*************************************************************************

Academic Year 2021-22

Unit: Electricity Grade: MYP 5

Key concept: Change Related concept: Development, Models

Global context: Orientation in space and time

Students will explore: peoples, boundaries, exchange and interaction.

SOI: Technology designers have been developing different electronic

models to bring change in society.

Contents:

1) Static Electricity
• Electric charge
• Charging and methods of charging
• Representing electric field
2) Electrical quantities
• Current in electric circuits
• Potential difference
• Ohm’s law
• Electrical resistance
• Electricity and energy
3) Electric circuits
• Circuit components
• Combinations of resistors
• Electronic circuits
4) Electrical safety
Static Electricity
Electrostatics is a branch of physics in which static electric field produced by
static electric charges are studied.

Electric Charge

Charge is the fundamental property of forms of matter that exhibit electrostatic

attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Electric charge is a
characteristic property of many subatomic particles. The charges of free-
standing particles are integer multiples of the elementary charge e. The SI
derived unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb (symbol: C).

The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that passes through the
cross section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere for one second
.This unit was proposed in 1946 and ratified in 1948.

The amount of charge in 1 electron (elementary charge) is approximately

1.6×10−19 C, and 1 coulomb corresponds to the amount of charge for about
6.24×1018 electrons. The symbol Q is often used to denote a quantity of
electricity or charge.

Charge cannot exist without material carrying it. It is possible to develop the
charge by rubbing two solids having friction. Carrying the charges is called
electrification. Electrification due to friction is called frictional electricity.

Types of charges

"Basic Properties of Electric Charge." Askiitians.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 July 2019.

Benjamin Franklin made this nomenclature of charges being +ve and –ve for
mathematical calculations because adding them together cancel each other.
"Atomic Structure: Minecraft: Education Edition." Minecraft. Soheir Zaki, 12 July 2018. Web. 31
July 2019.

By convention, the charge of an electron is negative, −e, while that of a proton

is positive, +e. Charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one
another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. Atoms
typically have equal numbers of protons and electrons, in which case their
charges cancel out, yielding a net charge of zero, thus making the atom
neutral.

"Electric Charge." SPM Physics Form 4/Form 5 Revision Notes. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 July 2019.

Methods of charging

The process of supplying the electric charge (electrons) to an object or losing

the electric charge (electrons) from an object is called charging. An uncharged
object can be charged in different ways.

• Charging by friction
• Charging by conduction
• Charging by induction

• Charging by friction

When an object is rubbed over another object, the electrons get transferred
from one object to another. This transfer of electrons takes place due to friction
between the two objects. The object that transfers electrons loses negative
charge (electrons) and the object that accepts electrons gains negative charge
(electrons).

Hence, the object that gains extra electrons becomes negatively charged and
the object that loses electrons becomes positively charged. Thus, the two
objects get charged by friction. The charge obtained on the two objects is called
friction charge. This method of charging an object is called electrification by
friction.

• Charging by conduction

The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing it in contact with

another charged object is called charging by conduction. A charged object has
unequal number of negative (electrons) and positive charges (protons). Hence,
when a charged object is brought in contact with the uncharged conductor, the
electrons get transferred from charged object to the conductor. Consider an
uncharged metal rod A kept on an insulating stand and a negatively charged
conductor B as shown in below figure.

Shaik, Asif. Methods of Charging. Physics and Radio-Electronics, 2013. Web. 31 July 2019.

If we touch the uncharged conductor A with the negatively charged conductor

B, transfer of electrons from charged conductor to uncharged conductor takes
place. Hence, uncharged conductor gains extra electrons and charged
conductor loses electrons. Thus, uncharged conductor A becomes negatively
charged by gaining of extra electrons.

• Charging by induction

The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing another charged

object near to it, but not touching it, is called charging by induction. Consider
an uncharged metal sphere and negatively charged plastic rod as shown in
below figure (1). If we bring the negatively charged plastic rod near to
uncharged sphere as shown in below fig , charge separation occurs.

Shaik, Asif. Methods of Charging. Physics and Radio-Electronics, 2013. Web. 31 July 2019.

The positive charges in the sphere get attracted towards the plastic rod and
move to one end of the sphere that is closer to the plastic rod. Similarly,
negative charges get repelled from the plastic rod and move to another end of
the sphere that is farther away from the plastic rod. Thus, the charges in the
sphere rearrange themselves in a way that all the positive charges are nearer to
the plastic rod and all the negative charges are farther away from it.

Coulomb Law- Coulomb's law quantifies the electrostatic force between two
particles by asserting that the force is proportional to the product of their
charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
F ∝ q1q2

Or, F ∝ 1/r2

F = k q1q2/ r2

where k is proportionality constant and equals to 1/4 π ε0. Here, ε0 is the

epsilon naught and it signifies permittivity of a vacuum. The value of k comes
9X109 Nm2/ C2 when we take the S.I unit of value of ε0 is 8.854 ×10-12 C2 N-1 m-2.
The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, but with
opposite sign. This charge is often small, because matter is made of
atoms.

Electric field: -Electric field is the environment created by an electric

charge(source charge) in the space around it, such that if any other electric
charges (test charges) is present in this space, it will come to know of its
presence and exert a force on it.
Shaik, Asif. Methods of Charging. Physics and Radio-Electronics, n.d. Web. 31 July 2019.

Electric field strength can be mathematically defined as force per unit charge

Electric Field Intensity = Force / Unit Charge

As we know that force is measured in Newton’s and charge is measured in

coulombs. Hence, electric field strength is measured in Newton’s per coulomb
(N/C)

Electric current and electrical circuits

• Consider two metallic conducting balls charged at different potential are

hanged using a non-conducting insulating wire. Since air is an
insulator, no charge transfer takes place
• Now if we join both the metallic wire using a conducting metallic wire
then charge will flow from metallic ball at higher potential to the one at
lower potential.
• This flow of charge will stop when the two balls would be at the same
potentials.
• If somehow, we could maintain the potential between the metallic
ballsthrough a cell or battery, we will get constant flow of the charge
in metallic wire, connecting the two conducting balls
• This flow of charge in metallic wire due to the potential difference
between two conductors used is called electric current.
• So, electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing
through a particular area in unit time.
• In other words, it is the rate of flow of electric charges (electrons) in a
conductor (for example copper or metallic wire).
• If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t,
then the current I, through the cross-section is
 I = Q / t = coulomb/ sec.
The S.I. unit of electric current is Ampere (A)

• When 1 Coulomb of charge flows through a cross-section of conductor in

1 second then current flowing through the conductor is said to be 1

Ampere.

"Class 10 Electricity Notes." Class 10 Electricity| Circuit Diagrams and Ohm's Law. N.p., n.d.
Web. 31 July 2019.

• Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter. It is always

connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be
measured.
• A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric
circuit. For example, figure given below shows a typical electric circuit
comprising a cell, an electric bulb, an ammeter A and a plug key K.

EkShiksha. "Electricity: Electricity: CBSE: Class 10." EkShiksha. N.p., 31 Aug. 2017. Web. 31
July 2019

• Note that the electric current flows in the circuit from the positive
terminal of the cell to the negative terminal of the cell through the
bulb and ammeter
• The conventional direction of electric current is from positive terminal
of the cell to the negative terminal through the outer circuit.

Electric potential and potential difference

• Charges present in a conductor does not flow from one end to another
on their own.
 • Electric charges or electrons move in a conductor only if there is a
difference of electric pressure, called potential difference, along the
conductor.
• This difference of potential may be produced by a battery, consisting
of one or more electric cells.
• Potential difference across the terminals of the cell is generated due to
chemical reaction within the cell.
• When the cell is connected to a conducting circuit element, the
potential difference sets the charges inside the conductor in motion
and produces an electric current.
• In order to maintain the current in a given electric circuit, the cell has
to expend its chemical energy stored in it.

"Class 10 Electricity Notes." Class 10 Electricity| Circuit Diagrams and Ohm's Law. N.p., n.d.
Web. 31 July 2019.

The potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the
amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another
point. So,

Potential difference = Work done / quantity of charge transferred

= W/ Q

The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V)

The potential difference between two points is said to be one Volt if 1 Joule of
work is done in moving 1 Coulomb of electric charge from onepoint to
another. Thus

1 volt = 1 joule/ 1Coulomb

The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the

voltmeter.
Ohm's Law

Ohm's law is the relation between the potential difference applied to the ends of
the conductor and current flowing through the conductor. This law was
expressed by George Simon Ohm in 1826.

Statement of Ohm's Law

If the physical state of the conductor (Temperature and mechanical strain etc.)
remains unchanged, then current flowing through a conductor is always directly
proportional to the potential difference across the two ends of the conductor
mathematically
V ∝I
or
V=IR
where constant of proportionality R is called the electric resistance or simply
resistance of the conductor

Value of resistance depends upon the nature, dimension and physically

dimensions of the conductor.

From Ohm's Law -

V=IR

R=V/I

Thus, electric resistance is the ratio of potential difference across the two
ends of conductor and amount of current flowing through the conductor.

• If a graph is drawn between the potential difference readings (V) and the
corresponding current value (I), then the graph is found to be a straight
line passing through the origin as shown below in the figure

• EkShiksha. "Electricity: Electricity: CBSE: Class 10." EkShiksha. N.p., 31 Aug. 2017. Web.
31 July 2019.
•
• From graph we see that these two quantities V and I are directly
proportional to one another.
• Also from this graph we see that current (I) increases with the potential
difference (V) but their ratio V/I remain constant and this constant
 quantity as we have defined earlier is called the Resistance of the
conductor.
• Electric resistance of a conductor is the obstruction offered by the
conductor to the flow of the current through it.
• SI unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω) where 1 Ohm=1 volt/1 Ampere or
1Ω=1VA-1. Bigger units of resistance are Kilo-Ohm and Mega-Ohm
1KΩ=103Ω
• 1MΩ=106Ω

Factors affecting of resistances of a conductor

1. Length,
2. Area of cross-section
3. The nature of its material

Resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is directly proportional to its length

(l) and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A). That is,

Rαl
R α 1/A

Combining Eqs -
R α l / A or R = ρ (l / A)

Where ρ is the constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity

of the material of the conductor.

• The SI unit of resistivity is Ω m. It is a characteristic property of the

material.
• The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10-8 Ω m to
10-6 Ω m. They are good conductors of electricity.
• Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the order of 1012 to
1017 Ω m.
• Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with temperature.

Resistance of a system of resistors

• We know that current through a conductor depends upon its resistance

and potential difference across its ends.
• In various electrical instruments resistors are often used in various
combinations and Ohm’s Law can be applied to combination of resistors
to find the equivalent resistance of the combination.
• The resistances can be combined in two ways
1. In series
2. In parallel
To increase the resistance individual resistances are connected in series
combination and to decrease the resistance individual resistances are
connected in parallel combination.

Resistors in Series

• When two or more resistances are connected end to end then they are
said to be connected in series combination.
• Figure below shows a circuit diagram where two resistors are connected
in series combination.

EkShiksha. "Electricity: Electricity: CBSE: Class 10." EkShiksha. N.p., 31 Aug. 2017. Web. 31
July 2019.

• Now value of current in the ammeter is the same irrespective of its

position in the circuit. So we conclude that " For a series combination of
resistors the current is same in every part of the circuit or same current
flows through each resistor "
• Again if we connect three voltmeters one across each resistor as shown
below in the figure. The potential difference measured by voltmeter
across each one of resistors R1 , R2 and R3 is V1 , V2 and V3 respectively
and if we add all these potential differences then we get
V = V1 + V2 +V3

EkShiksha. "Electricity: Electricity: CBSE: Class 10." EkShiksha. N.p., 31 Aug. 2017. Web. 31
July 2019.
 • This total potential difference V measured to be equal to potential
difference measured across points X and Y that is across all the three
resistors in figure. So, we conclude that "the total potential difference
across a combination of resistors in series is equal to the sum of potential
differences across the individual resistors."
• Again, consider above figure where I is the current flowing through
thecircuit which is also the current through each resistor. If we
replace three resistors joined in series by an equivalent single resistor
of resistance R such that, the potential difference V across it, and the
current I through the circuit remains same.
• Now applying Ohm’s law to entire circuit, we
get,V = I R

On applying Ohm's law to the three resistors separately we have,

V1 = IR1

V2 = IR2
V3 = IR3

Hence
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

R = R1 + R2 +R3

• So here from above equation we conclude that when several resistances

are connected in series combination, the equivalent resistance equals the
sum of their individual resistances and is thus greater than any
individual resistance.

Resistors in parallel

When two or more resistances are connected between the same two points they
are said to be connected in parallel combination.

Figure given below shows a circuit diagram where two resistors are connected
in parallel combination.

EkShiksha. "Electricity: Electricity: CBSE: Class 10." EkShiksha. N.p., 31 Aug. 2017. Web. 31
July 2019.
Note:

When a number of resistors are connected in parallel, then the potential

difference across each resistance is equal to the voltage of the battery applied.

When a number of resistances are connected in parallel, then the sum of the
currents flowing through all the resistances is equal to total current flowing in
the circuit.

When numbers of resistances are connected in parallel then their combined

resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance. This happens
because the same current gets additional paths to flow resulting decrease in
overall resistance of the circuit

To calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in figure 5 consider

a battery B which is connected across parallel combination of resistors so as to
maintain potential difference V across each resistor. Then total current in the
circuit would be
I = I1 + I2 + I3
Since potential difference across each resistor is V. Therefore, on applyingOhm's
Law
V = I1R1 = I2R2 = I3R3

I1 = V/ R1, I2 = V/ R2, I3 = V/ R3

I = V/ R1 + V /R2 +V/ R3 =V [ 1/ R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/ R3]

If R is the equivalent resistance of parallel combination of three resistors

heaving resistances R1, R2 and R3 then from Ohm's Law

Or,
I = V / Req
hence
1/ Req = 1/ R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/ R3

For resistors connected in parallel combination reciprocal of equivalent

resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocal of individual resistances.

Electrical Energy

• When electric current passes through a high resistance wire, the wire
becomes and produces heat. This is called heating effect of current.
• This phenomenon occurs because electrical energy is gets transformed
into heat energy when current flows through a wire of some resistance
say R Ω.
 • Role of resistance in electrical circuits is similar to the role of friction in
mechanics.
• To we will now derive the expression of heat produced when electric
current flows through a wire. To we will now derive the expression of
heat produced when electric current flows through a wire.
• For this consider a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R.
Let V be the potential difference across it as shown in the figure 6
• Let t be the time during which charge Q flows. Now when charge Q
moves against the potential difference V, then the amount of work is
given by W = V x Q

EkShiksha. "Electricity: Electricity: CBSE: Class 10." EkShiksha. N.p., 31 Aug. 2017. Web. 31
July 2019.

• Therefore, the source must supply energy equal to VQ in time t. Hence

power input to the circuit by the source is
P = V Q/t = VI
• The energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time t is P × t that is,
Vit. This is the amount of energy dissipated in the resistor as heat
energy.
• Thus for a steady current I flowing in the circuit for time t , the heat
produced is given by
H= VIt
Applying Ohm's law to above equation we get
H = I2 Rt
This is known as Joule's Law of heating
• According to Joule's Law of Heating, Heat produced in a resistor is
(a) Directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistor.
(b) Directly proportional to resistance of a given resistor.
(c) Directly proportional to time for which current flows through the
resistor.

Applications of heating effect of current

1. The heating effect of current is utilized in the electrical heating

appliances for example electric iron, room heaters, water heaters etc. The
heating effect of electric current is utilized in electric bulbs or electric
lamps for producing light.
 2. An electric fuse is an important application of the heating effect of
current. The working principle of a fuse wire is based on the heating
effect of current. When high current flow through the fuse (current
higher than the rated value) then the heat developed in the wire melts it
and breaks the circuit.

Circuit Diagrams

A diagram which indicates how different components in a circuit have to be

connected by using symbols for different electric components is called a circuit
diagram. Table given below shows symbols used to represent some of the most
commonly used electrical components

"Class 10 Electricity Notes." Class 10 Electricity| Circuit Diagrams and Ohm's Law. N.p., n.d.
Web. 31 July 2019.

Electric Power

• Rate of doing work or the rate of consumption of energy is known as

Power
Mathematically,
Power = Work done / time = W/ t

• SI unit of power is Watt which is denoted by letter W. The power of 1

Watt is a rate of working of 1 Joule per second. Actually, Watt is a small
 unit, therefore, a bigger unit of electric power called Kilowatt is used for
commercial purposes. Also,
1 kilowatt = 1000 Watts
So, “the rate at which electric work is done or the rate at which
electric energy is consumed is called electric power”
• We will now derive formula for the calculation of electric power.

Now we know that work done W by current I when it flows for time t
under a potential difference V is given by
W= Vit joules

P = Vit/t = VI

Hence,
Electric Power = voltage x current

Power in terms of I and R

We know that
P=VI

Now from Ohm's law

P=I×R×I
Power, P=I2×R

Power in terms of V and R

We know that P=VI Now from Ohm's law

Or we have
I=V/I
P=V ×VR or P=V2 R

Electrical Safety

The major hazards associated with electricity are electrical shock, fire and arc
flash. Electrical shock occurs when the body becomes part of the electric
circuit, either when an individual comes in contact with both wires of an
electrical circuit, one wire of an energized circuit and the ground, or a metallic
part that has become energized by contact with an electrical conductor.

The severity and effects of an electrical shock depend on a number of factors,

such as the pathway through the body, the amount of current, the length of
time of the exposure, and whether the skin is wet or dry. Water is a great
conductor of electricity, allowing current to flow more easily in wet conditions
and through wet skin.

Electrical hazards can cause burns, shocks and electrocution (death).

• Never touch a fallen overhead power line. Call the electric utility
company to report fallen electrical lines.
• Stay at least 10 feet (3 meters) away from overhead wires during cleanup
and other activities. If working at heights or handling long objects,
survey the area before starting work for the presence of overhead wires.
• If an overhead wire falls across your vehicle while you are driving, stay
inside the vehicle and continue to drive away from the line.
• Never operate electrical equipment while you are standing in water.
• Never repair electrical cords or equipment unless qualified and
authorized.
• Have a qualified electrician inspect electrical equipment that has gotten
wet before energizing it.
• If working in damp locations, inspect electric cords and equipment to
ensure that they are in good condition and free of defects, always use
caution when working near electricity.

Bibliography:

• "Class 10 Electricity Notes." Class 10 Electricity| Circuit Diagrams and Ohm's Law. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 31 July 2019.
• EkShiksha. "Electricity: Electricity: CBSE: Class 10." EkShiksha. N.p., 31 Aug. 2017. Web.
31 July 2019.
• Shaik, Asif. Methods of Charging. Physics and Radio-Electronics, n.d. Web. 31 July 2019.