ď V .
We have U Ď V0 “ V X Z0 Ď V . End of proof of (2). QED

50. Show that B8 is a neighborhood base at 8 in R˚ .

Proof: We wish to show:
(1) B8 Ď NR˚ p8q and
 (2) @W P NR˚ p8q, DU P B8 s.t. U Ď W .

Proof of (1): We wish to show: @U P B8 , U P NR˚ p8q. Let U P B8

be given. We wish to prove: U P NR˚ p8q.
Choose M P R s.t. U “ pM, 8s. Then 8 P pM, 8s “ U . By the
superset property, B˚ Ď xB˚ yY Then U P B8 Ď B˚ Ď xB˚ yY “ T˚ .
Then U is open in R˚ . Since 8 P U and since U is open in R˚ , it
follows, from Remark 17.4, that U is a neighborhood of 8 in R˚ . That
is, we have U P NR˚ p8q, as desired. End of proof of (1).
Proof of (2): Given W P NR˚ p8q. Want: DU P B8 s.t. U Ď W .
Since W P NR˚ p8q, by definition of neighborhood, choose V P T˚
such that 8 P V Ď W . We have V P T˚ “ xB˚ yY . Since 8 P V P xB˚ yY ,
by the quantified equivalence for union-closure, choose U P B˚ such that
8 P U Ď V . Then U Ď V Ď W , and it remains to show that U P B8 .
For all A P B´8 YBR , we have 8 R A. So, since 8 P U , it follows that
U R B´8 YBR . Then U P B˚ zpB´8 YBR q. We have B˚ “ B´8 YBR YB8 ,
so B˚ zpB´8 Y BR q Ď B8 . Then U P B˚ zpB´8 Y BR q Ď B8 , as desired.
End of proof of (2). QED

Homework 9: Due on Tuesday 7 November

41. Let pX, dq be a metric space and let p, q P X. Assume p ‰ q. Show:

DU P Bppq, DV P Bpqq s.t. U X V “ H.
Proof: Let r :“ r1{2srdpx, yqs. Let U :“ Bpp, rq and V :“ Bpq, rq.
Then U P Bppq and V P Bpqq. We wish to show: U X V “ H. Assume
U X V ‰ H. We aim for a contradiction.
Since U X V ‰ H, choose w P U X V . Then w P U and w P V . Since
w P U “ Bpp, rq, we get dpp, wq ă r. Since w P V “ Bpq, rq, we get
dpq, wq ă r. Then dpw, qq “ dpq, wq ă r By definition of r, we have
2r “ dpx, yq. Then 2r “ dpx, yq ď rdpp, wqs ` rdpw, qqs ă r ` r “ 2r,
so 2r ă 2r, so 2r ‰ 2r. However, 2r “ 2r. Contradiction. QED

42. Let X be a topological space, and let W Ď X. Assume that:

@q P W, DV P NX pqq s.t. V Ď W . Show that W is open in X.
Proof: Let T :“ topen subsets of Xu. We wish to show that W P T .
Since xT yY “ T , it suffices to show that W P xT yY . By the quantified
equivalance for x‚yY , we wish to show: @q P W , DU P T s.t. q P U Ď W .
Let q P W be given. we wish to show: DU P T s.t. q P U Ď W .
 Since q P W , by assumption, choose V P NX pqq s.t. V Ď W . By def-
inition of Nx pqq, V is a neighborhood of q in X. By definition of neigh-
borhood, choose U P T s.t. q P U Ď V . We wish to show: U Ď W .
We have U Ď V Ď W , as desired. QED

43. Let S and T be topologies. Let R :“ tU ˆ V | U P S, V P T u.

Show: xRyfin X “ R.
Proof: By Proposition 15.6, we wish to show: @W, W P R, W XW 1 P R.
Let W, W P R be given. We wish to show: W X W 1 P R.
Since W, W 1 P R, choose U, U 1 P S and V, V 1 P T such that
W “U ˆV and W 1 “ U 1 ˆ V 1.
Since U, U 1 P S and since xSyfin X “ S, we get U X U 1 P S. Since
V, V 1 P T and since xT yfin X “ T , we get V X V 1 P T . Since U X U 1 P S
and V X V 1 P T , by definition of R, we have pU X U 1 q ˆ pV X V 1 q P R.
Then W X W 1 “ pU ˆ V q X pU 1 ˆ V 1 q “ pU X U 1 q ˆ pV X V 1 q P R. QED

44. Show that N is discrete.

Proof: By Theorem 19.5, we wish to show: @j P N, tju is open in N.
Let j P N be given. We wish to show: tju is open in N. That is, we
wish to show: tju P TN . We have TN “ pT˚ qN “ ppT˚ qR qN “ pTR qN .
We therefore wish to show: tju P pTR qN . So, by definition of pTR qN , we
wish to show: DU P TR s.t. tju “ U X N.
Let r :“ 1{2, a :“ j ´ r, b :“ j ` r. Let U be the interval pa, bq.
Then U “ Bpj, rq P BR Ď xBR yY “ TR . We wish to show: tju “ U X N.
We have j ´ r ă j ă j ` r, so a ă j ă b, so j P pa, bq. So, since
U “ pa, bq, we get j P U . So, since j P N, we get j P U X N. Then
tju Ď U X N. It remains to show: U X N Ď tju. We wish to show:
@i P U X N, i P tju. Let i P U X N be given. We wish to show: i P tju.
We wish to show i “ j. Assume i ‰ j. We aim for a contradiction.
Since i P U X N, we see that i P U and that i P N. Since i, j P N
and since i ‰ j, it follows that |i ´ j| ě 1. We have i P U “ Bpj, rq, so
|i ´ j| ă r. Then 1{2 “ r ą |i ´ j| ě 1, so 1{2 ě 1. However, we also
know: NOT(1{2 ě 1). Contradiction. QED

45. Let N˚ :“ N Y t8u. Show that N˚ is NOT discrete.

Proof: By Theorem 19.5, we wish to show: Dj P N˚ , tju is not open
in N˚ . Let j :“ 8. Then j P N˚ , and we wish to show: tju is not open
in N˚ . That is, we wish to show: tju R TN˚ . That is, we wish to show:
t8u R TN˚ . Assume t8u P TN˚ . We aim for a contradiction.
Since t8u P TN˚ “ pT˚ qN˚ , by definition of pT˚ qN˚ , choose V P T˚
such that t8u “ V X N˚ . We have V P T˚ “ xB˚ yY . We also have
8 P t8u “ V X N˚ Ď V . Then 8 P V P xB˚ yY . So, by the quantified
equivalance for x‚yY , choose U P B˚ such that 8 P U Ď V . Since
U Ď V , we get U X N˚ Ď V X N˚ . Recall that V X N˚ “ t8u. Then
U X N˚ Ď t8u. For all B P B´8 Y BR , we have 8 R B. So, since 8 P U ,
we see that U R B´8 Y BR . So, since U P B˚ “ B´8 Y BR Y B8 , we
see that U P B8 . Then, by definition of B8 , choose M P R such that
U “ pM, 8s. By the Archimedean Principle, choose k P N such that
k ą M . Then k P pM, 8s “ U . Since k P U and since k P N Ď N˚ ,
we get k P U X N˚ . Then k P U X N˚ Ď t8u. Then k “ 8. Then
8 “ k P N Ď R. However, 8 R R. Contradiction. QED

Homework 8: Due on Tuesday 31 October

36. For all p P r1, 8q, let | ‚ |p be the p-norm on R2 , defined by

|px, yq|p “ r |x|p ` |y|p s1{p .

Let | ‚ |8 be the 8-norm on R2 , defined by |px, yq|8 “ maxt|x|, |y|u.

Graph the unit spheres S|‚|2 , S|‚|4 , S|‚|6 , S|‚|8 .
Solution: We did this problem in class.

37. Let pV, | ‚ |q be a normed vector space. Let d be the standard

metric on R, defined by dpx, yq “ |x ´ y|. Show, for all x, y P V , that
dp|x|, |y|q ď d|‚| px, yq.
Proof: Let x, y P V be given. We wish to prove: dp|x|, |y|q ď d|‚| px, yq.
Since |x| “ |x ´ y ` y| ď |x ´ y| ` |y|, we get |x| ´ |y| ď |x ´ y|. Then
|x| ´ |y| ď |x ´ y| “ d|‚| px, yq. Since |y| “ |y ´ x ` x| ď |y ´ x| ` |x|, we
get |y| ´ |x| ď |y ´ x|. Then |y| ´ |x| ď |y ´ x| “ d|‚| py, xq “ d|‚| px, yq.
Since |x| ´ |y| ď d|‚| px, yq and |y| ´ |x| ď d|‚| px, yq, it follows that
maxt |x| ´ |y| , |y| ´ |x| u ď d|‚| px, yq.
We have dp|x|, |y|q “ | |x| ´ |y| | “ maxt |x| ´ |y| , |y| ´ |x| u. Then
dp|x|, |y|q “ maxt |x| ´ |y| , |y| ´ |x| u ď d|‚| px, yq, as desired. QED
38. Let pX, dq be a metric space, let q P X and let s ą 0. Let
B :“ Bpq, sq. Let p P B and let r :“ s ´ rdpp, qqs. Show that r ą 0 and
that Bpp, rq Ď B.
Proof: Since p P B “ Bpq, sq, it follows that dpp, qq ă s, and so
s ´ rdpp, qqs ą 0. Then r “ s ´ rdpp, qqs ą 0. It remains to show:
Bpp, rq Ď B. We wish to show: @z P Bpp, rq, z P B. Let z P Bpp, rq be
given. We wish to show: z P B.
Since z P Bpp, rq, we get dpz, pq ă r. By the triangle inequality,
dpz, qq ď rdpz, pqs ` rdpp, qqs. We have dpz, pq ă r “ s ´ rdpp, qqs, so
rdpz, pqs ` rdpp, qqs ă s. Then dpz, qq ď rdpz, pqs ` rdpp, qqs ă s, so
z P Bpq, sq. Then z P Bpq, sq “ B. QED

39. Let pX, dq be a metric space, let p P X and let U, V P Bppq. Show:
( U Ď V ) or ( V Ď U ).
Proof: Choose r ą 0 such that U “ Bpp, rq. Choose s ą 0 such that
V “ Bpp, sq. Either r ď s or s ď r.
Case 1: r ď s. Proof in Case 1: We wish to show: U Ď V . We wish
to show: @q P U, q P V . Let q P U be given. We wish to show: q P V .
We have q P U “ Bpp, rq, so dpp, qq ă r. Then dpp, qq ă r ď s, so
q P Bpp, sq. Then q P Bpp, sq “ V . End of proof in Case 1.
Case 2: s ď r. Proof in Case 2: We wish to show: V Ď U . We wish
to show: @q P V, q P U . Let q P V be given. We wish to show: q P U .
We have q P V “ Bpp, sq, so dpp, qq ă s. Then dpp, qq ă s ď r, so
q P Bpp, rq. Then q P Bpp, rq “ U . End of proof in Case 2. QED

40. Let R and S be sets of sets. Assume: @X P R, DY P S s.t. X Ď Y .

Ť Ť
Show: R Ď S.
Ť Ť Ť
Proof: We wish to show: @z P R, z P S. Let z P R be given.
Ť
We wish to show: z P S.
Ť
Since z P R, choose X P R such that z P X. By hypothesis,
Ť
choose Y P S such that X Ď Y . Since Y P S, it follows that Y Ď S.
Ť
Then z P X Ď Y Ď S, as desired. QED

Homework 7: Due on Tuesday 24 October

31. Let V :“ R3 and let

ε1 :“ p1, 0, 0q, ε2 :“ p0, 1, 0q, ε3 :“ p0, 0, 1q.
Show ε3 R xtε1 , ε2 uylin .
Proof: Assume ε3 P xtε1 , ε2 uylin . We aim for a contradiction.
Since ε3 P xtε1 , ε2 uylin , choose k P N, choose a1 , . . . , ak P R and
choose x1 , . . . , xk P tε1 , ε2 u such that ε3 “ a1 x1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ak xk . For
all j P t1, . . . , ku, pxj q3 P tpε1 q3 , pε2 q3 u “ t0u, so pxj q3 “ 0. Then

1 “ pε3 q3 “ pa1 x1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ak xk q3
“ rpax1 q3 s ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` rpaxk q3 s
“ a1 ¨ rpx1 q3 s ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ak ¨ rpxk q3 s
“ a1 ¨ 0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ak ¨ 0 “ 0,

so 1 “ 0. However, we also have 1 ‰ 0. Contradiction. QED

32. Let V be a vector space and let S Ď V . Show that xSylin is a

subspace of V .
Proof: Let U :“ xSylin . We wish to show that U is a subspace of V .
Since 0V P xSylin “ U , it follows that U ‰ H. It remains to show
that U Ď V and that xU ylin “ U .
Since S Ď V , it follows, by monotonicity, that xSylin Ď xV ylin . Since
V is a subspace of V , xV ylin “ V . Then U “ xSylin Ď xV ylin “ V . It
remains to show: xU ylin “ U .
By idempotence, we have xxSylin ylin “ xSylin . It follows that
xU ylin “ xxSylin ylin “ xSylin “ U , as desired. QED

33. Let V be a vector space, let S Ď V and let x P S. Assume that

x P xSztxuylin . Show that xSylin “ xSztxuylin .
Proof: As Sztxu Ď S, by monotonicity, we get xSztxuylin Ď xSylin .
It remains to show: xSylin Ď xSztxuylin . By definition of Ď, we wish
to show: @z P xSylin , z P xSztxuylin . Let z P xSylin be given. We
want: z P xSztxuylin . Let U :“ xSztxuylin . We wish to prove: z P U .
Since z P xSylin , choose k P N, choose a1 , . . . , ak P R and choose
y1 , . . . , yk P S such that z “ a1 y1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ak yk . Let M :“ t1, . . . , ku.
Let L :“ tj P M | yj “ xu. Let

ÿ ÿ
p :“ paj yj q and q :“ paj yj q.
jPL jPM zL
 ÿ
Then p ` q “ paj yj q “ a1 y1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ak yk “ z. By HW#32 (with
jPM
S replaced by Sztxu), we see that U is a subspace of V . So, since
p ` q “ z, it suffices to show: ( p P U ) and ( q P U ).
ÿFor all y P M zL, we have yj P S and yj ‰ x, so yj P Sztxu. Then
paj yj q P xSztxuylin . Then
jPM zL

ÿ
q “ paj yj q P xSztxuylin “ U.
jPM zL

It remains to
ÿshow p P U .
Let b :“ aj . Recall that, by hypothesis, we have x P xSztxuylin .
jPL
Then x P xSztxuylin “ U . As x P U and as U is a subspace of V , we
get bx P U . For all j P L, we have yj “ x, and so aj yj “ aj x. Then
˜ ¸
ÿ ÿ ÿ
bx “ aj x “ paj xq “ paj yj q “ p.
jPL jPL jPL

Then p “ bx P U , as desired. QED

34. Show that tp1, 0, 0q, p0, 1, 0qu is linearly independent in R3 .

Proof: Let v :“ p1, 0, 0q, w :“ p0, 1, 0q. We wish to show that tv, wu is
linearly independent in R3 .
Recall, from Definition 11.9, that 03 “ 0R3 . Then 03 “ p0, 0, 0q. By
Fact 13.6 (with k replaced by 2, x1 by v, x2 by w, c1 by a, and c2 by b),
we wish to prove: @a, b P R,

r av ` bw “ 03 s ñ r a “ b “ 0 s.

Let a, b P R be given. We wish to prove:

r av ` bw “ 03 s ñ r a “ b “ 0 s.

Assume that av ` bw “ 03 . We wish to prove a “ b “ 0.

We have pa, b, 0q “ a‚p1, 0, 0q`b‚p0, 1, 0q “ av `bw “ 03 “ p0, 0, 0q.
Then a “ 0 and b “ 0 and 0 “ 0. Then a “ b “ 0. QED

35. Find two bases B and C of R3 such that B X C “ H.

Solution: Let

B :“ t p1, 0, 0q , p0, 1, 0q , p0, 0, 1q u and

C :“ t p2, 0, 0q , p0, 2, 0q , p0, 0, 2q u.

Homework 6: Due on Tuesday 17 October

26. Let S be a set of sets and let X be a set. Assume X P xSyY . Show:
@p P X, DA P S s.t. p P A Ď X.
Proof: Let p P X be given. We wish to show: DA P S s.t. p P A Ď X.
Ť Ť
Since X P xSyY , choose R Ď S s.t. X “ R. Since p P X “ R,
choose A P R such that p P A. Then A P R Ď S. We wish to show
that p P A Ď X. Since p P A, we need only show that A Ď X.
Ť
We have A P R, so A Ď YR. Then A Ď R “ X, as desired. QED

27. Let S be a set of sets and let X be a set. Assume @p P X, DA P S

s.t. p P A Ď X. Show: X P xSyY .
Ť
Proof: We wish to show: DR Ď S s.t. R “ X.
Ť
Let R :“ tA P S | A Ď Xu. We wish to show: R “ X. By the
Ť
Axiom of Extensionality, we wish to show: @p, rpp P Rq ô pp P Xqs.
Ť
Let p be given. We wish to show: pp P Rq ô pp P Xqs.
Ť
Proof of ñ: Assume p P R. We wish to show that p P X.
Ť
Since p P R, choose A P R s.t. p P A. By definition of R, since
A P R, it follows that A Ď X. Then p P A Ď X. End of proof of ñ.
Ť
Proof of ð: Assume p P X. We wish to show that p P R.
By hypothesis, choose A P S such that p P A Ď X. Since A P S
and A Ď X, by definition of R, we have A P R, and it follows that
Ť Ť
A Ď R. Then p P A Ď R. End of proof of ð. QED

28. Let V be a vector space and let x, y, z P V . Assume x ` z “ y ` z.

Show: x “ y.
Proof: As x`z “ y`z, we have px`zq`p´zq “ py`zq`p´zq. So, by (4)
of Definition 11.7, x ` pz ` p´zqq “ y ` pz ` p´zqq. By Remark 11.12,
z ` p´zq “ 0V . Then x ` 0V “ y ` 0V . Since 0V P IDSV` , we get
x ` 0V “ x and y ` 0V “ y. Then x “ x ` 0V “ y ` 0V “ y. QED

29. Let V be a vector space and let a P R. Show: a ‚ 0V “ 0V .

Proof: Let x :“ a ‚ 0V . Let y :“ 0V . We wish to show that x “ y.
Since 0V P IDSV` , we get 0V `0V “ 0V and 0V `z “ z. Let z :“ a‚0V .
Then x ` z “ pa ‚ 0V q ` pa ‚ 0V q. By (7) of Definition 11.7, we have
pa ‚ 0V q ` pa ‚ 0V q “ a ‚ p0V ` 0V q. Then

x ` z “ pa ‚ 0V q ` pa ‚ 0V q “ a ‚ p0V ` 0V q
“ a ‚ 0V “ z “ 0V ` z “ y ` z.

Then x ` z “ y ` z, so by HW#28, x “ y, as desired. QED

30. Let V be a vector space and let x P V . Show: x ´ 0V “ x.

Proof: From our notational conventions, we have x ´ 0V “ x ` p´0V q
and ´0V “ p´1q ‚ 0V . By HW#29, p´1q ‚ 0V “ 0V . Since 0V P IDSV` ,
we get x ` 0V “ x. Then

x ´ 0V “ x ` p´0V q “ x ` rp´1q ‚ 0V s “ x ` 0V “ x,

as desired. QED

Homework 5: Due on Tuesday 10 October

21. Using the Principle of Mathematical Induction, show: For all j P N,

jpj ` 1qp2j ` 1q
12 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` j 2 “ .
6

Proof: For all j P N, let

„ 
2 2 jpj ` 1qp2j ` 1q
Pj :“ 1 ` ¨¨¨ ` j “ .
6
We wish to show: @j P N, Pj .
Since
1p1 ` 1qp2 ¨ 1 ` 1q
12 “ ,
6
we conclude: P1 . By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, it suf-
fices to show: @j P N, ( Pj ñ Pj`1 ). Given j P N, want: Pj ñ Pj`1 .
Assume Pj . We wish to show: Pj`1 . We wish to show:

pj ` 1qppj ` 1q ` 1qp2pj ` 1q ` 1q
12 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` pj ` 1q2 “ .
6
 jpj ` 1qp2j ` 1q
Since Pj , we know: 12 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` j 2 “ . We have
6
12 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` pj ` 1q2 “ r12 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` j 2 s ` rpj ` 1q2 s
„ 
jpj ` 1qp2j ` 1q
“ ` rpj ` 1qpj ` 1qs
6
„  „ 
pj ` 1qp2j 2 ` jq pj ` 1qp6j ` 6q
“ `
6 6
2
pj ` 1qp2j ` j ` 6j ` 6q
“
6
2
pj ` 1qp2j ` 7j ` 6q
“
6
pj ` 1qpj ` 2qp2j ` 3q
“
6
pj ` 1qppj ` 1q ` 1qp2pj ` 1q ` 1q
“ ,
6
as desired. QED

22. Show: @ε ą 0, Dk P N s.t. 1{k ă ε.

Proof: Given ε ą 0, want: Dk P N s.t. 1{k ă ε.
By the Archimedean Property, choose k P N such that k ą 1{ε. We
wish to show: 1{k ă ε.
Since k ą 1{ε ą 0, it follows that 1{k ă 1{p1{εq. By properties
of division, 1{p1{εq “ ε. Then 1{k ă 1{p1{εq “ ε, as desired. QED

23. Show: @x, z P R,

r z´xą1 s ñ r Dy P Z s.t. x ă y ă z s.

Proof: Let x, z P R be given. We wish to show:

r z´xą1 s ñ r Dy P Z s.t. x ă y ă z s.
Assume z ´ x ą 1. We wish to show Dy P Z s.t. x ă y ă z.
By the Archimedean Property, choose k P N such that k ą 1 ´ x.
Then k ` x ą 1. Let S :“ tj P N | j ą k ` xu. Then S Ď N. By the
Archimedean Property, we have: S ‰ H. Let w :“ min S. By the
well-ordering of N, we see that: w ‰ /. Then, by definition of min,
we get: w P S X rLBpSqs. Then w P S and w P LBpSq. Since w P S,
by definition of S, we get w ą k ` x. Since w P LBpSq, we get w ď S.
That is, @j P S, w ď j. So, as w ą w ´ 1, we get w ´ 1 R S.
 Since w ą k ` x ą 1, we get w ‰ 1. We have w P S Ď N. Since
w P N and w ‰ 1, we get w ´ 1 P N. Since w ´ 1 P N and w ´ 1 R S,
by definition of S, we get NOTpw ´ 1 ą k ` xq. Then w ´ 1 ď k ` x.
Then w ď k ` x ` 1. Since z ´ x ą 1, we get z ą x ` 1, so x ` 1 ă z.
Then k ` x ` 1 ă k ` z. Since w ď k ` x ` 1 ă k ` z, we get w ă k ` z.
Since w ą k ` x, we get k ` x ă w. Then k ` x ă w ă k ` z.
Let y :“ w ´ k. Since w P N Ď Z and k P N Ď Z, it follows that
y P Z. We wish to show: x ă y ă z.
Since k ` x ă w ă k ` z, subtracting k, we get: x ă w ´ k ă z. So,
as y “ w ´ k, we get x ă y ă z, as desired. QED

24. Show: @x, z P R, @k P N,

„  „ 
1 Z
z´xą ñ Dy P s.t. x ă y ă z .
k k

Proof: Let x, z P R and k P N be given. We wish to show:

„  „ 
1 Z
z´xą ñ Dy P s.t. x ă y ă z .
k k
1 Z
Assume z ´ x ą . We wish to show Dy P s.t. x ă y ă z.
k k
Let a :“ kx and c :“ kz. Then x “ a{k and z “ c{k. Since
z ´ x ą 1{k, we get kz ´ kx ą 1. That is, c ´ a ą 1. So, by HW#23
(with x replaced by a, y by b and z by c), choose b P Z such that
b b Z b Z
a ă b ă c. Let y :“ . Since b P Z, we get P . Then y “ P ,
k k k k k
and we wish to show that x ă y ă z.
We have k P N Ď Rzt0u. So, dividing a ă b ă c by k, we get
a{k ă b{k ă c{k. So, since x “ a{k and y “ b{k and z “ c{k, we get
x ă y ă z, as desired. QED

25. Show: @x, z P R,

rxăz s ñ r Dy P Q s.t. x ă y ă z s.

Proof: Let ε :“ z´x. Since x ă z, it follows that z´x ą 0. Then ε ą 0.

By HW#22, choose k P N such that 1{k ă ε. Then 1{k ă ε “ z ´ x,
Z
so z ´ x ą 1{k. Then, by HW#24, choose y P such that x ă y ă z.
k
It remains to show that y P Q.
Z
We have y P Ď Q, so y P Q, as desired. QED
k
 Homework 4: Due on Tuesday 3 October

Z m Z
16. Let n P N. Define f : Z Ñ by f pmq “ . Show that f : Z ãÑą .
n n n
Proof: We wish to show that
(1) f is one-to-one and that
Z
(2) f is onto .
n
Proof of (1): We wish to show, for all j, k P Z, that
r f pjq “ f pkq s ñ r j “ k s.
Let j, k P Z be given. We wish to show that
r f pjq “ f pkq s ñ r j “ k s.
Assume that f pjq “ f pkq. We wish to show that j “ k.
We have
j k
“ f pjq “ f pkq “ ,
n n
so j{n “ k{n. Multiplying this equation by n, we get j “ k, as desired.
End of proof of (1).
Z
Proof of (2): We wish to show, for all y P , that Dm P Z such that
n
Z
f pmq “ y. Let y P be given. We wish to show: Dm P Z s.t. f pmq “ y.
n
Z
Since y P , it follows that ny P Z. Let m :“ ny. Then m P Z, and
n
we wish to show that f pmq “ y.
We have
m ny
f pmq “ “ “ y,
n n
as desired. End of proof of (2). QED

17. Let S be a set. Define Φ : t0, 1uS Ñ 2S by Φpf q “ f ˚ pt1uq. Show

that Φ : t0, 1uS ãÑą 2S .
Proof: We wish to show that
(1) Φ is one-to-one and that
S
(2) Φ is onto 2 .
Proof of (1): We wish to show, for all f, g P t0, 1uS , that
r Φpf q “ Φpgq s ñ r f “ g s.
Let f, g P t0, 1uS be given. We wish to show that

r Φpf q “ Φpgq s ñ r f “ g s.

Assume that Φpf q “ Φpgq. We wish to show that f “ g. We wish

to show, for all x P S, that f pxq “ gpxq. Let x P S be given. We wish
to show that f pxq “ gpxq.
Let A :“ Φpf q. Then, by definition of Φ, we have A “ f ˚ pt1uq.
Since A “ Φpf q “ Φpgq, by definition of Φ, we have A “ g ˚ pt1uq.
We have two cases:
(1A) x P A or
(1B) x R A.
Case 1A: We have x P A “ f ˚ pt1uq, so f pxq P t1u, so f pxq “ 1. Also,
x P A “ g ˚ pt1uq, so gpxq P t1u, so gpxq “ 1. Then f pxq “ 1 “ gpxq, as
desired. End of Case 1A.
Case 1B: We have x R A “ f ˚ pt1uq, so f pxq R t1u. Moreover,
x R A “ g ˚ pt1uq, so gpxq R t1u. As x P S and f, g : S Ñ t0, 1u, it follows
that f pxq, gpxq P t0, 1u. So, as f pxq, gpxq R t1u, we conclude that
f pxq, gpxq P t0, 1uzt1u. So, because t0, 1uzt1u “ t0u, it follows that
f pxq, gpxq P t0u. Then f pxq “ 0 and gpxq “ 0. Then f pxq “ 0 “ gpxq,
as desired. End of Case 1B. End of proof of (1).
Proof of (2): We wish to show, for all A P 2S , that Df P t0, 1uS such
that Φpf q “ A. Let A P 2S be given. We wish to show: Df P t0, 1uS
such that Φpf q “ A.
Let f :“ χSA . Then f P t0, 1uS , and we wish to show: Φpf q “ A.
That is, we wish to show f ˚ pt1uq “ A. By the Axiom of Extensionality,
we wish to show, for all x, that

r x P f ˚ pt1uq s ô r x P A s.

Let x be given. We wish to show that

r x P f ˚ pt1uq s ô r x P A s.

Proof of ñ: Assume that x P f ˚ pt1uq. We wish to show: x P A.

Because x P f ˚ pt1uq, we conclude that f pxq P t1u, and, therefore,
that f pxq “ 1. So, since f “ χSA , we get χSA pxq “ 1. Then, by definition
of χSA , it follows that x P A, as desired. End of proof of ñ.
Proof of ð: Assume that x P A. We wish to show: x P f ˚ pt1uq.
 Because x P A, it follows, from the definition of χSA , that χSA pxq “ 1.
So, since f “ χSA , we get f pxq “ 1. Then f pxq P t1u. Then x P f ˚ pt1uq,
as desired. End of proof of ð. End of proof of (2). QED

18. Let S be a set. Define f : S Ñ 2S by f pzq “ tzu. Show that

f : S ãÑ 2S .
Proof: We wish to show, for all y, z P S, that
r f pyq “ f pzq s ñ r y “ z s.
Let y, z P S be given. We wish to show that
r f pyq “ f pzq s ñ r y “ z s.
Assume that f pyq “ f pzq. We wish to show that y “ z.
We have tyu “ f pyq “ f pzq “ tzu, so tyu “ tzu. Then y P tyu “ tzu,
so y P tzu. Then y “ z, as desired. QED

19. Let the function f : r1, 8s Ñ r0, 1s be defined by f pxq “ 1{x. Show
that f : r1, 8s ãÑą r0, 1s.
Proof: We wish to show that
(1) f is one-to-one and that
(2) f is onto r0, 1s.
Proof of (1): We wish to show, for all w, x P r1, 8s, that
r f pwq “ f pxq s ñ r w “ x s.
Let w, x P r1, 8s be given. We wish to show that
r f pwq “ f pxq s ñ r w “ x s.
Assume that f pwq “ f pxq. We wish to show that w “ x.
We have two cases:
(1A) w “ 8 or
(1B) w ‰ 8.
Case 1A: We have 1{x “ f pxq “ f pwq “ 1{w “ 1{8 “ 0. Then
x R r1, 8q. So, since x P r1, 8s, we see that x P r1, 8szr1, 8q. So, since
r1, 8szr1, 8q “ t8u, we get x P t8u. Then x “ 8. So, since w “ 8,
we get w “ x, as desired. End of Case 1A.
Case 1B: Since w ‰ 8, we get w R t8u. So, since w P r1, 8s, we
conclude that w P r1, 8szt8u. So, since r1, 8szt8u “ r1, 8q, we get
w P r1, 8q. Then 1{w ‰ 0. So, since f pwq “ 1{w, we get f pwq ‰ 0.
So, since 1{x “ f pxq “ f pwq, we get 1{x ‰ 0. Then x ‰ 8, so
x R t8u. So, since x P r1, 8s, we conclude that x P r1, 8szt8u. So,
since r1, 8szt8u “ r1, 8q, we get x P r1, 8q.
Since w, x P r1, 8q, it follows that 1{p1{wq “ w and that 1{p1{xq “ x.
Then w “ 1{p1{wq “ 1{rf pwqs “ 1{rf pxqs “ 1{p1{xq “ x, as desired.
End of Case 1B. End of proof of (1).
Proof of (2): We wish to show, for all y P r0, 1s, that Dx P r1, 8s such
that f pxq “ y. Let y P r0, 1s be given. We wish to show: Dx P r1, 8s
s.t. f pxq “ y.
We have two cases:
(2A) y “ 0 or
(2B) y ‰ 0.
Case 2A: Let x “ 8. Then x P r1, 8s; we wish to show: f pxq “ y.
We have f pxq “ 1{x “ 1{8 “ 0 “ y, as desired. End of Case 2A.
Case 2B: Since y ‰ 0, we have y R t0u. So, since y P r0, 1s, we
get y P r0, 1szt0u. So since r0, 1szt0u “ p0, 1s, we get y P p0, 1s. Then
1{y P r1, 8q and 1{p1{yq “ y. Let x :“ 1{y. Then x P r1, 8q Ď r1, 8s,
and we wish to show: f pxq “ y.
We have f pxq “ 1{x “ 1{p1{yq “ y, as desired. End of Case 2B.
End of proof of (2). QED
Ť
20. Show that tr0, jq | j P Nu “ r0, 8q.
Proof: Define a sequence I‚ of intervals by Ij “ r0, jq. Let J :“ r0, 8q.
We wish to show I1 Y I2 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ “ J. By the Axiom of Extensionality,
we wish to show, for all x, that

r x P I1 Y I2 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ s ô r x P J s.

Let x be given. We wish to show that

r x P I1 Y I2 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ s ô r x P J s.

Proof of ñ: Assume x P I1 Y I2 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ . We wish to show: x P J.

Since x P I1 Y I2 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ , choose j P N such that x P Ij . Then
x P Ij “ r0, jq Ď r0, 8q “ J, as desired. End of proof of ñ.
Proof of ð: Assume x P J. We wish to show: x P I1 Y I2 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ .
That is, we wish to show: Dj P N such that x P Ij .
Since x P J “ r0, 8q Ď R, by the Archimedean Principle, choose
j P N such that x ă j. We wish to show: x P Ij .
 Since x P J “ r0, 8q, we conclude that x P R and that 0 ď x. Since
x P R and 0 ď x ă j, we get x P r0, jq. So, as Ij “ r0, jq, we get x P Ij ,
as desired. End of proof of ð. QED

Homework 3: Due on Tuesday 26 September

1
11. Define h : R 99K R by hpxq “ ` 2. Show
x´1
(1) dom rhs “ Rzt1u, and
(2) h is onto Rzt2u.

Proof:

Proof of (1): By the Axiom of Extensionality, we wish to show:

@x, r px P dom rhsq ô px P Rzt1uq s.

Let x be given. We wish to show: r px P dom rhsq ô px P Rzt1uq s.

Proof of ñ: Assume x P dom rhs. We wish to show: x P Rzt1u.
Since x P dom rhs and h : R 99K R, we conclude that x P R and that
hpxq P R. Then r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2 “ hpxq P R. Then r1{px ´ 1qs P R.
Then x ´ 1 ‰ 0. Then x ‰ 1. Then x R t1u. So, since x P R, we get
x P Rzt1u, as desired.
End of proof of ñ.
Proof of ð: Assume x P Rzt1u. We wish to show: x P dom rhs. That
is, we wish to show that hpxq ‰ /.
Since x P R, we have hpxq “ r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2. Since x P Rzt1u,
we see that x P R and x ‰ 1. Then x ´ 1 P R and x ´ 1 ‰ 0. Then
1{px´1q P R. Then r1{px´1qs`2 P R. Then hpxq “ r1{px´1qs`2 P R.
Then hpxq ‰ /, as desired.
End of proof of ð.
End of proof of (1).

Proof of (2): We wish to show: im rhs “ Rzt2u. By the Axiom of Ex-

tensionality, we wish to show:

@y, r py P im rhsq ô py P Rzt2uq s.

Let y be given. We wish to show: r py P im rhsq ô py P Rzt2uq s.

Proof of ñ: Assume y P im rhs. We wish to show: y P Rzt2u. We wish
to show: (y P R) and (y ‰ 2).
Since y P im rhs, choose x P dom rhs such that y “ hpxq. By (1), we
know that dom rhs “ Rzt1u. Since x P dom rhs “ Rzt1u, we see that
x P R and that x ‰ 1. Then x´1 P R and x´1 ‰ 0. Then 1{px´1q P R.
Then r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2 P R. Since x P R, we get hpxq “ r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2.
Then y “ hpxq “ r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2 P R. It remains to show: y ‰ 2.
By properties of division, 1{px ´ 1q ‰ 0. Then r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2 ‰ 2.
Then y “ hpxq “ r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2 ‰ 2, as desired.
End of proof of ñ.
Proof of ð: Assume y P Rzt2u. We wish to show: y P im rhs. We wish
to show: Dx P dom rhs s.t. hpxq “ y. By (1), we have dom rhs “ Rzt1u.
We wish to show: Dx P Rzt1u s.t. hpxq “ y.
Since y P Rzt2u, it follows that y P R and y ‰ 2. Then y ´ 2 P R
and y ´ 2 ‰ 0. Then 1{py ´ 2q P R. Then r1{py ´ 2qs ` 1 P R. Let
x :“ r1{py´2qs`1. Then x P R. By properties of division, 1{py´2q ‰ 0.
Then r1{py ´ 2qs ` 1 ‰ 1. Then x ‰ 1. Since x P R and x ‰ 1, we get
x P Rzt1u. We wish to prove: hpxq “ y.
Since x “ r1{py ´ 2qs ` 1, we get x ´ 1 “ 1{py ´ 2q. Since y ´ 2 P R
and y ´ 2 ‰ 0, we conclude that 1{r1{py ´ 2qs “ y ´ 2. It follows that
1{px ´ 1q “ 1{r1{py ´ 2qs “ y ´ 2. Then r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2 “ y. Since
x P R, we have hpxq “ r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2. Then hpxq “ r1{px ´ 1qs ` 2 “ y.
End of proof of ð.
End of proof of (2).

QED

12. Define a P RN by aj “ j 2 . Compute a4 , a0 , a4.7 and a/ .

Solution: a4 “ 16, a0 “ /, a4.7 “ /, a/ “ /.
?
13. Define g : R 99K R by gpxq “ x ` 1. Find g˚ pt0uq and g ˚ pt0uq.
Solution: We have

g˚ pt0uq “ tgpxq | x P t0uu

?
“ tgp0qu “ t 0 ` 1u “ t1u.
 ?
Note: @y P R, r p y “ 0q ô py “ 0q s. Then
g ˚ pt0uq “ tx P R | gpxq P t0uu
“ tx P R | gpxq “ 0u
?
“ tx P R | x ` 1 “ 0u
“ tx P R | x ` 1 “ 0u
“ tx P R | x “ ´1u “ t´1u.

14. Let A and B be sets, let f : A Ñ B and let g : B Ñ A. Assume

that g ˝ f “ idA . Show:
(1) f is 1-1 and
(2) g is onto A.

Proof: Claim: @t P A, gpf ptqq “ t. Proof of Claim: Let t P A be given.

We wish to show that gpf ptqq “ t.
Since g ˝ f “ idA , we conclude that pg ˝ f qptq “ idA ptq. We have
pg ˝ f qptq “ gpf ptqq. Also, since t P A, we have idA ptq “ t. Then
gpf ptqq “ pg ˝ f qptq “ idA ptq “ t, as desired. End of proof of Claim.
Proof of (1): We wish to show: @w, x P A,
r f pwq “ f pxq s ñ r w “ x s.
Let w, x P A be given. We wish to show:
r f pwq “ f pxq s ñ r w “ x s.
Assume that f pwq “ f pxq. We wish to show that w “ x.
Since f pwq “ f pxq, we conclude that gpf pwqq “ gpf pxqq. Since
w, x P A, by the Claim, we have gpf pwqq “ w and gpf pxqq “ x. Then
w “ gpf pwqq “ gpf pxqq “ x,
as desired. End of proof of (1).
Proof of (2): We wish to show: im rgs “ A. Since g : B Ñ A, it
follows that im rgs Ď A. We wish to show: A Ď im rgs. We wish to
show: @x P A, x P im rgs. Let x P A be given. We wish to show
x P im rgs. We wish to show Dy P B such that gpyq “ x.
Let y :“ f pxq. Since x P A and f : A Ñ B, it follows that f pxq P B.
Then y “ f pxq P B. We wish to show: gpyq “ x.
Since x P A, by the Claim, we have gpf pxqq “ x. Then
gpyq “ gpf pxqq “ x,
as desired. End of proof of (2). QED

15. Define f : R Ñ R by f pxq “ 3x ` 5. Show: for all y P R,

f ´1 pyq “ py ´ 5q{3.
Proof: Let y P R be given. We wish to show: f ´1 pyq “ py ´ 5q{3.
We have
f ´1 pyq “ ELTrf ˚ ptyuqs
“ ELTtx P R | f pxq P tyuu
“ ELTtx P R | f pxq “ yu
“ ELTtx P R | 3x ` 5 “ yu
“ ELTtx P R | x “ py ´ 5q{3u
“ ELTtpy ´ 5q{3u “ py ´ 5q{3,
as desired. QED

Homework 2: Due on Tuesday 19 September

6. Show: @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x, y P R,

r p2 ă x ă 2 ` δq & p3 ă y ă 3 ` δq s ñ r 6 ă xy ă 6 ` ε s.

Proof: Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x, y P R,

r p2 ă x ă 2 ` δq & p3 ă y ă 3 ` δq s ñ r 6 ă xy ă 6 ` ε s.
" c *
ε ε
Let δ :“ min , . Then δ ą 0, and we wish to show: @x, y P R,
10 2
r p2 ă x ă 2 ` δq & p3 ă y ă 3 ` δq s ñ r 6 ă xy ă 6 ` ε s.
Let x, y P R be given. We wish to show:
r p2 ă x ă 2 ` δq & p3 ă y ă 3 ` δq s ñ r 6 ă xy ă 6 ` ε s.
Assume both that 2 ă x ă 2 ` δ and that 3 ă y ă 3 ` δ. We wish to
show that 6 ă xy ă 6 ` ε.
Multiply together the two semipositive inequalities 2 ă x ă 2 ` δ
and 3 ă y ă 3 ` δ; this yields 6 ă xy ă 6 ` 5δ ` δ 2 . We wish to show:
6 ` 5δ ` δ 2 ď 6 ` ε. It suffices a
to show: 5δ ` δ 2 ď ε.
We have δ ď ε{10 and δ ď ε{2. Multiplying the first inequality
by the semipositive number 5, and squaring the second (semipositive)
inequality, we obtain 5δ ď ε{2 and δ 2 ď ε{2. Adding these last two
inequalities, we conclude that 5δ ` δ 2 ď ε, as desired. QED

7. Show: @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x, y P R,

rp2 ´ δ ă x ă 2 ` δq&p3 ´ δ ă y ă 3 ` δqs ñ r5 ´ ε ă x ` y ă 5 ` εs.

Proof: Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to show: Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x, y P R,

rp2 ´ δ ă x ă 2 ` δq&p3 ´ δ ă y ă 3 ` δqs ñ r5 ´ ε ă x ` y ă 5 ` εs.
Let δ :“ ε{2. Then δ ą 0, and we wish to show: @x, y P R,
rp2 ´ δ ă x ă 2 ` δq&p3 ´ δ ă y ă 3 ` δqs ñ r5 ´ ε ă x ` y ă 5 ` εs.
Let x, y P R be given. We wish to show:
rp2 ´ δ ă x ă 2 ` δq&p3 ´ δ ă y ă 3 ` δqs ñ r5 ´ ε ă x ` y ă 5 ` εs.
Assume both that 2 ´ δ ă x ă 2 ` δ and that 3 ´ δ ă y ă 3 ` δ. We
wish to show that 5 ´ ε ă x ` y ă 5 ` ε.
Adding 2 ´ δ ă x ă 2 ` δ and 3 ´ δ ă y ă 3 ` δ, we obtain
5 ´ 2δ ă x ` y ă 5 ` 2δ. So, since 2δ “ 2 ¨ pε{2q “ ε, we conclude that
5 ´ ε ă x ` y ă 5 ` ε, as desired. QED

8. Compute tx P Z | x2 ă 25u. That is, list all the elements in this set,
separate them by commas, and enclose the list in braces.
Solution: tx P Z | x2 ă 25u “ t´4, ´3, ´2, ´1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4u.

9. Compute t1, 2u Y t1, t1, 2uu. That is, list all the elements in this set,
separate them by commas, and enclose the list in braces. Note that
one of the elements is the set t1, 2u.
Solution: t1, 2u Y t1, t1, 2uu “ t1, 2, t1, 2uu.

10. For all n P N, let

" *
ˇ 1 1
An :“ xPRˇ ´ ăxă
n n
Ş
Let B :“ tA1 , A2 , A3 , . . .u. Using alternate notation,
B “ A1 X A2 X A3 X ¨ ¨ ¨ .
Compute B.
Solution: B “ t0u. QED
 Homework 1: Due on Tuesday 12 September

1. Let A and B be propositions. Show:

pA ô Bq ô p p A ñ B q & p B ñ A q q.

Proof: Let C :“ rA ô Bs, D :“ rA ñ Bs, E :“ rB ñ As. We wish to

show: C ô pD&Eq.
A B C D E D&E C ô pD&Eq
T T T T T T T
T F F F T F T
F T F T F F T
F F T T T T T
QED

2. Let A, B and C be propositions. Show:

r p A or B q ñ C s ô r p A ñ C q & p B ñ C q s.

Proof: Let D :“ rA or Bs, E :“ rA ñ Cs, F :“ rB ñ Cs. We wish to

show: rD ñ Cs ô rE&F s.
Let G :“ rD ñ Cs, H :“ rE&F s. We wish to show: G ô H.
A B C D E F G H GôH
T T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F F T
T F T T T T T T T
T F F T F T F F T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F T T F F F T
F F T F T T T T T
F F F F T T T T T
QED

3. Let P and Q be propositions. Show:

rP & pP ñ Qq s ñ Q.

Proof: Let R :“ rP ñ Qs. We wish to show: rP &Rs ñ Q.

 P Q R P &R rP &Rs ñ Q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
QED

4. Show: @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x P R,
r 0 ă x ă 4δ s ñ r x ` 2x2 ` 3x5 ă ε s.

Proof: Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to prove: Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x P R,

r 0 ă x ă 4δ s ñ r x ` 2x2 ` 3x5 ă ε s.
" c c *
ε 1 ε 15 ε
Let δ :“ min , , . We wish to prove: @x P R,
12 4 6 4 9
r 0 ă x ă 4δ s ñ r x ` 2x2 ` 3x5 ă ε s.
Let x P R be given. We wish to prove:
r 0 ă x ă 4δ s ñ r x ` 2x2 ` 3x5 ă ε s.
Assume 0 ă x ă 4δ. We wish to prove: x ` 2x2 ` 3x5 ă ε.
We have
„ c  „ c 
” εı ε1 15 ε
δď and δ ď and δ ď ,
12 64 4 9
so „ c  „ c 
” εı ε ε
4δ ď and 4δ ď and 4δ ď 5 ,
3 6 9
so „ c  „ c 
” εı ε ε
0ăxă and 0 ă x ă and 0 ă x ă 5 ,
3 6 9
so ” εı ” εı ” εı
0ăxă and 02 ă x2 ă and 05 ă x5 ă ,
3 6 9
so ” εı ”
2 εı ”
5 εı
0ăxă and 0 ă 2x ă and 0 ă 3x ă .
3 3 3
Adding these, we get
ε ε ε
0 ă x ` 2x2 ` 3x5 ă ` ` “ ε,
3 3 3
as desired. QED
5. Show: @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x P R,
r 2´δ ă x ă 2`δ s ñ r 15 ´ ε ă 7x ` 1 ă 15 ` ε s.

Proof: Let ε ą 0 be given. We wish to prove: Dδ ą 0 s.t., @x P R,

r 2 ´ δ ă x ă 2 ` δ s ñ r 15 ´ ε ă 7x ` 1 ă 15 ` ε s.
ε
Let δ :“ . We wish to prove: @x P R,
7
r 2 ´ δ ă x ă 2 ` δ s ñ r 15 ´ ε ă 7x ` 1 ă 15 ` ε s.
Let x P R be given. We wish to prove:
r 2´δ ăxă2`δ s ñ r 15 ´ ε ă 7x ` 1 ă 15 ` ε s.
Assume 2´δ ă x ă 2`δ. We wish to prove: 15´ε ă 7x`1 ă 15`ε.
Multiplying 7 by 2 ´ δ ă x ă 2 ` δ, we get 14 ´ 7δ ă 7x ă 14 ` 7δ.
So, since 7δ “ ε, we get 14 ´ ε ă 7x ă 14 ` ε.
Adding 1 to 14 ´ ε ă 7x ă 14 ` ε, we see that
15 ´ ε ă 7x ` 1 ă 15 ` ε,
as desired. QED