COURSE TITLE : MOULD THEORY -II 2.1.

2 Explain different types of blow moulding -Extrusion blow moulding,

COURSE CODE : Injection blow moulding and Stretch blow moulding
COURSE CATEGORY : 2.1.3 Explain about Perform and parison.
2.1.4 Sketch and Explain Rotation Moulding
PERIODS / WEEK :4
MODULE III
PERIODS / SEMESTER : 60 3.1.0 Understand Extrusion Moulding And Thermofoaming
CREDIT :4 3.1.1 Sketch and explain working of Extrusion Moulding And Thermofoaming.
TIME SCHEDULE 3.1.2 Explain thermofoaming and Vacuum forming.
MODULE TOPIC PERIODS
1 Compression mould 15 MODULE IV
Transfer mould 4.1.0 Understand about Laminations and Die Casting
2 Blow mould 15 4.1.1 Explain Laminations and Calendaring.
Rotation mould 4.1.2 Illustrate Die Casting Alloys & Machines.
3 Extrusion mould 15 4.1.3 Explain Hot chamber and cold chamber machines.
Thermoforming 4.1.4 Enumerate the Advantages & disadvantages of die casting.
4 Lamination 15 CONTENT DETAILS
Die casting alloys & machines MODULE I
TOTAL 60 Definition - compression moulding and transfer moulding-working principle and
compression & transfer moulding Machines-different types of compression moulds,
COURSE OUTCOME: flash, positive type –semi positive type,landed positive and Bulk factor.
MODULE II
To understand
Blow Moulding And Rotation Moulding-Working principle of blow moulds-
1. Compression mould different types of blow moulding -Extrusion blow moulding, Injection blow
2. Transfer mould moulding and Stretch blow moulding-Prefoam and parison.
3. Blow mould explanation of Rotation Moulding-working.
4. Rotation mould MODULE III
5. Extrusion mould Explanation and working -Extrusion Moulding, Thermoforming and Vacuum
6. Thermoforming forming.
MODULE IV
7. Lamination Explanation of Laminations, Calendering- Die Casting Alloys & Machines- Hot
8. Die casting alloys & machines chamber and cold chamber machines-Advantages & disadvantages of die casting.
MODULE I REFERENCE BOOKS
1.1.0 Understand compression moulding and transfer moulding 1. Injection moulding by R.G.W.Pye
1.1.1 Define compression moulding and transfer moulding
2. Injection moulding-Theory& Practical by Rubin
1.1.2 Explain working principle and compression & transfer moulding Machines.
1.1.3 Explain different types of compression moulds, flash, positive type –semi 3. Injection moulding machines by Whelon
positive type, landed positive and Bulk factor. 4. Injection moulding of plastic components by BOW
1.2.0 Explain different types of transfer moulding – pot type and plunger 5. Plastic Tchnology, thory, design and manufacture by William. J. Patton
type. 6. Injection & Compression moulding fundamentals by AVRAAM-1
1.2.1 Explain Sprue and gate systems. 7. How to make injection moulds by Menges
MODULE II 8. Moulding of thermo setting plastics by Whelon
2.1.0 Explain Blow Moulding and Rotation Moulding
9. Die casting by Doehler/ Herman/ Street
2.1.1 Describe Working principle of blow moulds.
10. Plastic mould design by R.H.Bebb IPI London

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 MODULE- I
COMPRESSION MOULDING
Introduction:
Compression moulding is a process of heating and
compressing the powdered moulding material pellet or chopped resin
in the cavity provided in the moulding, to flow and fill in the cavity
and allow to harden and cure to take the shape of the cavity. Usually
only thermostat plastics are compression moulded. The cavity
provided with enough space to accommodate the moulding
compound. The type of mould design mainly depends on the
characteristics of moulding compound ad bulk factor.
Bulk factor
Bulk factor is defined as the ratio of the volume of the loose
powder to the volume of the moulded part.
Volume of loose powder
Bulk factor = --------------------------------
Volume of moulded part
Bulk factor can vary from as low as 1: 1 to as high as 18. So
the cavity would have to be much deeper to contain the material of a
high factor. To minimize the effect of varying bulk factors with
respect to the size of the mould cavity, performs are used.
Preforms
Preforms are small pellets or tablets of moulding material that
are formed to shape in a special preforms mould at room temperature,
no curing takes place only densification. In addition to this other
advantages of preforms are:
 The mould charges are of uniform weight and size.
 Mould cavities are filled more easily without the waste of
loose powder
 Preforms heat faster, thus reducing the mould cycle.
 Because the mould cavity can be made smaller, the mould
cost is reduced.
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Preforms are usually made in automatic presses at a very rapid rate.
The shapes of preforms are usually round, flat face, and disc,
rectangular or spherical. Preforms are preheated before placing in the
cavity. The purpose of preheating is to remove the moisture content
from the pellets and to reduce the cycle time by pre warming it
Compression moulding procedure:
For optimum result in compression moulding the following
factors are to be considered.
 Mould temperature: The mould must be heated to the correct
temperature for the particular resin and mould. These
temperature ranges from 130-350°C.
 Mould pressure: The mould pressure to be used must be
adjusted for each resin and mould.
 Press closing speed: Depending on the particular resin or
mould configuration, the press closing speed is to be adjusted
to result in the fastest closing commensurate with good resin
flow and no damage.
 Degassing or breathing: Before final closing of the mould, it
is usually degassed or allowed to breath. This procedure
consists of bringing the mould almost to full closure and then
opening slightly one or more times to allow the entrapped air,
moisture and liberated volatile of escape. This action helps to
ensure a sound part, free of internal voids, blisters or
entrapped air pockets.
 Final cure time: This final cure time may be as low as 20
seconds for a very small thin walled part, 1- 3 min, for larger
parts and as long as 24th for some massive, thick walled
aerospace rocket nozzle.
Types of compression moulds
There are basically four different types of compression
moulds. They differ only in the amount of compression, which can be
applied to the moulding powder, and in the methods used to 'land' the
mare portion of the mould to obtain an exact size.
1) Flash mould:
The simplest mould type is the flash mould. It is fairly inexpensive to
make and produce uniformly dimensioned parts. The main draw back
of this mould is the fact that the parts produced are not of the highest
density, since the moulding material is never put under very high
compression. Material wastage is more in these moulds. So flash
moulds are usually used to produce small thin parts which are not of
high quality.
A Contrasting mould formation is the open flash type, in
which class many thousands of articles have been successfully
moulded. The alignment of core and cavity can be accomplished by
means of guide members i.e. pillars and bushes.
Open flash moulds are suitable for the production of articles where:
 Variation in wall thickness, or eccentricity, is
permissible,
 The radius is comparatively small or, preferably, the corner is
square on the outer edge of the open end of the moulding,
 The material is not full fabric.
 The displacement of the moulding cavity is sufficiently large
to contain the required moulding material in powder form, or
in some case preforms.
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Open flash moulds have been wrongly employed to mould articles
which do not fulfill these conditions. Of course, some loss of material
cannot be avoided. To keep the flash thickness to a minimum,
pressure must be concentrated near the cut-off faces. This can be
accomplished by reducing the land area, which usually made not more
than 5 mm wide irrespective of the size of moulding.
2) Fully positive moulds:
Fully positive mould is the opposite of flash moulds. It
produces parts of highest density, since the full compression load can
be applied on the moulding and not on the mould. The disadvantage
of this mould is that unless the amount of moulding material is
weighted very accurately, the part will not be the same each time in
the direction of the applied force.
Positive moulds consist in the simplest form of two parts- the
punch (plunger or force) and die (cavity). The moulding takes all the
applied pressure, and there is insufficient clearance between punch
and die to allow any material to escape. The closing of the mould is
limited only by the amount of material in the cavity. Any variation in
the weight (charge) of material put into the cavity will result in a
variation either in thickness of the part or part density. In multi-cavity
moulds, any cavities that have more or less material than others will
receive proportionally more or less pressure and seriously influence
part thickness and density. Because of this basic problem in
controlling the weight (charge) of material, the design quickly lost
favor, except in very special cases.
3.0 semi-positive moulds
The semi positive mould combines some of the compression
moulding possible with fully positive moulds, with at the last
moment, a flash cut off and a land to assure good dimensional
accuracy. A minor disadvantage of this type is that, if the land is made
very narrow so as cause a quick, thin cut - off of the flash, the land
will wear very quickly, thus resulting in dimensional instability.
They are similar to positive moulds, but the punch does not come
down entirely onto the moulding, but to a stop formed by an annular
part of the mould surrounding the moulding. The pressure is therefore
taken partly by the annular ring, or rather by the flash forced onto it
by displacement of the slight excess of powder that has been
deposited into mould cavity.
This development was a great step forward, since it was now no
longer necessary

accurately to weigh powder, which is normally weighed in volume.

Mouldings of consistent thickness and weight were quite easily
produced. The excess material that escapes as flash is normally only
about 2-5 % of material used. Depending on size and complexity of
flow, flash thickness can be controlled to less than 0.15 mm. Multi-
cavity moulds were now a much more viable proposition, and this
type of mould is universally used for all types of thermosetting
materials. The only adjustment is that clearances between punch and
die: 0.15 mm for soft flow materials and a little more -up to 0.25 mm-
for filled materials.
An alternative to the semi-positive horizontal flash type of
mould is the semi positive vertical flash type. As the description
implies, the first type produces flash horizontally and the second type
produces vertical flash.
If the part being produced has a height tolerance, then the
horizontal flash type is preferable. The surface of the moulding
remains untouched when excess flash is trimmed off, thereby
maintaining the tolerance. This type is the most popular and most
deflashing being done by barreling.

4
 If, for other reasons, finishing is not objected to as the means by
which flash removed, then a vertical-type flash mould may be
preferable.
Design of semi-positive moulds
Semi-positive moulds are designed for the three purposes:
1. To provide a powder cavity for bulky material;
2. To provide a powder cavity for bulky mouldings in any material;
3. To provide a means of escape for surplus material.
With vertical flash tools the moulding pressure may be applied
directly onto the material until pressure pads are contacted, but in the
case of horizontal flash tools some pressure is in effect wasted on the
area of the cavity itself. Obviously,
Therefore the cavity area must be arranged at minimum
consistent with strength of punch and should, if possible, follow the
general profile of the moulding.
4. Landed positive moulds:
Landed positive moulds are similar to semi positive moulds
except that the telescoping portion is deeper to allow more
compression on moulding prior to landing. Usually this type of mould
incorporates substantial 'lands that will not wear out quickly. There
are two types .of landed positive mould:
1. Internally landed positive mould or horizontal flash mould.
2. Externally landed positive mould or vertical flash mould.
Despite the deeper telescoping of the mould portion, the final
compression is not as great as in the fully positive mould. However
the dimensional accuracy is better in landed positive moulds.
It is observed from the figure that the loss of material before the tools
are closed makes the open flash type of mould unsuitable for certain
articles. Consequently a departure from open flash is necessary to
overcome the difficulty, and this third mould classification is known
as the semi-positive vertical flash type or semi-positive horizontal
flash type. Both forms are widely used in modern moulding practice.
There is a tendency to use this tool design method when the open
flash type would be satisfactory but this is seldom a fault. There are
reasons for this, and open flash mould is usually faster, than a semi-
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positive mould as it enables air to escape freely but location of punch
to die is not so positive and this can be disadvantage in some cases.
Vertical Flash Horizontal Flash
Why clearance is important?
This is a usual question and the answer is twofold, firstly to
ensure the production of a moulding of correct thickness and secondly
to ensure that if a multi-impression mould is used, the complete force
of the press is not applied on to one impression which may have been
overloaded with powder.
Process difference - Injection & Compression moulds
The main difference between injection moulding and
compression moulding is that the mould is cooled in case of injection
moulding and the mould is heated to the required temperature for
curing to take place in case of compression moulds.The
polymerization of thermoset plastic takes place in the mould and
necessary heat for the chemical change is to be supplied by the mould.
Thermoplastic have scored over thermoset because of the availability
of the machine which can control the process precisely, addition of
filler material which improves the material properties and the reduced
cycle time.
TRANSFER MOULDING
Transfer moulding is the process of heating the thermoset material
in a separate chamber provided in the mould and then transferring the
liquid into the impression under sufficient pressure, through runner
and gate. There are two methods of transfer moulding.
 Transfer moulding is a manufacturing process where casting Materials Used
material is forced into a mould. Transfer molding is different from Generally, thermoset plastics (such as epoxy, polyester,
compression moulding in that the mold is enclosed [Hayward] rather phenol-formaldehyde, vinyl ester, silicone) are processed by transfer
than open to the fill plunger resulting in higher dimensional tolerances molding process, but certain thermoplastic materials can also be
and less environmental impact. processed.
Applications
Transfer molding process combines the principle of This process is widely used to encapsulate items such as
compression and transfer of the polymer charge. In the transfer integrated circuits, plugs, connectors, pins, coils, and studs. It is
molding, polymer charge is transferred from the transfer pot to the suitable for molding with ceramic or metallic inserts which are placed
mold. The mold is cooled and molded part is ejected. The schematic in the mold cavity. When the heated polymer fills the mold it forms
of transfer molding process is shown in figure1. In this process, the bonding with the insert surface. Transfer molding is also used for
required amount of polymer charge is weighted and inserted into the manufacturing radio and television cabinets and car body shells.
transfer pot before the molding process. The transfer pot is heated by Advantages
the heating element above the melting temperature of the polymer  Fast setup time and lower setup costs
charge. The liquid charge is gravity filled through the sprue to the  Low maintenance cost
mold cavity. A “piston and cylinder” arrangement is built in the  Plastic parts with metal inserts can be made
transfer pot so that the resin is squirted into the mold cavity through a  Design flexibility
sprue. The plunger is also preheated in the transfer pot. The plunger is  Dimensionally stable
used to push the liquid polymer charge from the transfer pot into the  Uniform thickness of parts
mold cavity under pressure. The mold cavity remains closed as the
 Large production rate
polymer charge is inserted. The mold cavity is held closed until the
Disadvantage:
resin gets cured. The mold cavity is opened and the molded part can
 Wastage of material
be removed once it has hardened with the help of ejector pin. The
 Production rate lower than injection molding
sprue and gate attached to the molded part have to be trimmed after
the process has been completed. Figure 1  Air can be trapped in the mold
Similar to compression moulding transfer moulding classified in
Transfer molding process This is used for mass production. It to 4 types
has short production cycle and smaller tolerances and more intricate 1. Pot type transfer moulding
parts can be achieved. It produces more waste material; therefore it is 2. Plunger transfer moulding
the more expensive process. The mold cavity can be made from 3. Automatic transfer moulding
metals such as aluminum or steel for larger production. 4. Screw transfer moulding
Process Parameters Types of Moulds:
 Heating time
Pot transfer mould:
 Melting temperature of the charge
In this design the resin is heated and liquefied in a pot or
 Applied pressure transfer chamber provided in the mould. The plunger which forces the
 Cooling time liquid resin into the cavity is the part of the upper section of the
6
mould and is actuated by the platen of an ordinary compression
moulding press. The volume of the pot must always exceed the area of
all cavities, sprues and runners by at least 15% since the total force
exerted by the pot is required to keep the mould from opening and
flashing when the liquid resin is injected into the cavities.

Plunger transfer mould:

In this design the material is injected by an auxiliary ram or
plunger which is part of the transfer press. The press platen here is
used only to hold the mould halves together at the required clamping
force. The clamping force must always be 20 - 25% above the total
force which might be exerted by all cavities, sprues and runners when
operating under full auxiliary ram pressure. Otherwise the mould will
tend to open during injection.

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 MODULE II
BLOW MOULDING
Blow molding is a specific manufacturing process by which
hollow plastic parts are formed and can be joined together: It is also
used for forming glass bottles or other hollow shapes. In general, there
are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding,
injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding. The blow
molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it
into a parison or in the case of injection and injection stretch blow
moulding (ISB) a preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic
with a hole in one end through which compressed air can pass.
The parison is then clamped into a mold and air is blown into
it. The air pressure then pushes the plastic out to match the mold.
Once the plastic has cooled and hardened the mold opens up and the
part is ejected. The cost of blow moulded parts is higher than that of
injection – moulded parts but lower than rotational moulded parts.
Blow Molding Blow molding is a manufacturing process that
is used to produce hollow plastic parts by inflating a heated plastic
until it fills a mold and formed the desired shape.
Working Principle In this process, the thermoplastic in the
form of small pellets or granules is first heated above the melting
temperature and molded into a preform using injection molding
process. These preforms are used to feed into the blow mold. The
8
preform is heated above the glass transition temperature and formed
into a hollow tube which is called parison. The parison is then
clamped between two mold halves and inflated by high air pressure
until it conforms to the inner shape of the mold. The air pressure is
required as 60 to 140 psi depending upon the material used. The
preform is always stretched from the center of the part during the
process. This is a single stage process, as both preform manufacturing
and bottle blowing are performed in the same machine. The formed
part solidified as it is cooled inside the mold. The mold halves are
separated and the final product is removed. Final part may be
trimmed.
Blow molding Generally, mold can be made of metal. Cycle
time depends upon the finished part wall thickness. If the part wall
thickness is 1.5 mm, the cycle time will be 40 to 50 seconds.
Process Parameters
 Amount of plastic material
 Melting temperature of plastic material
 Air pressure required
 Cooling time
Materials Used
Different types of thermoplastic material are used, for
example: High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Low Density
Polyethylene (LDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC),
Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET), and Polycarbonate (PC).
Applications
Different types of plastic products can be manufactured by this
process such as bottles in different shape and size, jars, and
containers, ducting, fluid oil tanks, mugs, and toys.
Advantages
  Low tooling cost the part is ejected.[3] Continuous and Intermittent are two variations of
Extrusion Blow Molding. In continuous extrusion blow molding the
 Fast production rates parison is extruded continuously and the individual parts are cut off
 Ability to mold complex part with uniform thickness by a suitable knife. In Intermittent blow molding there are two
processes: straight intermittent is similar to injection molding
 Little scrap generated whereby the screw turns, then stops and pushes the melt out. With the
 Large hollow shape can be produced accumulator method, an accumulator gathers melted plastic and when
the previous mold has cooled and enough plastic has accumulated, a
 Produced parts can be recycle
rod pushes the melted plastic and forms the parison. In this case the
Disadvantages screw may turn continuously or intermittently.[4] With continuous
extrusion the weight of the parison drags the parison and makes
 Limited to hollow parts
calibrating the wall thickness difficult. The accumulator head or
 Thick parts can’t be manufactured reciprocating screw methods use hydraulic systems to push the
Types of Blow moulding machine: parison out quickly reducing the effect of the weight and allowing
precise control over the wall thickness by adjusting the die gap with a
1. Extrusion Blow moulding parison programming device.
EBM processes may be either continuous (constant extrusion
2. Injection Blow moulding of the parison) or intermittent. Types of EBM equipment may be
3. Stretch Blow moulding categorized as follows:

EXTRUSION BLOW MOULDING

Continuous extrusion equipment

 rotary wheel blow molding systems

 shuttle machinery
Intermittent extrusion machinery

 reciprocating screw machinery

In extrusion blow molding (EBM), plastic is melted and
extruded into a hollow tube (a parison). This parison is then captured
by closing it into a cooled metal mold. Air is then blown into the
parison, inflating it into the shape of the hollow bottle, container, or
part. After the plastic has cooled sufficiently, the mold is opened and
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 accumulator head machinery
Examples of parts made by the EBM process include most
polyethylene hollow products, milk bottles, shampoo bottles,
automotive ducting, watering cans and hollow industrial parts such as
drums.
Advantages of blow molding include: low tool and die cost; fast
production rates; ability to mold complex part; Handles can be
incorporated in the design.
Disadvantages of blow molding include: limited to hollow parts, low
strength, to increase barrier properties multilayer parisons of different
materials are used thus not recyclable. To make wide neck jars spin
trimming is necessary.
into a heated cavity and core pin. The cavity mold forms the external
shape and is clamped around a core rod which forms the internal
shape of the preform. The preform consists of a fully formed bottle/jar
neck with a thick tube of polymer attached, which will form the body.
Similar in appearance to a test tube with a threaded neck.
The preform mold opens and the core rod is rotated and
clamped into the hollow, chilled blow mold. The end of the core rod
opens and allows compressed air into the preform, which inflates it to
the finished article shape.
After a cooling period the blow mold opens and the core rod is
rotated to the ejection position. The finished article is stripped off the
core rod and as an option can be leak-tested prior to packing. The
preform and blow mold can have many cavities, typically three to
sixteen depending on the article size and the required output. There
are three sets of core rods, which allow concurrent preform injection,
blow molding and ejection.
Advantages: It produces an injection moulded neck for accuracy.
Disadvantages: only suits small capacity bottles as it is difficult to
control the base centre during blowing. No increase in barrier strength
as the material is not biaxially stretched. Handles can't be
incorporated.

INJECTION BLOW MOLDING

The process of injection blow molding (IBM) is used for the
production of hollow glass and plastic objects in large quantities. In
the IBM process, the polymer is injection molded onto a core pin;
then the core pin is rotated to a blow molding station to be inflated
and cooled. This is the least-used of the three blow molding processes,
and is typically used to make small medical and single serve bottles.
The process is divided into three steps: injection, blowing and
ejection.
The injection blow molding machine is based on an extruder barrel
and screw assembly which melts the polymer. The molten polymer is
fed into a hot runner manifold where it is injected through nozzles
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INJECTION STRETCH BLOW MOLDING PROCESS thickness can be shaped to allow even wall thickness when blowing
rectangular and non-round shapes.
This has two main different methods, namely Single-stage and
two-stage process. Single-stage process is again broken down into 3- Disadvantages: Restrictions on bottle design. Only a champagne
station and 4-station machines. In the two-stage injection stretch blow base can be made for carbonated bottles.
molding process, the plastic is first molded into a "preform" using the
injection molding process. These preforms are produced with the
necks of the bottles, including threads (the "finish") on one end. These
preforms are packaged, and fed later (after cooling) into a reheat
stretch blow molding machine. In the ISB process, the preforms are
heated (typically using infrared heaters) above their glass transition
temperature, then blown using high-pressure air into bottles using
metal blow molds. The preform is always stretched with a core rod as
part of the process.
Advantages: Very high volumes are produced. Little restriction on
bottle design. Preforms can be sold as a completed item for a third
party to blow. Is suitable for cylindrical, rectangular or oval bottles.
Disadvantages: High capital cost. Floor space required is high,
although compact systems have become available.
In the single-stage process both preform manufacture and ROTATIONAL MOLDING
bottle blowing are performed in the same machine. The older 4-station
method of injection, reheat, stretch blow and ejection is more costly The rotational molding is a high temperature and low pressure
than the 3-station machine which eliminates the reheat stage and uses plastic forming process. The powder is inserted into the closed split
latent heat in the preform, thus saving costs of energy to reheat and mold and rotated in biaxial to produce a hollow part. The schematic of
25% reduction in tooling. The process explained: Imagine the rotational molding process is shown in figure .
molecules are small round balls, when together they have large air
gaps and small surface contact, by first stretching the molecules Working Principle
vertically then blowing to stretch horizontally the biaxial stretching
makes the molecules a cross shape. These "crosses" fit together The plastic material in the form of powder is inserted into the
leaving little space as more surface area is contacted thus making the mold. The mold is heated in an oven and rotated biaxial until the
material less porous and increasing barrier strength against powder has melted. The molten powder is adhered to the mold wall
permeation. This process also increases the strength to be ideal for
and makes a thin layer. The mold is opened and finished part is
filling with carbonated drinks.
removed. The mold is rotated at different speeds in order to avoid the
Advantages: Highly suitable for low volumes and short runs. As the accumulation of molten powder. The amount of time required to heat
preform is not released during the entire process the preform wall
the powder at molten temperature in to the oven is important. If the
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oven is heated for long time, powder will degrade and it will affect the  The amount of powder
mechanical properties. If the mold is heated short time, the powder
may not be completely melted, resulting in large bubbles in the  Heating temperature and time
powder. The formed part must be cooled through the air so that it
 Rotational speeds
solidifies slowly. The formed part will shrink on cooling, and
facilitating easy removal of part. The cooling rate must be kept within  Cooling rates
a certain range. The water cooling should be avoided, because formed
part may shrink and warped after cooling. Figure 1 Rotational Material Used
molding A mold release agent should be used to quickly remove the
Thermosets and thermoplastic material can be used, for
formed part. Mold release can reduce cycle times and defects of
example: low density polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene
finished product. Three different types of mold release agent may be
(HDPE), polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
used i.e. sacrificial coating (silicones), semi-permanent coating,
(polysiloxane), and permanent coating (polytetrafluoroethylene). Applications

Additives for weather resistance, flame retardation can be

incorporated. Products that can be manufactured include storage
tanks, bins and refuse containers, airplane parts, road cones, footballs,
helmets, and rowing boats.

Advantages

 Allows complex mold split lines.

 Allows molded threads and mold-in inserts.
 Allows a wide range of surface finishes (textured, smooth, or
polished).
 Very little waste.
 Low residual stresses
 Tooling is less expensive
 Suitable for both low-volume prototypes and high-volume
production runs

Process Parameters

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Disadvantages
 Slow production speed. It usually takes about one hour to
complete the process
 Lower precision
Rotational molding Machines
Rock and roll machine
A Rock and Roll rotational molding machine built in 2009
This is a specialized machine designed mainly to produce long
narrow parts. Some are of the clamshell type, thus one arm, but there
are also shuttle-type Rock & Roll machines, with two arms. Each arm
rotates or rolls the mold 360 degrees in one direction and at the same
time tips and rocks the mold 45 degrees above or below horizontal in
the other direction. Newer machines use forced hot air to heat the
mold. These machines are best for large parts that have a large length-
to-width ratio. Because of the smaller heating chambers, there is a
saving in heating costs compared to bi-axial machines.
Clamshell machine
This is a single arm rotational molding machine. The arm is
usually supported by other arms on both ends. The clamshell machine
heats and cools the mold in the same chamber. It takes up less space
than equivalent shuttle and swing arm rotational molders. It is low in
cost compared to the size of products made. It is available in smaller
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scales for schools interested in prototyping and for high quality
models. More than one mold can be attached to the single arm
Vertical or up & over rotational machine
The loading and unloading area is at the front of the machine
between the heating and cooling areas. These machines vary in size
between small to medium compared to other rotational machines.
Vertical rotational molding machines are energy efficient due to their
compact heating and cooling chambers. These machines have the
same (or similar) capabilities as the horizontal carousel multi-arm
machines, but take up much less space.
Shuttle machine
Most shuttle machines have two arms that move the molds
back and forth between the heating chamber and cooling station. The
arms are independent of each other and they turn the molds bi-axially.
In some cases, the shuttle machine has only one arm. This machine
moves the mold in a linear direction in and out of heating and cooling
chambers. It is low in cost for the size of product produced and the
footprint is kept to a minimum compared to other types of machines.
It is also available in smaller scale for schools and prototyping.
Swing arm machine
The swing-arm machine can have up to four arms, with a bi-
axial movement. Each arm is independent from each other as it is not
necessary to operate all arms at the same time. Each arm is mounted
on a corner of the oven and it swings in and out of the oven. On some
swing-arm machines, a pair of arms is mounted on the same corner,
thus a four-arm machine has two pivot points. These machines are
very useful for companies that have long cooling cycles or require a
lot of time to demold parts, compared to the cook time. It is a lot
easier to schedule maintenance work or try to run a new mold without
interrupting production on the other arms of the machine.
Carousel machine

A Carousel machine with four independent arms

This is one of the most common bi-axial machines in the
industry. It can have up to 4 arms and six stations and it comes in a
wide range of sizes. The machine comes in two different models,
fixed and independent. A fixed-arm carousel consists of 3 fixed arms
that must move together. One arm will be in the heating chamber
while the other is in the cooling chamber and the other in the
loading/reloading area. The fixed-arm carousel works well when
working with identical cycle times on each arm. The independent-arm
carousel machine is available with 3 or 4 arms that can move
separately from the other. This allows for different size molds, with
different cycle times and thickness needs.

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 MODULE III produce unwanted stresses in the plastic product. These stresses can
cause warping after solidification of molten plastic. Plastics are very
EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS good thermal insulators and therefore it is very difficult to cool
Extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process. The plastic quickly. The plastic product is cooled by pulling through a set of
material is melted with the application of heat and extruded through cooling rolls.
die into a desired shape. A cylindrical rotating screw is placed inside
the barrel which forces out molten plastic material through a die. The
extruded material takes shape according to the cross-section of die.
The schematic of extrusion process is shown in figure 1.

Working Principle
In this process, plastic material in the form of pellets or
granules is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel.
Additives such as colorants and ultraviolet inhibitors (liquid or pellet
form) can be mixed in the hopper. The plastic material enters through
the feed throat and comes into contact with the rotating screw. The
rotating screw pushes the plastic beads forward into the barrel. The
barrel is heated using the heating elements up to the melting
temperature of the plastic. The heating elements are used in such ways Extrusion Process Parameters
that gradually increase the temperature of the barrel from the rear to There are five important process parameters to be considered before
the front. extrusion process:
There are three possible zones in a rotating screw i.e. feed
zone, melting zone, and metering zone. In the feed zone, the plastic Melting temperature of plastic
beads melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel. The Speed of the screw
plastic material is completely melted in the melting zone. A
thermostat is used to maintain the inside temperature of the barrel. Extrusion pressure required
The overheating of plastics should be minimized which may cause Types of die used
degradation in the material properties. A cooling fan or water cooling
system is used to maintain the temperature of the barrel during the Cooling medium
process. At the front of the barrel, the molten plastic leaves the screw Screw Design:
and travels through a screen pack to remove any contaminants in the The design of screw is important for plastic processing. It has mainly
molten plastic. The screens are reinforced by a breaker plate. The three different functions: namely, feeding mechanism; uniform
breaker plate assembly also serves to create back pressure in the melting and mixing of plastic and finally it generates the pressure to
barrel. The back pressure gives uniform melting and proper mixing of push the molten material through die. A screw length (L) is referenced
the molten plastic material into the barrel. After passing through the to its diameter (D) as L/D ratio. Generally, L/D ratio is used as 24:1,
breaker plate, molten plastic enters into die. The die gives the desired but for more mixing and output, it may increase up to 32:1. There are
shape of plastic product. An uneven flow of molten plastic would
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three possible zones in a screw length i.e. feed zone, melting zone, Generally, polyurethane plastic is used in this process. The schematic
and metering zone. of blown film extrusion is shown in figure 2.
(a) Feed zone: In this zone, the resin is inserted from hopper into the
barrel, and the channel depth is constant.
(b) Melting zone: The plastic material is melted and the channel
depth gets progressively smaller. It is also called the transition or
compression zone.
(c) Metering zone: The molten plastic is mixed at uniform
temperature and pressure and forwarded through the die. The channel
depth is constant throughout this zone.
TYPES OF EXTRUSION PROCESS
The extrusion process is broadly classified into seven different types
depending upon the specific applications.
SHEET/FILM EXTRUSION
In this extrusion process, the molten plastic material is
extruded through a flat die. The cooling rolls are used to determine the
thickness of sheet/film and its surface texture. The thickness of sheet
can be obtained in the range of 0.2 to 15 mm. The thin flat sheet or
film of plastic material can be made. Generally, polystyrene plastic is
used as a raw material in the sheet extrusion process.
BLOWN FILM EXTRUSION
In the blown film process, the die is like a vertical cylinder
with a circular profile. The molten plastic is pulled upwards from the
die by a pair of nip rollers. The compressed air is used to inflating the
tube. Around the die, an air-ring is fitted. The purpose of an air-ring is
to cool the film as it travel upwards. In the center of the die, there is OVER JACKETING EXTRUSION
an air inlet from which compressed air can be forced into the centre of This is also called wire coating process. In this process, a bare wire is
the circular profile, and creating a bubble. The extruded circular cross pulled through the center of a die. There are two different types of
section may be increased 2-3 times of the die diameter. The bubbles extrusion tooling used for coating over a wire i.e. pressure or
are collapsed with the help of collapsing plate. The nip rolls flatten the jacketing tooling as shown in figure 3. If intimate contact or adhesion
bubble into double layer of film which is called layflat. The wall is required between the wire and coating, pressure tooling is used. If
thickness of the film can be controlled by changing the speed of the adhesion is not desired, jacketing tooling is used. For pressure tooling,
nip rollers. The layflat can be spooled in the form of roll or cut into the wire is retracted inside the die, where it comes in contact with the
desired shapes. Bottom side of the layflat is sealed with the molten plastic at a much higher pressure. For jacketing tooling, the
application of heat, and cut across further up to form opening; hence it wire will extend and molten plastic will make a cover on the wire
can be used to make a plastic bag. The die diameter may vary from 1 after die. The bare wire is fed through the die and it does not come in
to 300 centimeters. direct contact with the molten plastic until it leaves the die. The main
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difference between the jacketing and pressure tooling is the position
of the wire with respect to the die.
TUBING EXTRUSION
In this process, the molten plastic is extruded through a die
and hollow cross sections are formed by placing a mandrel inside the
die. Tube with multiple holes can also be made for specific
applications, by placing a number of mandrels in the center of the die.
COEXTRUSION
Coextrusion is the extrusion process of making multiple layers
of material simultaneously. It is used to apply one or more layers on
top of base material to obtain specific properties such as ultraviolet
absorption, grip, matte surface, and energy reflection, while base
material is more suitable for other applications, e.g. impact resistance
and structural performance. It may be used on any of the processes
such as blown film, overjacketing, tubing, sheet/film extrusion. In this
process, two or more extruders are used to deliver materials which are
combined into a single die that extrudes the materials in the desired
shape. The layer thickness is controlled by the speed and size of the
individual extruders delivering the materials.
EXTRUSION COATING
Extrusion coating is used to make an additional layer onto an
existing rollstock of paper, foil or film. For example, to improve the
water resistant of paper polyethylene coating is used. The applications
of extrusion coating are liquid packaging, photographic paper,
envelopes, sacks lining for fertilizers packaging and medical
packaging. Generally, polyethylene and polypropylene are used.
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MATERIALS USED
The different types of plastic materials that can be used in extrusion
process are Polyethylene, Polypropylene (PP), Acetal, Acrylic, Nylon
(Polyamides), Polystyrene, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Acrylonitrile
Butadiene Styrene (ABS) and Polycarbonate.
Applications
The extrusion process is used for manufacturing rods, plates and
tubes, wire and cable coating, hose liners, hose mandrels, filaments,
sheet, multilayer film, medical packaging and food packaging, etc.
Advantages
High production volumes
relatively low cost as compared with other molding process
Design flexibility
Short lead times
Coating of wire can be done to achieves desired properties
Continuous part can be produced
Disadvantages:
Limited complexity of parts
Uniform cross section can only be produced
THERMOFORMING
Introduction
Thermoforming is a plastic manufacturing process in which
the thermoplastic sheets are formed with the application of heat and
pressure in a mold. The thermoplastic sheet is held horizontally over a
mold surface and clamped with a holding device. The sheet is heated
up to predetermined temperature using a heating element called
heater. The thermostat is used to maintain the temperature of the
heater. When the temperature becomes substantially high in the mold,
the temperature is controlled by adjusting the heater and providing the
cooling air. The thermoplastic sheet softens with the application of
heat and is pressed into or stretched over the mold surface by
application of air pressure or by any other means. The softened sheet
conforms to the mold shape and it is held in place until it cools. The
mold cavity is opened and the thermoformed part is released. Some of
the plastic materials require air cooling in order to make those rigid
quickly, because plastic materials have low thermal conductivity. The
excess material is then trimmed out from the formed part. Excess
material can be reground, mixed with unused plastic, and again
reformed into thermoplastic sheets. Thin sheet (up to 1.5 mm) and
thick sheet (about 3 mm) can be formed easily. Thermoforming set-up
usually consists of the clamping unit, heaters, mold, and air cooling
system. The molds should be cleaned after every cycle, as materials in
the mold can cause the change in the shape of the finished goods.
There are mainly three different types of thermoforming process
depending upon the pressure required i.e., vacuum forming, pressure
forming and matched die forming.
VACUUM FORMING
In this process, the vacuum pressure is used to form the heated
thermoplastic sheet into the desired shape. The thermoplastic sheet is
placed on the mold surface and fixed with the help of clamping unit.
The sheet is heated until it is softens and thereafter vacuum needs to
be applied quickly. A surge tank is used to quickly pull the air out
between the mold cavity and the sheet. When the vacuum is created,
the sheet conforms to the shape of the mold cavity. The formed part is
cooled and then ejected from the mold cavity. The schematic of
vacuum forming process is shown in figure 1.
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PRESSURE FORMING
The pressure forming process is closely related to vacuum
forming. In this process, the air pressure required is much higher as
compared to the vacuum forming. The preheated plastic sheet is
placed on the mold surface, and then air pressure is applied quickly
above the sheet as shown in figure 2. The high pressure is developed
in between the softened sheet and the pressure box. Due to high
pressure, the preheated plastic sheet can be deformed into the mold
cavity in a fraction of a second. The formed sheet is held in the mold
cavity for cooling for a few seconds. The formed part thereby
solidifies and is ejected from mold cavity. Prototype parts can also be
made using pressure forming process.
MATCHED DIE FORMING
Matched die forming is also called mechanical forming. In this
process, mold consists of two parts i.e. die and punch as shown in
figure 3. The thermoplastic sheet is heated with the application of heat
until it softenes. The preheated sheet is placed into the mold surface
(that is called die) and through punch pressure is applied on the hot
sheet. The air in between the die and softened sheet is evacuated by
using vacuum pump, and therefore the thermoplastic sheet conforms
to the mold shape. The formed part is cooled and ejected from the
mold cavity
 Advantages:
Extremely adaptive to design requirement
Rapid prototype development
Low initial setup costs
Low production costs
Less thermal stresses than injection molding and compression
molding
Good dimensional stability
Disadvantages:
Poor surface finish
Parts may have non-uniform wall thickness.
The important process parameters that are considered during
All parts need to be trimmed
the thermoforming process are heating temperature, heating time,
vacuum pressure, air pressure, mechanical pressure, cooling time and Ribs and bosses cannot be molded easily
ejection mechanism.
Limited number of materials can be used
Materials Used
The different types of thermoplastic materials which can be Very thick plastic sheets can’t be formed
processed using thermoforming process are: Acrylic (PMMA),
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Cellulose acetate, Low density
polyethylene (LDPE), High density polyethylene (HDPE), **********
Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Applications
Thermoforming process is used for variety of applications, for
example, food packaging, automotive parts, trays, building products
and aircraft windscreens. Thick gauge parts are used as cosmetic
surfaces on permanent structures such as trucks, medical equipment,
material handling equipment, electrical and electronic equipment, spas
and shower enclosures, vehicle door and dash panels, refrigerator
liners, utility vehicle beds, and plastic pallets. Thin gauge parts are
primarily used to package or contain a food item, disposable cups,
containers, lids, blisters and clamshells.
The advantages and disadvantages of the thermoforming process are
given below:
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