Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

L0 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO
CALCULUS

This chapter reviews the basic ideas you

need to start calculus. The topics include the
sets, real number system, functions and
trigonometry.

1.1 Real Numbers and the Real Line

SETS

Sets : A set is a collection of objects.

The objects are called elements of
the set.

Set Notation: In Mathematics, we noted the

sets in capital letters such as A, B, C,… and
so forth. And the elements of these sets as a,
b, c, … and so forth respectively. A set S
with elements 1, 2, 3, …, 8, 9, 10 can be
written as:

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S = {1, 2, 3,…, 8, 9, 10}

or

S  {x : x  1, 2,3,...,8,9,10}  {x :1  x  10}

The notation xS means that the object x is

an element of the set S, and x  S means that x
is not an element of S .

The notation S = {a, b, c, ...} means that S is

the set whose elements are a, b, c, ... and so
forth.

If P is particular property, the notation

S = {x: x satisfies P},

means that S is the set of all objects x that

satisfy the property P.

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b …….
a c

S {a,b,c,........} {x : x  a,b,c,.......}

Figure 1 : Set S

The Empty Set or Null Set: The empty set

is the set with no elements, and is often
denoted as  or S  { }.

Note: S  {0} is not an empty set or null set

because it has an element 0.

S 

Figure 2 : The Empty Set

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Subset : A set S is a subset of set T,

denoted S  T , if every element of S is also
an element of T.

T
S
S T

Figure 3 : Subset

Sets S and T are equal, S = T, if they have

exactly the same elements, and

S  T T  S .

The union of sets S and T is the set of

objects belonging to either of the sets S OR T
or BOTH of the sets, and is written

S  T  {x : x  S or x T }

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T
S
S T

Figure 4 : The Union of Sets

The intersection of sets S and T is the set of

objects belonging to both the sets S AND T,
and is written

S  T  {x : x  S and x T }

S T

S T

Figure 5 : The Intersection of Sets

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REAL NUMBERS

The set of real numbers is often denoted by

R. Much of calculus is based on properties of
the real number system.

Real numbers are numbers that can be

expressed as decimals, such as

3
  0.75000... , 1  0.3333.... and 2  1.4142...
4 3

Occasionally, we shall refer to the following

subsets of R:

 The set of natural numbers

(counting numbers) :

N = {1, 2, 3, .......}

 The set of integers :

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Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

Z = {....,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ....}

 The set of rational numbers :

 a 
Q =  x : x  ,a, b  Z , b  0
 b 
1 4 4 4 200 57
Examples are: ,   , and 57  .
3 9 9 9 13 1

The rational numbers are precisely the real

numbers with decimal expansions that are
either

a) terminating (ending in an infinite

string of zeros), for example
3
 0.75000...  0.75
4 or

b) eventually repeating (ending with a

block of digits that repeats over and
over), for example

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 2.090909...  2.09
11

 Any number that is not rational is

called irrational, x  Q . Examples
are  , 2, 3 5, log10 3
Real
Numbers

Rational Irrational
Numbers Numbers

Counting Integers
Numbers

Figure 6: Set of Real Number

Component Chart

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The system of real numbers consists of the

set R together with the usual operations of
addition and multiplication and the usual
notation of equality and order.

The Real Line

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Figure 7 : The Real Line

The real number system can be studied

geometrically by identifying each real
number with a point on a line.

This is done by selecting a point on the line,

called the origin O, as a reference point.

The number 0 is identified with the origin.

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Each point on the right side of O are positive

numbers and the left side of O are negative
numbers.

Inequality

Consider two real numbers r and s. The

notation r < s (meaning: r is less than s)
means that r is left to s on real line (Figure
8).

-∞ +∞
r s

Figure 8 : r < s

If r is less than or equal to s, we write r  s.

The notation r > s (meaning: r is greater

than s) means that r is on the right to s
(Figure 9).

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-∞ +∞
s r

Figure 9: r > s

If r is greater than or equal to s, we write

r  s.

Note: The relation r < s also means s > r.

Rules for Inequalities

If a, b, and c are real numbers, then: (the

symbol  means “implies”)

1. a  b  ac bc

2. a  b  a  c  b  c
3. a  b and c  0  ac  bc
4. a  b and c  0  ac  bc
Special Case: a  b   a  b

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1
5. a0  0
a

6. If a and b are both positive or both

1 1
negative, then a  b  
b a

Note: Multiplying by a positive number

preserves the inequality; multiplying by a
negative number reverses the inequality.

Also reciprocation reverses the inequality for

numbers of the same sign. For example,
1 1
2  5 but  2  5 and 
2 5

Intervals

A B

a intervals b

Figure 10 : Intervals

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An interval is a certain kind of subset of the

real line. An interval can be denoted by a
line between two points of A and B.

The element of intervals are each point value

are located between A and B. The several
types of intervals are described in the table
(Figure 11).

An open interval from a to b is the line

segment with endpoints a and b, but the
endpoints do not belong to the interval.

The closed interval from a to b is the same

segment, including the endpoints a and b.

A half-open interval could also be called

“half-closed”, and contains only one
endpoint of the segment.

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The interval (a, b] is “open at a” and “closed

at b”, while the interval [a, b) is “closed at a”
and “open at b”.

The infinite intervals represent interval

where one or both endpoints are the infinite
values.

The symbol ∞ represents “infinity”. It does

not represent a number, but rather the idea of
“unboundedness”.

Consequently, an “endpoint” at -∞ or ∞ is
never included in an interval; for example,
we write [2, ∞), never [2, ∞].

Type Interval Set Notation

Notation
Open ( a, b) {x : a  x  b}

Closed [ a, b] {x : a  x  b}

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Half-open [a, b) {x : a  x  b}
( a, b] {x : a  x  b}

Infinite ( a,  ) {x : x  a}
[ a,  ) {x : x  a}
( , b) {x : x  b}
(, b] {x : x  b}
(, ) R

Figure 11 : Type of Intervals

Example :

Rewrite the following intervals using

inequalities:

(a)(1,5) (b)[1,4] (c)(4,20] (d )(,1]

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Solution :

We simply apply the definition of each

interval notation, to get the following:

(a) (1,5)  {x :1  x  5} (b) [ 1, 4]  {x : 1  x  4}

(c) (4, 20]  {: 4  x  20} (d ) (,1]  {x : x  1}

Example :

Rewrite the set {x : x 2  x  6  0} in interval

notation.

Solution:

The stated condition x 2  x  6  0 can be

written in factored from as

(x + 3)(x – 2) < 0.

That is, the product of the numbers must be

negative. Therefore, one of the numbers

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must be positive and the other, negative.

Since x + 3 is greater than x - 2, it must be
that

x+3>0 and x - 2 < 0,

x > -3 and x <2
-3 < x < 2

Hence, the given set is

{x: -3 < x < 2} = ( -3 , 2 )

Example:

Solve the following inequalities and show

their solution sets on the real line.

(a) 2 x  1  x  3
x
  2x 1
(b) 3

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(c) x  1  5

Solution:

2x 1  x  3
2x  x  4
(a)
x4

The solution set is the open interval

(, 4) .
x

4
0

(b)
x
  2x 1
3
 x  6x  3
0  7x  3
 3  7x
3
 x
7

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The solution set is the open interval

 3 
 , .
 7 

 x
3 0

7

6
(c) The inequality 5
can hold only if
x 1
6
x  1 , because otherwise x  1 is
undefined or negative. Therefore, ( x  1) is
positive and the inequality will be
preserved if we multiply both sides by
( x  1) , and we have

6
 5, 6  5x  5
x 1
11
11  5 x, x
5

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The solution set is the half-open interval

 11 
1,  .
 5

 x
1 11
5

Absolute Value and Distance

The absolute value of a real number x is

denoted by x and is defined by

x if x  0
x 
 x if x  0

Thus, x is the distance between point x and

the origin on the real line. Note that the
absolute value of a real number is always
nonnegative.

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Example : Finding Absolute Values

3  3, 0  0, 5    5   5, a  a

Geometrically, the absolute value of x is the

distance from x to 0 on the real number line.
Since distances are always positive or 0, we
see that x  0 for every real number x, and
x  0 if and only if x  0.
Also

x  y = the distance between x and y on the

real line.

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Since the symbol a always denotes

the
5  5 3

-5 0 3

4 1  1  4  3

1 4

nonnegative square root of a, an alternate

definition of | x | is
x  x2 .

Note: It is important to remember that

a2  a .
2
Do not write a  a unless you already
know that a  0.

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Relation between Absolute Value and

Intervals

Let p be a positive real number. If the real

number x has satisfies any the property, then
relation between absolute value and intervals
are summarized in table.

With Without Interval notation

absolute absolute value
value
xp -p < x < p ( -p , p )
xp px p [ -p , p ]

xp x > p or x <- p (, p )  ( p, )

xp x  p or x   p (, p ]  [ p, )

xr  p r - p < x < r + p (r-p,r+p)

xr  p r  p  x  r  p [r-p,r+p]

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x  r  p x>r+p or x<r-p (, r  p )  (r  p, )

xr  p x  r  p or x  r  p (, r  p ]  [r  p, )

Note: x a if and only if x  a

Figure 11 : Inequality

Example : Solving an Equation with

Absolute Values

Solve the equation 2 x  3  7

Solution :

2 x  3  7 ;
2x  3  7 2 x  3  7
2 x  10 2 x  4
x5 x  2
The solutions of 2x  3  7 are x = 5 and x =-2.

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Example: Solving an Inequality Involving

Absolute Values

Solve the inequalities

2
(a) 5  1
x
(b) 2 x  3  1

Solution :
(a) We have
2 2
5  1  1  5   1
x x
2
 6     4
x
1
3 2
x
1 1
 x
3 2

1 1
The solution set is the open interval  3 2  .
,

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(b) 2x  3  1

2x  3  1 or 2 x  3  1
3 1 3 1
x  x 
2 2 2 2
x2 x 1

The solution set is  ,1   2,  

Absolute Value Properties

1. a  a
2. ab  a . b
a a
3.  b0
b b
4. ab  a  b (The Triangle Inequality)

Note: a   a .
For example 3  3 , whereas  3  3.

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Illustrating the Triangle Inequality

3  5  2  2  3  5  8
35  8  3  5
3  5  8  8  3  5

Proof for the Triangle Inequality

By using the definition of absolute

value x  x 2 , we get,

ab  a  b   a  2ab  b .
2 2 2

Note that a  a . Hence, ab | ab | so,

a  2ab  b  a 2 a b  b
2 2 2 2

a  b
2
 ab
 ab  a  b

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