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APPENDICES

SET AND REAL NUMBERS

Set: A set is a collection of objects. The objects are called elements of the set.

Set Notation: In Mathematics, we noted the sets in capital letters such as A, B, C,… and
so forth. And the elements of these sets as a, b, c,… and so forth respectively. A set S
with elements 1, 2, 3, … , 8, 9, 10 can be written as:

S = {1, 2, 3,…, 8, 9, 10} or S = {x : x = 1, 2,3,...,8,9,10}  {x :1  x  10}

The notation x  S means that the object x is an element of the set S, and x  S means
that x is not an element of S . The notation S = {a, b, c, ...} means that S is the set whose
elements are a, b, c, ... and so forth. If P is particular property, the notation S = {x: x
satisfies P}, means that S is the set of all objects x that satisfy the property P.

b
c
a …….
S

S = {a, b, c,........}  {x : x = a, b, c,.......}

Figure 1 : Set S

The Empty Set or Null Set : The empty set is the set with no elements, and is often
denoted as  or S = { } .
Note: S = {0} is not an empty set or null set because it has an element 0.

S
S =

Figure 2 : The Empty Set

Subset : A set S is a subset of set T, denoted S  T , if every element of S is also an
element of T.

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T
S T
S

Figure 3 : Subset

Sets S and T are equal, S = T, if they have exactly the same elements, and
S  T  T  S.

The union of sets S and T is the set of objects belonging to either of the sets S OR T or
BOTH of the sets, and is written

S  T = {x : x  S or x  T }

T
S

S T
Figure 4 : The Union of Sets

The intersection of sets S and T is the set of objects belonging to both the sets S AND T,
and is written

S  T = {x : x  S and x  T }

T
S S T

Figure 5 : The Intersection of Sets

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REAL NUMBERS

The set of real numbers is often denoted by R. Much of calculus is based on properties of
the real number system. Real numbers are numbers that can be expressed as decimals,
3 1
such as − = −0.75000... , = 0.3333.... and 2 = 1.4142... .Occasionally, we shall refer
4 3
to the following subsets of R:

• The set of natural numbers (counting numbers) : N = {1, 2, 3, .......}

• The set of integers : Z = {....,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ....}

The set of rational numbers : Q =  x: x = , a, b  Z , b  0 
a
•
 b 

1 4 −4 4 200 57
Examples are: ,− = = , and 57 = .
3 9 9 −9 13 1
The rational numbers are precisely the real numbers with decimal
expansions that are either

a) terminating (ending in an infinite string of zeros), for example

3
= 0.75000... = 0.75 or
4
b) eventually repeating (ending with a block of digits that repeats
over and over), for example

23
= 2.090909... = 2.09
11

• Any number that is not rational is called irrational, x  Q . Examples are

, 2, 3 5, log10 3

Real
Numbers

Rational Irrational
Numbers Numbers

Counting
Integers
Numbers

Figure 6 : Set of Real Number Component Chart

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The system of real numbers consists of the set R together with the usual operations of
addition and multiplication and the usual notation of equality and order.

The Real Line

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Figure 7 : The Real Line

The real number system can be studied geometrically by identifying each real number
with a point on a line. This is done by selecting a point on the line, called the origin O,
as a reference point. The number 0 is identified with the origin. Each point on the right
side of O are positive numbers and the left side of O are negative numbers.
Inequality

Consider two real numbers r and s. The notation r < s (meaning: r is less than s) means
that r is left to s on real line (Figure 8).

-∞ +∞

r s

Figure 8 : r < s

If r is less than or equal to s, we write r  s .

The notation r > s (meaning: r is greater than s) means that r is on the right to s (Figure
9).

-∞ +∞

s r

Figure 9 : r > s

If r is greater than or equal to s, we write r  s .

Note: The relation r < s also means s > r.

Rules for Inequalities

If a, b, and c are real numbers, then : (the symbol  means “implies”)

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1. a b a+c b+c

2. a  b  a−c  b−c
3. a  b and c  0  ac  bc I
4. a  b and c  0  bc  ac
Special Case: a  b  −b  −a
1
5. a  0   0
a
1 1
6. If a and b are both positive or both negative, then a  b  
b a
Note: Multiplying by a positive number preserves the inequality; multiplying by a
negative number reverses the inequality. Also reciprocation reverses the inequality for
numbers of the same sign. For example,
1 1
2  5 but − 2  −5 and 
2 5

Intervals

A B

a intervals b

Figure 10 : Intervals

An interval is a certain kind of subset of the real line. An interval can be denoted by a line
between two points of A and B. The element of intervals are each point value are located
between A and B. The several types of intervals are described in the table (Figure 11).

An open interval from a to b is the line segment with endpoints a and b, but the endpoints
do not belong to the interval. The closed interval from a to b is the same segment,
including the endpoints a and b. A half-open interval could also be called “half-closed”,
and contains only one endpoint of the segment. The interval (a,b] is “open at a” and
“closed at b”, while the interval [a,b) is “closed at a” and “open at b”. The infinite
intervals represent interval where one or both endpoints are the infinite values. The
symbol ∞ represents “infinity”. It does not represent a number, but rather the idea of
“unboundedness”. Consequently, an “endpoint” at -∞ or ∞ is never included in an
interval; for example, we write [2, ∞), never [2, ∞].

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Type Interval Notation Set Notation

Open ( a, b) {x: a  x  b}
Closed [a, b] {x: a  x  b}
Half-open [a, b) {x: a  x  b}
( a, b] {x: a  x  b}
Infinite ( a, ) {x: x  a}
[a, ) {x: x  a}
( −, b) {x: x  b}
( −, b] {x: x  b}
( −, ) R

Figure 11 : Type of Intervals

Example :

Rewrite the following intervals using inequalities:

(a)(1,5) (b)[−1,4] (c)( 4,20] ( d )( −,1]

Solution :

We simply apply the definition of each interval notation, to get the following:

(a) (1,5) = {x :1  x  5} (b) [ −1, 4] = {x : −1  x  4}

(c) (4, 20] = {: 4  x  20} ( d ) (−,1] = {x : x  1}

Example :

Rewrite the set {x : x 2 + x − 6  0} in interval notation.

Solution:

The stated condition x 2 + x − 6  0 can be written in factored from as (x + 3)(x – 2) < 0.

That is, the product of the numbers must be negative. Therefore, one of the numbers must
be positive and the other, negative. Since x + 3 is greater than x - 2, it must be that

x+3>0 and x - 2 < 0,

x > -3 and x <2
-3 < x < 2

Hence, the given set is{x: -3 < x < 2} = ( -3 , 2 )

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Example:

Solve the following inequalities and show their solution sets on the real line.

x 6
(a) 2 x − 1  x + 3 (b) −  2x +1 (c) 5
3 x −1

Solution:

2x −1  x + 3
(a) 2x  x + 4
x4

The solution set is the open interval (−, 4) .

x

4
0
(b)
x
−  2x +1
3
− x  6x + 3
0  7x + 3
− 3  7x
3
− x
7

 3 
The solution set is the open interval  − ,   .
 7 

 x
0

6 6
(c) The inequality  5 can hold only if x  1 , because otherwise is undefined
x −1 x −1
or negative. Therefore, ( x − 1) is positive and the inequality will be preserved if we
multiply both sides by ( x − 1) , and we have

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6
5
x −1
6  5x − 5
11  5 x
11
x
5

 11 
The solution set is the half-open interval 1,  .
 5

 x
1

Absolute Value and Distance

The absolute value of a real number x is denoted by x and is defined by

x if x  0
x =
− x if x  0

Thus, x is the distance between point x and the origin on the real line. Note that the
absolute value of a real number is always nonnegative.

Example : Finding Absolute Values

3 = 3, 0 = 0, −5 = − ( −5 ) = 5, −a = a

Geometrically, the absolute value of x is the distance from x to 0 on the real number line.
Since distances are always positive or 0, we see that x  0 for every real number x, and
x = 0 if and only if x = 0. Also
x − y = the distance between x and y on the real line.

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-5 0 3

1 4

Since the symbol a always denotes the nonnegative square root of a, an alternate
definition of x is

x = x2 .

Note: It is important to remember that a 2 = a . Do not write a 2 = a unless you

already know that a  0.

Relation between Absolute Value and Intervals

Let p be a positive real number. If the real number x has satisfies any the property, then
relation between absolute value and intervals are summarized in table.

With absolute value Without absolute value Interval notation

x p -p < x < p ( -p , p )
x p −p  x  p [ -p , p ]
x p x > p or x < - p ( −,− p)  ( p, )
x p x  p or x  − p ( −,− p]  [ p, )
x−r  p r-p<x<r+p (r-p,r+p)
x−r  p r−pxr+ p [r-p,r+p]
x−r  p x > r + p or x < r - p ( −, r − p)  (r + p, )
x−r  p x  r + p or x  r − p ( −, r − p]  [r + p, )

Note: x = a if and only if x =  a .

Example : Solving an Equation with Absolute Values

Solve the equation 2 x − 3 = 7

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Solution :

2 x − 3 = 7 ;
2x − 3 = 7 2 x − 3 = −7
2 x = 10 2 x = −4
x=5 x = −2
The solutions of 2 x − 3 = 7 are x = 5 and x = -2.

Example: Solving an Inequality Involving Absolute Values

Solve the inequalities
2
(a) 5− 1 (b) 2x − 3  1
x

Solution :
(a) We have
2 2
5 −  1  −1  5 −  1
x x (The symbol  means “if and only if”)
2
 −6  −  −4
x
1
3 2
x
1 1
 x
3 2
1 1
The solution set is the open interval  ,  .
3 2

(b) 2x − 3  1

2x − 3  1 or 2 x − 3  −1
3 1 3 1
x−  x− −
2 2 2 2
x2 x 1

The solution set is ( −,1   2,  )

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Absolute Value Properties

1. −a = a
2. ab = a . b
a a
3. = b0
b b
4. a+b  a + b (The Triangle Inequality)

Note: −a  − a . For example −3 = 3 , whereas − 3 = −3.

Illustrating the Triangle Inequality

−3 + 5 = 2 = 2  −3 + 5 = 8
3+5 = 8 = 3 + 5
−3 − 5 = −8 = 8 = −3 + −5

Proof for The Triangle Inequality

By using the definition of absolute value x = x 2 , we get,

a + b = ( a + b) = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 . Note that either a = a or a = − a , and therefore

2

either a = a or a = − a . Hence, − a  a  a so,

− a  a2  a
2 2
 a 2 + 2ab + b 2  a + 2a b + b =
2 2
(a + b )2
a+b
 a+b  a + b

FUNCTIONS
Functions are major objects we deal with in calculus because they are the key to
describing the real world in mathematical terms. This section reviews the ideas of
functions, their graphs, and ways of representing them.

The value of one variable quantity, which we might call y, depends on the value of another
variable quantity, which we might call x. Since the value of y is completely determined
by the value of x , we say that y is a function of x. Often the value of y is given by a
rule or formula that says how to calculate it from the variable x. For instance the equation

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A =  r 2 is a rule that calculates the area A of a circle from its radius r. A symbolic way
to say y is a function of x is by writing

y = f ( x) ("y equals f of x ")

In this notation, the symbol f represents the function. The letter x, called the independent
variable, represent the input value of f , and y , the dependent variable, represents the
corresponding output value of f at x.

Definition : Function
A function from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element
f ( x)  Y to each element x  X .

The set X of all possible input values is called the domain of the function . The set of
all values of f ( x) as x varies throughout X is called the range of the function. The range
may not include every element in the set Y.

x f f(x)
Input Output
(Domain) (range)

A Function
f

f(x)
x

Range
Domain
Figure 12

Functions described by Formulas

The simplest way to describe a function is by use of a formula. A formula tells explicitly
how to find the image of a number by carrying out arithmetic operations.

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Example :

For each of the following functions, find f(0), f(-2), f(p) and 𝑓(𝑝2 ).

1
(a ) f ( x) = (b) f ( x) = x
x

Solution :
1 1 1
(a) f (0) is not defined ; f ( −2) = − ; f ( p) = ; f ( p2 ) =
2 p p2
(b) f (0) = 0 ; f (−2) is not defined ; f ( p) = p; f ( p2 ) = p2 = p

Note: Numbers that you should remember to exclude from the domain are those values
that would cause division by zero or the square root of a negative number

Example :

Find the domains for

1 1
(a) f ( x) = (b) g ( x) = x 2 − 4 (c) g (t ) = 9 − t 2 (d )h( w) =
x −3 9 − w2

Solution :

(a) We must exclude 3 from the domain because it would require division by zero. Thus
the domain is  x : x  3 This may be read “the set of x’s such that x is not equal to
3”.

(b) For g, there is no restriction on the values of x, since x 2 − 4 is a real number no matter
what real number x is. Thus, the domain of g is all of R.

(c) To avoid the square root of a negative number, we must choose t so that 9 − t 2  0 .
That is, we must have
9 − t2  0
t2  9
t 3
− 3  x  3  [−3,3]

(d) Now we must avoid division by zero and square roots of negative numbers, so we
must exclude -3 and 3 from the domain. The domain is therefore the interval (-3,3).

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The Graph of a Function

Definition : The graph of a function f is the set of all points (x , f(x)) in the coordinate
plane, with x in the domain of f .Thus, if the function f has domain X, then

Graph of f = {(x, y): y = f(x)}

y=f(x)

x
Figure 13 : Graph of f

The Vertical Line Test

If 𝑓 is a function that assigns the element in A with an element in B, then f can be denoted
by any curve of graph. Using by the vertical line test, we can define either f is a function
or not. Since each number x in the domain of a function f has just one image, no two
points on the graph of f can have the same first coordinate. This means that no vertical
line can meet the graph of f more than once.

Example:

function
Not a
function

Figure 14: The Vertical Line Test

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Some Types of Functions

1. A constant function is defined by a formula of the form f(x) = c, c a constant.

Example : f ( x) = 5

5 f(x) = 5

Figure 15 : Function f ( x) = 5

2. A linear function is defined by a formula of the form f(x) = mx+ b, with m and b
constant, and m  0 . (m is the slope of a line)

Example : f ( x) = 2 x − 3

y f ( x) = 2 x − 3

-3

Figure 16 : Function f ( x) = 2 x − 3

3. A quadratic function is defined by a formula of the form

f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c, a, b and c constants, and a  0

Example : f ( x) = x 2 y

f ( x) = x 2

0 x
Figure 17 : Function f ( x) = x 2

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4. A polynomial function is defined by a formula of the form

f ( x) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 + ........ + a1 x + a0

with n a nonnegative integer and a0 , a1 ,..., an constants. The degree of a

polynomial is the largest exponent that occurs in its formula

Example : f ( x) = x 5 − 3x 4 + x 3 + 6 x 2 − x + 2

5. A power function, defined by a formula of the form f ( x) = x n (n a positive integer).

6. A rational function is the ratio of two polynomial functions. That is, if p and q are
polynomial functions, then the function is a rational function.

x2 + x −1
Example : f ( x) =
x+2
7. A root function is defined by a formula of the form, with n a positive integer.
The domain of a root function is the set of all real numbers if n is odd and the set
of nonnegative real numbers if n is even.

Example : f ( x) = 3 x

8. The absolute value function is defined by a formula of the form

x if x  0
f ( x) = x = 
− x if x  0

f(x) = -x f(x) = x

x
Figure 18: Function f ( x) = x

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9. The greatest integer function is defined to be the greatest integer not exceeding x,
and is denoted by  x  .
If x is an integer, then [x] = x. Then, observe that if n is an integer and n  x  n + 1
then [x] = n .

y
2 •

1 •

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
• -1

Figure 19 : Function f ( x) = x 

Example : Sketch the graph of function f ( x) = 2 x 

Solution :

From definition of the greatest integer function, f ( x) =  2 x   n  2 x  n + 1 . Therefore,

n n +1
x for all integers n.
2 2

-2 -1 1 2 3

Figure 20 : f(x) = [2x]

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Algebraic Combinations

Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided (except where
the denominator is zero) to produce new functions.

Definition : If f and g are functions, then for every x that belongs to the domains of both
f and g (that is, for x  D( f )  D( g ) ) ,we define functions f + g, f – g, and fg by the
formulas
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x),
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x),
(f g)(x) = f(x) g(x).

f
At any point of D( f )  D( g ) at which g ( x)  0 , we can also define the function
g
by the formula
f  f ( x)
  ( x) = where g ( x)  0 ,
g g ( x)

Functions can also be multiplied by constants: If c is a real number, then the function cf
is defined for all x in the domain of f by
(cf)(x)=cf(x)

Example : Combining Functions Algebraically

The functions defined by the formulas

f ( x) = x and g ( x) = 1 − x ,

have domains D( f ) = 0,  ) and D( g ) = ( −,1 . The points common to these points
are the points
0,  )  ( −,1 = 0,1 .
The following table summarizes the formulas and domains for the various algebraic
combinations of the two functions. We also write f  g for the product function fg .

Function Formula Domain

f +g ( f + g )( x) = x + 1 − x 0,1 = D ( f )  D( g )
f −g ( f − g )( x) = x − 1 − x [0,1]
g− f ( g − f )( x) = 1 − x − x [0,1]
f g ( f g )( x) = f ( x) g ( x) = x(1 − x) [0,1]

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f f f ( x) x [0,1) (x=1 excluded)

( x) = =
g g g ( x) 1− x
g g g ( x) 1− x (0,1] (x=0 excluded)
( x) = =
f f f ( x) x

Composite Functions

Definition : Composition of Functions

If f and g are functions, the composition g f of f and g is the function defined by

Example :

If f(x) = 2x and g(x) = x - 1. Find formulas for g f and f g

Solution :

( g  f )( x) = g ( f ( x)) = g (2 x) − 1 = 2 x − 1
( f  g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) = f ( x − 1) = 2( x − 1) = 2 x − 2

Example :

Find functions f and g such that

Solution :

( g f )( x) = g ( f ( x)) = x − 3
 if f ( x) = ( x − 3)  g ( x) = x

THE INVERSE FUNCTION AND EVEN/ODD FUNCTIONS

One-to-one Functions

Definition : A function f is one-to-one (1-1) in case no two elements of the domain have
the same image under f.

Thus, if f is (1-1) function, then

f ( x1 ) = f ( x 2 )  x1 = x 2

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For each y in the range of f, there is exactly one x in the domain of f such that f(x) = y.

y y

f
f

x1 x2 x x1 x2 x3 x
A (1-1) function A function that is not (1-1)

Example : Determine whether each function is one-to-one.

Solution :

(a) Since distinct numbers have distinct fifth powers, this function is one-to-one.
(b) This function is not one-to-one, since, for example, f(-x) = f(x) , and two different
numbers have the same image.

The Inverse of a Function

Definition : If f is a function, the inverse of f can be written as is the function such that
for each x in the domain of f ,

Theorem : A function f has an inverse function if and only if f is one-to-one.

Example :

Find the inverse of each function, if it exists.

(a ) f ( x) = 3 x + 2 (b) f ( x) = x 3 − 4
(c ) f ( x ) = x 2 ( d ) f ( x) = x 2 if x  [0, )

Solution :

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(a) f is a (1-1) function , then the inverse of f exists such that,

(b) f is a (1-1) function, then the inverse of f exists such that,

x=(f  f −1
)( x) = f ( f −1
( x)) = f  −1
 3
( x) − 4
 
3
 f −1 ( x) = x + 4  f −1 ( x) = ( x + 4) 3
1

(c) This function is not one-to-one, so it will have no inverse function.

(d) Thus, is one-to-one, so it will have inverse function,

( )
2
x=(f f −1 )( x) = f ( f −1 ( x)) = f −1 ( x)
 f −1 ( x) = x for x  [0, )

Finding the Range of a Function

The notion of inverse of a function also gives us a technique for finding the range of a
function, based on the fact that the range of a function f is the domain of its inverse f −1 .

Example :

Find the domains and ranges of the following functions:

x+4 1 1
(a) f ( x) = (b) f ( x) = (c ) f ( x ) =
x−3 x−3 4 − x2

Solution :

(a) The domain of this rational function is easily seen to be the set of all real numbers
except 3. To find the range, we find the inverse of f. In order to simplify the process,
we will write y = f ( x ) , interchange x and y (thus, expressing y as f −1 ( x ) ), and solve
for y:

From the inverse definition,

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y+4
x = f ( y) =  x( y − 3) = y + 4  xy − y = 3x + 4
y −3
3x + 4
 y ( x − 1) = 3x + 4  = f −1 ( x)
y=
x −1
−1
 Domain f = (−,1)  (1, ) = range of f

(b) Since x − 3 must be positive for this function to be defined, we see that the domain of
f is ( 3,  ) . The range clearly consists of positive numbers. To be more specific, we
find f −1 :

Let y = f −1 ( x)  x = f ( y)
1 1
 x=  x y −3 =1  y −3=
y −3 x2
1
 y= 2
+ 3 = f −1 ( x)
x
 Domain f −1 = (−, 0)  (0, ). Range f  0  range f = (0, )

(c) Since 4 − x 2 must be positive, we find that the domain of f is (-2, 2). We again note
that the range consists only of positive numbers. Next, we find f −1 :
1
If y = f −1 ( x), then x = f ( y )  x =
4 − y2
1 1 1
 4 − y2 =  y2 = 4 −  y =  4−
x2 x2 x2
1 1 1
 4−
2
0  2
4  x2  4  x
x x 2
1 1 1 
 x or x−  range f =  ,  
2 2 2 
The Even and Odd Functions

Definition :

(1) A function f is an even function if and only if f(-x) = f(x) for all x.
(2) A function f is an odd function if and only if f(-x) = - f(x) ) for all x.

Example :

f ( x) = x 2 is even because f (− x) = ( − x ) = x 2 = f ( x)
2

f ( x) = x3 is odd because f (− x) = ( − x ) = − x 3 = − f ( x)
3

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The even and odd function properties.

(1) Even  Even = Even, Odd  Odd = Odd.

(2) Even (odd)  Odd (even) = Not Even nor Odd.

(3) Even  Even = Even, Odd  Odd = Even.

(4) The product of an even and odd functions is odd.

Example :

Determine whether each function is even or odd.

1 1
(a ) f ( x) = x (b) f ( x) = x − 2 (c) f ( x) = (d ) f ( x) = .
x x2

Solution:

(a) f (− x) = − x = x = x = f ( x)  f is a even
(b) f (− x) = − x − 2 = −( x + 2) = x + 2 = x + 2  f ( x) 
f is not a even or odd
1
(c) f (− x) = − = − f ( x)  f is a odd
x
1 1
(d ) f (− x) = = 2 = f ( x)  f is a even
(− x) 2
x

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Radian Measure

In nagivation and astronomy, angles are measured in degrees, but in calculus it is best to
use units called radians because of the way they simplify later calculations.

 radians =180

For example, 45° in radian measure is

 
45  = rad
180 4

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
And radians is
6
 180
 = 30 .
6 

Basic Trigonometric Functions

The trigonometric functions are the sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cotangent
(cot), secant (sec) and cosecant (csc) and defined in terms of the coordinates of P(t)
= (x, y) by
y
sin t = y cos t = x tan t =
x
1 1 x
csc t = sec t = cot t =
y x y

P
y

t
x
Figure 21 : Trigonometric function for an angle t

Trigonometric Identities

sin x
tan x =
cos x
cos x
cot x =
sin x
1
csc x =
sin x
1
sec x =
cos x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1
1 + tan 2 x = sec 2 x
cot 2 x + 1 = csc2 x

Reduction Formulas

sin( − x) = − sin x

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cos(− x) = cos x
 
sin  x +  = cos x
 2
 
cos  x +  = − sin x
 2
 
sin  − x  = cos x
2 
 
cos  − x  = sin x
2 

Addition and Subtraction Formulas

sin ( x  y ) = sin x cos y  cos x sin y

cos ( x  y ) = cos x cos y sin x sin y
tan x  tan y
tan ( x  y ) =
1  tan x tan y

Double-Angle Formulas

sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x

cos 2 x = cos 2 x − sin 2 x = 1 − 2sin 2 x = 2cos 2 x − 1
2 tan x
tan 2 x =
1 − tan 2 x
Half-Angle Formulas

1
sin 2 x = (1 − cos 2 x)
2
1
cos 2 x = (1 + cos 2 x)
2
1 − cos 2 x sin 2 x
tan x = =
sin 2 x 1 + cos 2 x

Product-To-Sum Formulas
1
sin x sin y =  cos ( x − y ) − cos ( x + y ) 
2
1
sin x cos y = sin( x + y ) + sin( x − y ) 
2
1
cos x cos y =  cos ( x + y ) + cos ( x − y ) 
2

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Example: Finding Trigonometric Function Values

3 
If tan  = and 0    , find the five other trigonometric functions of  .
2 2

Solution :

3
From tan  = , we construct the right triangle as in Figure 2.
2

13
3


𝜃 2

Figure 22

The Pythagorean Theorem gives the length of the hypotenuse as 13 . From the triangle
we write the values of the other five trigonometric functions:
2 3 13 13 2
cos  = , sin  = , sec  = , csc  = , cot  =
13 13 2 3 3

Example :

Find the angles for the equation.

4 sec 2  = 3 tan  + 5

Solution :

Since sec 2  = 1 + tan 2  , we have

4 + 4 tan 2  = 3 tan  + 5 or 4 tan 2  − 3 tan  − 1 = 0

Then, (tan  − 1)(4 tan  + 1) = 0  tan  = 1 ; tan  = −

1
4

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Finally,

 = n + 45 and  = n - 14 2.

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Definition:

A logarithmic function L is a nonconstant, differentiable function defined on (0 ,  ) ,

such that for any x, y  (0 ,  ) ,

L (xy ) = L (x) + L (y).

We can deduce some properties of logarithmic function directly from the definition.
For instance, if 𝐿 is a logarithmic function, then

L (1) = L (1.1) = L (1) +L (1)

= 2L(1)
So that

L (1) = 0.

Also, for any x  (0 ,  ) , we have

 1 1
0 = L (1) = L  x.  = L (x) +L  
 x  x
So that

1
L   = - L (x)
 x

Hence, it follows that for x, y  (0 ,  )

x
L   = L (x) – L (y).
 y

Moreover,

𝐿(𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝐿 ( ⏟
𝑥⋯𝑥) = ⏟
𝐿(𝑥) + ⋯ + 𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑛𝐿(𝑥).
𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

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Natural Logarithm

The most natural, or simplest, logarithmic function is the natural logarithm function for x
 (0 ,  ) and is denoted by

𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥.

6.2 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Introduction:

Definition:

The natural exponential function, denoted by exp, is the inverse of the natural
logarithmic function.

The Inverse of lnx:

As was shown in the previous section 6.1, the natural logarithmic function is increasing,
and hence, is one-to-one. Therefore

f (x ) = ln x has an inverse function, which we will denote by

f −1 (x ) = exp(x )

Definition:

If x is any real number, then

y = exp(x ) = e x if and only if ln y = x .

Because ln x has domain (0 ,  ) and range (−  ,  ) , its inverse e x has domain (−  ,  )

and range (0 ,  ) . Thus, e x is positive for all x.

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Graph of 𝒆𝒙

Since e x is positive for all x, we see that e x is an increasing function.

Since ln 1 = 0 , we have e 0 = 1 .
Also e x →  as x →  and e x → 0 as x → −
The graph of y = e x is shown in Figure 1

1
x

Figure 23: The Graph of y = e x

Definition:

The number e = exp(1) is called the base of the natural logarithm.

Theorem: If n represents an integer, then

n
 1
e = lim 1 +   2.71828
n →  n
The proof of this theorem is omitted.

Definition:

For any real number x,

e x = exp(x )

i. ln e x = x for every x (4)

ii. e ln x = x for every x  0 (5)

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Theorem:
For any real numbers x and y:

a. e x + y = e x e y b. e x − y =
ex
ey
( )y = e xy
c. e x

OTHER EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Definition:

If b is a positive real number, then for any real number x,

b x = e (ln b )x

Note: if x is rational, then this definition holds, since

e (ln b )x = e (ln b ) = bx
x

By property (5), we can prove that for any real number 𝑎,

ln x a = a ln x . (6)

Graph of f (x ) = b x :
If b = 1 , then the exponential function 1 x has derivative 0 since ln 1 = 0 .
Thus 1 x is constant. y

y = 1x

1
x
Figure 24:

If b  1 , then ln b  0 and b x has a positive derivative.

Thus, b x is an increasing function.

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 Calculus I MTS 3101
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y = 2x
1

x
Figure 25:

If 0  b  1 , then ln b  0 , and b x has a negative derivative.

Thus, b x is a decreasing function.
y

x
1
y=  
1 2

Figure 26:

The inverse of the exponential functions are the logarithmic functions.

Definition:

If b is a positive real number and b  1 , the logarithmic function with base b denoted by
f ( x ) = log b x

and is defined by

y = log b x  x = b y

Since log b x is the inverse of b x , the domain of log b x is (0,  ) and

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the range is (− ,  )

The Natural Logarithms are logarithms with base e is

ln x = log e x

log b x can be express in terms of the logarithmic function with base e or ln x

The formula is

ln x
log b x = (4)
ln b

Graph of f ( x ) = log b x :

If b  1 , then ln b  0 , and log b x is an increasing function.

y

y = log 2 x

x
1

Figure 27:

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If 0  b  1 , then log b x is a decreasing function.

y

y = log1 / 2 x

Figure 28:

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Introduction:

The hyperbolic functions are special combination of exponential functions that occur in
certain applications.

Definition:

The Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine

1. The Hyperbolic sine function is defined by

sinh x =
2
(
1 x
e − e− x )
2. The Hyperbolic cosine function is defined by

cosh x =
2
(
1 x
e + e− x )

Other Hyperbolic Functions

The hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic cotangent, hyperbolic secant, and hyperbolic

cosecant functions are defined by

sinh x cosh x
3. tanh x = 4. coth x =
cosh x sinh x

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 Calculus I MTS 3101
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1 1
5. sec hx = 6. csc hx =
cosh x sinh x

Hyperbolic identities

1. sinh(− x ) = − sinh(x ) 2. cosh(− x ) = cosh x

2 2
3. cosh x − sinh x = 1 4. 1 − tanh 2 x = sec h 2 x
5. sinh(x + y ) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
6. cosh(x + y ) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

6.6.1 The Inverse trigonometric functions

Since the trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, they do not have inverse functions.
By restricting their domains, however, we may obtain one-to-one functions that have the
same values as the trigonometric functions and that do have inverses over these restricted
domains.
Consider the sine function, the portion of the graph that lies over the interval
−  / 2, / 2 is the graph of one-to-one function. So this new function, with domain
−  / 2, / 2 and range − 1,1 .
Definition:

1. The inverse sine function, denoted sin −1 , is defined by

y = sin −1 x or arcsin x if and only if x = sin y

for − 1  x  1 and −  / 2  y   / 2
In a similar way, principal domains are chosen for the other trigonometric functions, and
the following statements define their inverses:

2. y = cos −1 x if and only if x = cos y and y  0, 

3. y = tan −1 x if and only if x = tan y and y  (−  / 2, / 2)

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4. y = cot −1 x if and only if x = cot y and y  (0, )

5. y = sec −1 x if and only if x = sec y and y  (−  ,− / 2)  (0, / 2)

6. y = csc −1 x if and only if x = csc x and y  (−  ,− / 2  (0, / 2

Inverse Hyperbolic functions

Consider the hyperbolic sine function is continuous and increasing for every x .Since
sinhx is defined in terms of e x , we might expect that sinh −1 x can be expressed in terms
of the inverse, ln.

Definition:

1.The inverse hyperbolic sine function , denoted sinh −1 , is defined by

y = sinh −1 x if and only if x = sinh y and sinh −1 x = ln x + x 2 + 1 

 

In a similar way, we define their inverse

2. y = cosh −1 x if and only if x = cosh y and cosh −1 x = ln x + x 2 − 1  , x  1

 

1 1+ x 
3. y = tanh −1 x if and only if x = tanh y and tanh −1 x = ln , x  1
2 1− x 

35