1

AN ASSESSMENT OF MASS MEDIA ROLE IN SUPPORTING WOMEN

EMPLOYMENT CAMPAIGN IN NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The campaign for women employment and emancipation in Nigeria has taken a new dimension

sequent to the new development in the literacy level of our women and the level of development

in mass media. The right of women have been severally abused and neglected. Women have

been relegated to the background and kept about from the scheme of things simply because of

unorthodox beliefs. today, some women have been forced to accepts that their major role should

be in the kitchen. Today, women in Nigeria are quickly realizing their supposed role in the

society. More educated women are now speaking out against the injustice being meted out to

the women folks. At that point, thermal which the mass media is supposed to  play comes in. as

a good agent of socialization, the mass media which concepts the radio, television and the press

is expected to champion the campaign for women employment.

Being the case, I researched and evaluated the attitudes, contributions and problems of the mass

media towards this direction.  I also gave useful suggestions on how best the mass media should

go in order to succeed in this worthy campaign for women employment.

 2

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The mass media have played a vital role supporting women employment campaign in

Nigeria. This it achieves using it’s channels which include: the radio, the television, newspaper

and magazines, books journals and so on.

In addition to supporting women empowerment campaign, they also performs the functions of

socialization, information, education, communication by carrying out enlightenment

programmes. They create forum for information and motivation.

The fundamental function of the mass media is mainly to expose, provide and enhance

incidental learning. They have the capacity to reflect and shape opinion thus playing active role

in public attitude formation. It is a very effective body of communication with good and wide

availability which makes it more convincing that a large number of people are more likely to be

influenced. Therefore, the mass media aims at converting, re –enforcing, charging or persuading

the activities of people in a given society.

A unique between the mass media and other agents of socialization and techniques by which

specialized groups employ technological device “press, radio, films etc. to disseminate

symbolic content to a large public.In assessing the role of the mass media in supporting women

employment campaign in Nigeria therefore, one takes into cognizance those roles both the

radio, television, newspaper, magazines, books and journals etc. have played by improving and

ensuring the welfare of the women in our society.

Abiola Akiyode Afolabi – a Lawyer and the Executive Director of women advocates research

and documentation centre, WARDC emphasized the need for women to clamour for their rights

and make the states to be more sensitive to their issues.

In Nigeria, women constitute 497 percent of our population, based on the 1991 census. They

therefore argue that in as much as they are almost equal to the population of men, they don’t
 3

know why the government can continue to rule without being sensitive to the rights of women.

They therefore suggest that government should take issues of women as priority.

1.1              BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The role of the mass media in any society includes:

a. Providing semi – formal kind of socialization

b.  Providing avenue for good listening, observation and imitation.

c. Providing modern communication.

d. Providing the child or an individual with the knowledge of wide world.

e. Organizing educative programmes that impacts knowledge to both youths and children.

f. Bringing to our homes the different culture of different people,

g. Entertaining the audience and

h. Creating role models.

In the light of the foregoing, one cannot neglect the enormous powers of the mass media having

consideration for the vast medium of communication it possesses.

            Over thew years, the need for women empowerment has continued to rise. In our

newspaper, magazines, over the radio, in the televisions, it have been variously discussed many

writers have put their opinions together in form of books and journals.

RADIO: Radio operations in Nigeria dates back to the year 1935 when Gazette Notice No.

1098 of September that year enumerated the conditions for the installation to subscribers of the

P and T loudspeakers. The Nigeria Broadcasting service (Nigeria Broadcasting corporation)

later took over on April 1, 1952. since that period, radio broadcasting have greatly contributed

towards the enhancement of women empowerment in Nigeria.

Today, the federal radio cooperation of Nigeria have it’s stations in almost all the states of the

federation. These stations reach out to the people with far reaching effects.

TELEVISION: The history of television operation in Nigeria dates back to  outcome of the

1973 broadcasting organisation of Nigeria Bon experiment with the NTA.

 4

 Basically, the Nigerian Television Authority was empowered among other things, to co –

ordinate the activities of the entire television network in the country. Thereafter, six operation

zones was set up to effectively manage all the NTA station.

With its advantage of possessing both audio and visual effects, the television has greatly

contributed to the development in Nigeria. Today, television stations a abound in almost all the

states of the federation carrying the message of women empowerment vigorously.

THE PRESS: The Nigeria of the Nigerian press fall into broad categories: the pre –

independence period and the post independence period till the present day. In Abeokuta,

Reverend Henry Townsend established the first newspaper in Nigeria called “Iwe Irohin”, in

December 1859. since then, other newspapers emerged and continued to carry out the campaign

for women empowerment.

1.2        STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The campaign for women empowerment in Nigeria has intensified since education have

made greater percentage of the women populace to be conscious of their rights. Nigeria’s 1999

constitution guaranteed everyone the right to freedom from discrimination on the grounds of

sex.

            Nigeria currently is the largest black Nation in Africa and the most populous, having

49.7 percent women out of the current population number; as stipulated by the 1991 census. The

contribution of the women in socio – economic, political and cultural development of Nigeria

cannot be over emphasized.

            In view of the above, it is expected that women with their large number in the society,

should be embraced into the scheme of things instead of being relegated to the background.

Already, in our various schools of higher learning, female student journalists have continued to

increase in number. With such development, it is expected that such large numbers should also

extend to the media houses and other fields of human endeavour.

 5

            It is very worthy therefore for the mass media to champion the course for women

employment so as to liberate then from all manner of discriminations, bad practices,

widowhood rites and practices, female genital multination, early marriages trafficking in 

women and other practices that both affect and discrimination against women.

            Owing to the observation, this project is aimed at mass media, their contributions, their

problems and their attitudes towards supporting the campaign for women empowerment in

Nigeria.

1.3              OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

My main objective for embarking on the study is identify and evaluate the following:

a.                   The role of the mass media in supporting women empowerment campaign in

Nigeria.

b.                  The contributions so for made by the  mass media supporting the campaign for

women empowerment.

c.                   The degree of responsiveness of women to the campaign.

d.                  The ways of improving the performance of mass media in the campaign for

women empowerment.

1.4        SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

I believed that at the end of this project work, the study would be relevant in the

following  directions:

a.       It will help to provide a good understanding of the role of the mass media in supporting

the Champaign for women employment in Nigeria.

b.      The study will help to expose the powerful influence of the mass media in the campaign

for women empowerment.

c.       The study will offer useful information towards improving the performance of the mass

media.

d.      It will expose the need for women empowerment in Nigeria.

 6

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.      What are the roles of the mass media in supporting women empowerment campaign in

Nigeria?

2.      Do the mass media contribute adequately towards the campaign for women empowerment

in Nigeria ?

3.      What factors hinder the performance of the mass media in enhancing women

empowerment campaign.?

4.      How can the performance of the mass media be improved?

5.      Can our women accept their supposed role and help in building the Nigerian society?

1.6              RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS INCLUDING NULL HYPOTHESIS:

H1:      The mass media have favourable attitude towards the campaign for women

empowerment

H0: The mass media do not have favourable attitude towards women empowerment in Nigeria.

H2: The media contribute positively to the campaign for women empowerment.

H0: The mass media do not contribute positively to the campaign for women empowerment.

H3: Socio – economic, culture and legal constraints hinder the position of women towards the

campaign for women empowerment.

H0: Socio – economic, cultural and legal constraints do not hinder the position of women

towards the campaign for women empowerment.

H4: The women could help in building and re – shaping the Nigeria society.

H0: The women could not help in building and re – shaping the Nigerian society.

1.7      CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS:

Conceptual means general notion. Operationally means those factors, national and man – made

that makes mass media’s position to women empowerment difference.

ASSESSMENT: Conceptually, means the act of checking the amount or value at which

something is calculated.
 7

Operationally, means a judgment or opinion about something.

MASS MEDIA:  Conceptually means the extended large channels of communication including

the newspaper, and magazines, radio, television etc.

Operationally, means large number of both newspapers, magazines, television, radio etc. used

for disseminating information.

 8

WOMEN – This is that belief and aim that women should have the same rights and

opportunities as men and the struggle to achieve this aim.

GENDER – The fact of being male or female, issues of class, race and gender, ways of

talking about men and women.

FEMINITY – This means the qualities that are considered to be typical of women.

MAINSTREAMING – This refers to cultivation analysis, television’s ability to move

people towards a common understanding of how things are.

MASS COMMUNICATION THEORIES – Is the explanations and predictions of Social

phenomena relating to mass communication to various aspects of our personal and cultural lives

or social systems.

OPINION LEADERS – These are people who initially consume media content, interpret it

in light of their own values and beliefs, and then pass it on to opinion followers from two –Step-

Flow-Theory.

STEREOTYPING – This is the application of a standardized image of conception applied to

members of certain groups, usually based on limited information.

MEDIA CAMPAIGN – This can be described as an organized, intensive form of persuasive

communication with specific aims and by an authoritative sponsorship, publicized through the

various media of mass communication. Its measure consists of acknowledgement of viewing,

reading or hearing about sponsored information on feminity in the mass media.

.
 9

MASS – The term describes a very large but amorphous set of individuals that engage in

similar behaviour, under external influence, and are viewed by their would be manipulators as

having little or no separate identity, forms of organization or power, autonomy, integrity or self

–determination. It represents one view of the media audience. It is used with the same negative

connotations in a number of related expressions, including mass behaviour, mass opinion, mass

consumption, mass culture, mass society, and so on, and of course ‘mass communication’ itself.

COMMUNICATION – The term has many different meanings and definitions, but the central

idea is of a process of increased commonality or sharing between participants, on the basis of

sending and receiving ‘messages’.

CULTURE – In the present context it has a primary reference to the symbolic artifacts

produced by, media industries, but it also has a hinder reference to customs, practices and

meaning associated with the mass communication process (production and reception). It is

sometimes used to refer to the

 10

wider framework of beliefs, ideology, and so on, of society (the ‘superstructure’) that

provides the context of media operation.

11
 12

REFERENCES
Babatunde, K. (2005). The Theories of mass communication. An introduction Text.
Stirling - Horden publishers (Nig) Ltd: Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
Brunsdon, C. (2000). The Feminist, the Housewife and the soap opera: Oxford University Press.
Bryant, J. (2003:427). “The appeal and impact of media sex and violence: in A.N. Valdivia (ed) A
companion to media Studies, Oxford: Blackwell.

Bryant, J. (2002). Media Effects: Advances in theory and Research Hillsda, e, NJ: Erilbaum.

Cappella , J. (2002). ‘Cynicism and social trust in the new media environment,’ Journal Of
communication.

CIRDDOC (2002). Violence against Women. CIRDDOC Public Education Series, No. 8 Enugu ,
Nigeria: Fuorth Dimension Publishers.
Cullen, K. (2000). Encyclopedia of women’s History in America. Facts on file 2nd ed. Ezeigbo,
T. Gender Issues in Nigeria; A feminine Perspective. Lagos, Nigeria. Vista
Books.

Gallagher, M. (2001). Gender Setting: New Agendas for media monitoring and
Advocacy. London: Zed Books in association with WACC, London.

Howard, A. (2000). Handbook of American women’s History, sage, 2nd edd. Mba, N. (1982).
Nigeria women mobilized, bukele: South California Press.
Nweke, T. (1989:2003). Women in Nigeria Society: the media women in Nigeria Today.
London: Zed Books.

Okonjo, K. (1985). ‘dual Stratification,’ In Ogundipe – Leslie molara (ed) Not Spin on on the Axis
of maleness: women in Nigeria, sisterhood is Global. New York: Double Day and Pelican
Books.
 13

Okunna, C. (2002). “ Mass Media Gender Images and the Nigerian Girl Child. Paper Presented at
summit 2000: Youth Children and the media. Toronto, may 2000.

Schenken, S. (1999). From Suffrage to the Senate: An Encyclopedia of American Women in

politics. 2 vols ABC – CL 10.

The World Book Encyclopedia. (2004). World Book Inc. a Scott Fetzer company, 233 North
Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60601 Vol. 21
 14

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The subordinate roles of women to men all over the world have been well documented

in the media and in the literature on women and development. All over the world the gender

issues relating to women or any other disadvantaged group centre around this major problem of

subordination. Since the decade for women (1976-1985) most governments have taken major

economic, political and social actions to promote the improved status of women. One of these

actions is the creation of focal points for women in many countries including Nigeria. But like

all initiatives governments alone cannot cope with the required gender needs that will lead to

equitable distribution of resources and power. Hence Non- Governmental Organizations

(NGOS) and Community Based Organizations (CBOS) as well as well meaning individuals in

decision making positions need to play a complementary role in the development and

employment of women. Since 1946, when the United Nations established a department for the

advancement of women, the status of women has become an issue of paramount concern to all

member – Countries. In Nigeria, the National Council of Women Societies (NCWS) founded in

1958, spearheaded the initiatives for the advancement of women especially in uplifting the

status of women in all spheres of life (Fagbemi.A.O.)

2.1 MASS MEDIA: TYPES AND INFLUENCES

Mass media has become an integral part of our lives and cannot be separated from our

lives. Particularly for the urban people, the need for information is more important than ever.

Our values and way of life in the society in this information era are strongly influenced by mass

media like newspaper, Television, radio, video, and the internet. Mass media’s influence on

people’s lives is even greater and deeper than many kinds of state indoctrination or priest’s

sermons from the pulpit in the church. The full range of unfiltered is now available to most of

us by using a parabola and satellite transmission. We can buy many kinds of videos freely and

access to the internet is easy and inexpensive almost everywhere. We can find many kinds of
 15

information using the internet technology. It is worth remembering that there have been three

recent revolutions in the history, i.e. agrarian revolution in farming, industry revolution & mass

production and information revolution that provides global access. We are now in the midst of

information revolution. Due to continuing developments in media technology, we are flooded

by a huge volume of non-stop information. Most of this information comes to us without a filter

or censor. The information can be positive or negative. It is important for all of us and

particularly teenagers, to be able to look critically at the information and the sources and make

positive choices. Having a critical attitude means that we can distinguish between positive and

negative information and make choices that will give us information that will benefit us and our

society.

2.1.1 News

Dominant perceptions of what constitutes news are among the most important determinants of

coverage. According to general accepted definitions, events rather than processes make

“News”. The activities of the wealthy and powerful rate more highly than those of the poor and

marginalized, including women. Most issued of special concern to women do not fit into the

traditional concepts of what constitutes news. First most women in India are neither affluent,

influential nor in position of authority and dominance. The invisibility and inaudibility of

women in society is thus further perpetuated and enhanced by the media. (Gaye Tuchman, ‘The

Symbolic Annihilation of women by the mass media’ in ibid.) A number of serious women’s

issues are not overtly violent or dramatic although often involving large numbers. The affected

persons are not necessarily part of a readily identifiable group or concentrated in a particular

geographical area. Further many aspects of women’s oppression are not so common place and

widely accepted that they are not considered sufficiently extra ordinary to merit coverage

(Joseph, 1994: 19, Whose news).

 16

2.2 REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN THE MEDIA.

An examination of gender and communication in Nigeria generates a lot of misgivings

and despondency about the possibility of effecting meaningful change in media representation

of women, as the media continue their ‘symbolic annihilation’ of

 17

women. The Nigerian society is still largely content with retaining cultural and religious

practices that dehumanize women and deny them their fundamental human rights.

However, the hazards of presenting an overall review of issues and trends in this now

vast field are rooted in even more complex questions than differential levels of access and use.

One of the most important lessons from feminist media theory over the past twenty years has

been that women’s experiences of discrimination, and indeed of identity itself, is heavily

determined by differences in terms of class, economic status, age, sexuality, religion, race and

nation. The inadequacies of ‘women and media’ studies that conflate the condition of white

heterosexual, middle–class women with the condition of all women are now acknowledged, and

contemporary media research has tried to grapple with more complex understandings of gender

identity and experience. (Gallagher,2002 P.2)

According to Gallagher,2002, the November 1995 International Comparative Study

found that out of 239 organizations studied, only eight (3%) were headed by women. A further

eight had female deputy directors. Most of these were small radio companies or news

magazines, and almost all were in Latin America (Gallagher, 1995a). In 2000 the International

Federation of Journalists carried out a survey covering 70% of its membership in 39 countries.

It found that although more than a third of journalists are women, less than 3% of senior media

executives and decision-makers are female (Peter, 2001). In the newly emerging media

industries, the picture does not look much better. A study of the major telecommunications and

e-companies in the USA established that only 13% of top executive are women (Jamieson,

2001). The European Union’s database on women in decision-making shows that in 2001

women held only 9% of senior

 18

management jobs in the telecommunications industry in Europe (European Database, 2001).

Why do so few women break through the glass ceiling? It can be argued that survival

and success in the media–particularly in market–driven systems–are dictated by the logic of

commerce, to which male journalists are equally subject. Of course there is an element of truth

in this. But particularly when it comes to the most senior editorial jobs another–perhaps

parallel, perhaps predominant–logic seems to operate. As Canadian Journalist Huguette

Roberge puts it a decade ago: “One woman at a time (…) One at a time. We barely manage to

fill the shoes left by one another” (quoted in Pelletier et al. 1989, p.91). In the years since then,

the situation has barely changed. Gail Evans, former executive Vice President of CNN, believes

that women themselves bear some responsibility for this. If there are “six seats at the

{management} and five of them are held by men, and one is held by a woman, every other

woman in the organization thinks there is one seat open. There isn’t. There are six seats open”

(See Evans 2001). Wherever the responsibility lies, the ‘one at a time’ mentality vis a vis

women in senior editorial management precludes the possibility of women building up the kind

of power base necessary for real change – either in terms of media output or in the way that

media institutions are organized.

But by far the most common obstacle to advancement that women media professionals

report is the problem of male attitudes. One of the most important implications of the male

dominance within media organizations is that women are judged by male standards and

performance criteria. Often this means a constant effort to be taken seriously, and ‘to prove that

you are as good as a man’. The hazards of not being taken

 19

seriously include the risk of sexual harassment – a problem mentioned by women surveyed in

2001 IfJ study, and in countries as different as Belgium (De Claque, 2002), Finland (Cassava et

al., 1993) Senegal (Van den Wijngard, 1992) and Tunisia (AJT, 1991).Thus while their male

colleagues use time after work to develop the ‘old boys’ network, some women may limit their

after work contacts because they prefer to avoid ‘risky’ situations.

Perceptions of editorial management as a tough and virile domain, where men in

smoke–filled rooms make decisions, are enough to stop some women from trying to become

part of a world they regard as alien. Even in Sweden, generally presented to be among the most

advanced in terms of gender equity, it seems that women must struggle against male–defined

norms to reach a senior media management position (Djerf–Pierre, 2002). In certain sectors of

the media, the overwhelmingly male culture appears to make it most impossible for women to

feel comfortable, and thus to thrive professionally. A recent study of employment in British

advertising found that the creative branch of the creation and design of adverts–is actually

losing women. Only 17% of copywriters are women–down from 20% in 1990. Similarly, only

14% of art directors are women–the lowest level ever recorded (Klein, 2000).

The study argues that the stereotypical ‘laddish atmosphere in most creative departments

is off–putting to women’. “It’s a bit like walking into the lion’s den”, said one female creative.

Another said: “women find the atmosphere childish, petulant and myopic and they don’t want to

put up with that”. The implications of this for advertising output seem obvious. According to

research from Japan, where the advertising industry is a ‘highly political, middle–aged male–

dominated sphere’ the creative process is shaped

 20

by chauvinistic conventions of ‘Japanese’ feminity–cute, consumerist, obedient and tradition–

oriented (Badurina Haemmerle, 2002). In a highly dramatic way, coverage of war exposes the

masculine agenda of the news media, and the implicit ‘rules of the game’ that permeate media

organizations. There has been considerable analysis of the absence of women’s voices even

images in the reports filed from Afghanistan during and after the war in 2001 (See curry Jansen,

2002; Dunn, 2002; fried man, 2002; Joseph, 2001). Others have highlighted the ways in which

women reporters themselves were side lined in the news coverage. For example, one respected

British weekly newspaper ran a section dedicated to “women‘s views of the war–as though

these women are not real reporters, because they were not men”. The result is that women’s

views of the war were “sectioned off from other, mainstream views, and thus trivialized as

weak, feminine, motherly and lily–livered rather than as valid, informed opinion” (Roper,

2002). Reflecting on women’s role in the reporting of this and other conflicts, one scholar

concludes:

If women are at the fore front of an alternative rhetoric and Action against war, then there are

dozens of powerful men (some who head countries, some who head newsrooms) who’ll make

sure that these views are berated and second - rate – thus ensuring that the dominant language of

war and ‘justice’ conquers and that the patriarchal order which supports this rhetoric is

sustained” (major, 2002, p.143).

The ‘rules of the game’ also mean that most news organizations demand a willingness to

express view points quickly, with bold affirmation and authority. Not all women feel

comfortable with this. For instance, one British journalist noted that many of her female

colleagues wanted to ‘pause’ on the unfolding of the complex events of September 11, so as to

register the scale of what was happening, before rushing into print
 21

as so many men seemed ready to do (See Branston, 2002). These gender–based differences

undoubtedly affect women’s perceived status within media organizations, and their chances of

promotion. In their study of journalists in Fin land, Kuusava et al. (1993) concluded that

women’s skills are undervalued. A journalist writing about ‘hard politics’ is supported and

regarded as good promotion material. Someone writing about ‘human’ and ‘everyday’ issues is

seen as unambitious (because apparently uninterested in the top priorities of the organization),

and tends to remain a rank–and–file reporter. The subtlety and circularity of this process, which

reflects and constructs power relations between women and men in the profession, is aptly

described by Eric Neveu (1997) with respect to French journalism. The journalists he

interviewed referred again and again to the conditions and professional interactions of daily

news gathering and writing, conditions in which women are unlikely to succeed unless they

play by the male rules. These include the practice of working late, which is perceived as the

price of success – a price which women often regard as taking too high a toll on their family

lives, and the male fascination with political power games, which often converts the journalist

into an ‘insider’ with privileged access to sources in the political sphere.

The male–defined rules of the game which determine journalistic culture – the customs

and practices which prevail within the profession – must therefore be understood not simply in

terms of working conditions, definitions of news worthiness, values and priorities. In a more

fundamental sense these rules permeate the very essence of what journalism ‘is’ or is believed

to be, by the majority of its practitioners. Comments from male editors in response to result of a

2002 survey detailing perceptions of gender – based discrimination among women in top

newsroom jobs in the USA (Strupp, 2002).

 22

The survey carried out in 2000 by the IFJ compared results with those from a similar survey

conducted a decade earlier. Ten years after that first study, many issues remained unresolved.

Women still lose out in appointments to the top jobs, have less access to training, earn less than

their male co–workers, are confronted with job segregation, limited promotion perspectives,

sexual harassment, and continue to be forced into impossible choices between career and family

life. This last is one of the major reasons given by women who drop out of media jobs in their

mid–30s (De Clerq, 2002).

Nevertheless, the belief that the gender balance in the media–particularly in its higher

echelons–will shift ‘in time’, as more women graduates enter the profession, is remarkably

persistent. Yet UNESCO data show that the predominance of female students in Mass

Communication stretches back to at least 1980 in most of the so–called developed Countries,

and to at least 1986 in Chile, Egypt, Jamaica, Lebanon, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Papua

New Guinea, Paraguay and Tunisia. How can this be reconciled with women’s minority

presence–especially in senior media jobs? There seems little doubt that women are

discriminated against at the stage of recruitment, simply because they are women. Studies from

various Countries show that male journalism graduates are more successful than females in

finding jobs in the profession (See Gallagher,1995a). Research released in 2002 by the Minority

Media Telecommunication Council (MMTC) in the United States found that in 1999 15% of

broadcasters,19% of cable companies and 19% of newspapers internationally discriminated

against women. Ethnic minority groups were even more severely disadvantaged: 20% of

broadcasters, 36% of cable companies and 37% of newspapers intentionally discriminated

against African Americans; 24% of broadcasters, 20% of

 23

cable companies and 26% of newspapers intentionally discriminated against Hispanics

(Blumrosen and Blumrosen, 2002).

Studies show that after recruitment men advance more quickly than women (Gallagher,

1995a), and women are well aware of this. An extensive 2002 cable industry survey in the USA

conducted for the National Association of Minorities in Communications (NAMIC) found that

21% of minorities and 22% of women employed in the cable industry perceived that their race

or gender, respectively, had a negative impact on opportunities at their companies (NAMIC,

2002). A further 2002 US study, for the America Press. Institute and the Pew Center for Civil

Journalism discovered that 64% of the women in senior newsroom jobs who don’t see

opportunities to move up say it is because men are preferred for these positions. Only a handful

of men (6%) in a similar situation see sexism as a barrier (AP1/pew, 2002). The experience of

discrimination is not, of course, confined to the USA. Studies in other Countries also show that

women media professionals are much more likely than their male colleagues to perceive gender

– based discrimination as a career problem (De clerq, 2002).

The mass media tend to reinforce traditional attitudes and often present humiliating

pictures of women, which do not all reflect changing attitudes in society, and especially the

changing roles of the sexes – like their counterparts in most parts of the world, the mass media

in Nigeria are to a large extent guilty of presenting stereotypes and atavistic image of women.

In a specific Nigerian study focusing on Kano women, Ayesha Imama confirmed this to be the

case.

Her research on the image of women as presented in the broadcast media led her to conclude

that:
 24

…the media generally produces sexists images of women, presenting stereotypes and under-

represent women. This analysis of programmes in Kano confirms the general picture. Both

television and radio programmes under – represent female characters and women’s viewpoints.

They present dominantly negative images of women, and put forward ideological themes

sanctioning women’s control and subordination. In short, they broadcast significantly

conservative ideologies which carry the massage women should acquiesce to, and men

strengthen and maintain relations of gender subordination.

Much the same conclusions were reached about the print media by the participants of a

workshop on “women and the media in Nigeria”, in June 1991. For instances, some of the

points made were that:

In the print media, more interest is focused on the women as a sex symbol performing domestic

roles. Interviews with female figures always include their beauty routine, the cosmetics they

use, their Love tangles with their boss and their secret peccadilloes.

The image of women so often seen in the media is internalized by the whole society. A woman

who has an opposing image is usually ridiculed to bring the back into the line. Alternatively,

she may be ignored especially if she is not in a position of power. The absence of positive

female image in the media sends out a far- reaching message. Of equal concern is the

demeaning nature of media material targeted at women. Media editors usually have a set of idea

about what should interest women.. On the whole, the selection is of light entertainment, home

– making tips and advice on how to keep their male counterpart happy.

Women make up 20 percent of media staff, but occupy about four percent of decision –

making positions. Although, one reason for this is the far fewer educational opportunities for

them. Eno Irukwu also suggested that:

 25

There had existed the erroneous impression that women in the art, theatre, broadcasting and

mass media were too assertive and wayward, not the right materials for marriage, home –

making and motherhood. To the African mentality, this was abhorrent, and parents were known

to have dissuaded their daughters from pursuing careers in the media. This attitude contributed

to the small number of women in the early days of broadcasting and may also have resulted in

the slow pace of their advancement to managerial positions. However, such ideas have change

with time.

Although, as Ineka observed, this image of the female journalist is slowly changing, the

damage done is taking much longer to redress. Because the job involves meeting very many

people, most of them, men in powerful positions, some people suspect female journalists of

immorality. It is common for dirty rumours to go round about alleged escapades of prominent

female journalists and for that to be believed as general behaviour of all others. Needless to say

that the same morality test rarely apply to male journalists. So, in conservative circle,

journalism is not quite yet a recommendable3 job for a “decent” woman. Anyone who is quite

familiar with how media editors work would know that many changes take place on their

desks. So, if a reporter files a woman

– related story, what the reader eventually gets is still very likely to be the male (editor’s)

perspective on the story. A few altered word in the report make all the difference. As Davis et al

puts it “what is selected for exposure (land what is not), how it is edited, constructed and

presented and by whom – all this is of paramount importance in structuring (and limiting) our

perceptions”.

There are many women in the media who have to fight with their families to continue in

journalism. Some employers are reluctant to provide benefits such as extended maternity leave

and flexible time arrangements. This is despite the recognition

 26

that women work just as hard, if not much harder than men. These women get pigeon – holed into covering

only those “soft” beats that do not really count for the male decision

– makers during promotion time.

2.3 Concept of women empowerment

Women empowerment has attracted the attention of many scholars. Okpoko (2002:4) stated, “Women

empowerment came into popularity with the feminist movement whose demand was that women become

empowered to take control of their own lives; to set their own agenda of what to do and how to do things that

affect them”. The effect of women empowerment creates a powerful influence on family, community norms

and values and finally the law that governs the community (Page & Czuba, 1999). According to Stromquist

(1995), women empowerment is a socio-political concept that involves cognitive, psychological, economic and

political dimensions. The cognitive component involves women’s understanding of the causes of their

subordination and marginalization and appreciating the need to make choices that may go against cultural or

social expectations. The psychological component refers to women’s belief and confidence that they can

improve their condition through personal and collective effort. The economic component refers to access to

income outside home through work that provides income independence. The political component involves the

ability to understand one’s situation and mobilize for change.

 27

Batliwala (1993:10) opined that “Empowerment is not merely a change of mind-set … but a visible

demonstration of that change which the world is forced to acknowledge; respond to and accommodate as best it

can”. Batliwala also stated that empowerment should start from within to involve learning about oneself from

many perspectives and learning to harness ones rational and emotional resources to achieve desired ends.

Empowering women is conceived as awareness-building, particularly about gender inequities in their societies,

building capacities and developing skills necessary to ensure that women effectively participate in present and

future decision-making and then organizing women into groups which take action to bring about desirable

changes, focusing on greater equality between men and women in all decisions (Batliwala, 1993). Hashemi,

Schuler, and Riley (1996) outline eight components of empowerment, which include mobility, economic

security, ability to make small purchases, ability to make larger purchases, involvement in major decisions,

freedom from domination by the family, political and legal awareness and involvement in political

campaigning and protest.

However, there are four basic aspects, which seem to be generally accepted in women empowerment

literature. Firstly, in order to be empowered, an individual must have been disempowered; this means that

women have been disempowered especially when compared to men.

 28

Secondly, empowerment cannot be provided by a third party; although several agencies and government have

made broad attempts in empowering women, it is obvious that the best they can do is to facilitate women

empowering themselves. Thirdly, definitions of empowerment usually include a sense of people making

decisions on matters, which are important in their lives. Fourthly, empowerment is an ongoing process in that

people are empowered relative to others or to themselves at a particular time (Mosedale, 2005).

Karl (1995) stated that there are four stages of the empowerment process with regard to women and

these include awareness; capacity building and skill development; participation and greater control in decision-

making; and action for change. Garba (1999) added two more stages which include capacity and skill

assessment, and evaluation stage, in order to facilitate a more systematic analysis of the empowerment process

that is more applicable to the empowerment of Nigerian women. According to Garba (1999) the capacity and

skills assessment stage increases the chance that the needed capacity and skills will be developed. It is also

viewed to have methodological implications in that a need assessment must be based on the objective

conditions of a specific problem of disempowerment.

 29

Batliwala (1994) outlined three approaches to empowerment which include integrated development,

economic empowerment, and consciousness raising. Integrated development approach views women’s

development as key advancement of family and community. This approach proceeds by forming of women’s

collectives that engage in development activities and tackle social problems such as inequality, dowry, child

marriage, and male alcoholism using a specific activity such as literacy class or healthy programme to mobilize

women into groups. The economic empowerment approach attributes women’s subordination to lack of

economic power. It focuses on improving women’s control over material resources. This is done through

organizing women for savings and credit, income generating and skill training activities. The third approach is

consciousness raising which asserts that women’s empowerment requires awareness of complex factors causing

women’s subordination. This is accomplished through education.

2.4 The need for educational empowerment:

Education is a viable instrument in bringing about positive changes in the pattern of life of people (Ndu,

2002). Meena et al (2008) assert that training is an essential process of increasing knowledge, changing

attitudes, and developing skills through instructions, demonstrations and by other techniques which develop

self-confidence in people. Education being a social process is responsible for developing and cultivating

various physical, intellectual, aesthetic and moral qualities as well as values in an individual. Azikiwe (1992)
 30

opined that education as a catalyst for improvement reduces if not eliminates completely the inhibiting factors

on women such as low income, inferior social status, superstition, ill health, dogmatism, early marriage and low

level of aspiration. Creating access to quality formal education gives women a sense of belonging and the

individuality will then be projected beside their husbands (Lockhead & Verspoor, 1994).

Enemuo (2001:26) posits that “an effective and sustainable process of women empowerment must

necessarily include the expansion of women’s access to educational opportunities, skill acquisition and

positions of authority”. Moda (1992) argues that problems have persisted among women for such a long time

because most of them have little or no exposure to literacy and education. In a similar tune, Ahmed (1992:2)

emphasized that “The world is undergoing changes in arts, science and technology and the extent to which

people perceive and actually are sensitized to those changes depends on a number of variables but the variable

with the greatest catalytic influence on our knowledge about ourselves and our world is literacy.”

Also, Phiri (1992:22) opined that “Achieving literacy education is the first step to enabling women to

take control over their own lives to participate as equals in society and to free themselves from economic and

patriarchal exploitation. By the same token, Correia (2000) argues that providing financial education to battered

women will create awareness of control over their financial opportunities and choices. Sanders and Schnabel

(2007) assert that economic education creates awareness of and control over financial opportunities and choices

since economic education aims to increase access to knowledge of financial resources and to increase women’s

self-confidence in independently managing and coping with financial problems.

 31

To Garba (1991:131) “women would be unable to contribute to the planning and design of

development projects in their community if the prevailing rules of human interaction prevent them from being

educated”. In addition to those views, Ballara (1991) outlined the importance of women literacy in different

sectors of life. These include: (i) Children school performance: Women spend more time with children than do

men; it is through them (women) that children receive their first perception of the world. Initially mothers

transmit habits, attitudes, values and knowledge. Women continue to play an important role as educators and

the higher the educational level of the mother, the more effectively she is able to transmit the knowledge

required for her children to achieve a better quality of life. (ii) Improved health: enabling women to develop

literacy can effectively contribute to their own and their families’ health and well being and by extension to

those of their community. Studies in several developing countries (e.g. Garikipati, 2008; Meena et al, 2008)

have pointed out that women’s education plays an important role in reducing infant mortality, increasing the

life expectancy of future generation and improving children rearing and development. (iii) Sustainable

development: Because women play an important role in the development process, radical measures to increase

literacy will enhance their participation in development and at the same time improve their status. Women

literacy also increases productivity and self- employment in the informal sector. Increased production in the

agricultural sector is also linked to the educational level of rural women.

Acquisition of knowledge is one of the prerequisites of human development. Literacy and post-literacy

activities specifically for women increase women participation in sustainable development. Education must be

available to all women in order to enhance their economic, political, social and cultural development (Ballara,

1991). Since education enhances a person’s self-worth and confidence and also creates an awareness of

capacity, women will

 32

become more effective in their roles in social activities and take initiatives in the decision- making processes if

they are educated. Inspite of the efforts made to improve the educational system in Nigeria, the Nigerian

educational system remains seriously flawed. According to the report of WomenAid Collective (2008), Nigeria

literacy rate is currently 65.7%; 49% of the teaching force is unqualified; there are acute shortages of

infrastructures and facilities at all levels, primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions; gender issues and socio-

cultural beliefs and practices inhibit access to education and there are wide disparities in the educational

standards and learning achievements between men and women (WomenAid Collective, 2008).

The issue of social justice and equity can only be attained when both sexes are given equal opportunities

in respect to educational training. In Enugu state for example, the total male enrolment in primary education is

270,189 while that of female is 144,436 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2006). Moreover, the dropout rate also

remains constantly and substantively higher for females than males. Secondary School completion rate for

girls in the country is 44% while that of boys is 75% (WomenAid Collective, 2008). The reasons for these are

varied but often center on gender stereotypes and discrimination because girls are likely to be withdrawn from

school to care for relatives or take other domestic responsibilities.

2.5 Justification for economic and political empowerment of women:

According to Okeke (1995:155) “economic empowerment of women will increase the productivity of

women and thereby raise the gross national product.” She also stated that a substantial amount of women’s

income is spent on family feeding and upkeep. Because of this, any increase in women’s income will reflect

positively on the family nutritional status and health standard and thereby raises the life expectancy of

Nigerians.
 33

Garba (1999) maintains that improving women’s economic status by providing them with employment,

improving their capacity to be involved in income generating activities, access to land and other credit facilities

will have serious positive impact on their participation in developmental process. People who own and control

assets such as land and housing have more economic security and are more likely to take economic risk that

leads to growth and receive important economic returns including incomes.

Women’s role in agricultural development can better be appreciated when one considers the view of

Williams (1974) in which he noted that a country like Nigeria which is predominantly agricultural and where

the majority of its population is peasants, a high agricultural productivity is indeed a cornerstone in her

economic growth and social progress. Studies have also shown that women now form cooperative societies to

give strength to their activities. Nigeria NGO report (UNIFEM, 2004), states that women’s poverty militate

against their ability to enforce their fundamental rights. Consequently women lose their self-esteem and

sometimes fall prey to other forms of violence such as trafficking in women.

Agriculture is the single largest employer of labour in Nigeria and women face numerous challenges

within the agricultural sector including lack of control over land and capital. According to the National Bureau

of Statistics, only 10% of land in Nigeria is owned by women, and because of this restricted access to land,

female farmers find it more difficult to undertake commercial scale farming.

As a result of low income earnings of women, many women and young girls resort to transactional sex

which has profound implication for the health of women and young girls and has also helped to fuel the

spread of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in the country. Men have over twice

the level of purchasing powers as women and men have far more access to properties than women.
 34

Table 2.1: Gender stratification within the overall economy and private sector

Economic indicator Men Women

Below poverty level 35% 65%

Purchasing power $1,495 $614

Federal civil service 76% 24%

Management staff 86% 14%

Medical doctors 82.50% 17.50%

Informal sector 13% 87%

Industrial sector 30% 11%

Land ownership 90% 10%

Agricultural work 30% 70%

Line 35% 65%

Animal husbandry 50% 50%

Food processing 10% 90%

Marketing input 40% 60%

Properties disposable will 95% 5%

Source: WomenAid Collective, 2008 report from National Bureau of Statistic, CWIQ 2006

Okeke (1995: 156) asserts that “the stability of any nation rests on the political awareness and

knowledge of her citizens. When women who make up to 50% of the population acquire political power, they

will increase the critical mass of Nigeria citizens who have power to steer Nigeria to the right direction.

Political empowerment of women will augur well for the development and stability of Nigeria.”

Eboh (2002) maintains that keeping the African women-folk down retards not only development but

also the emergence of true democracy. Women have been powerful agents of development, participating in

decision making during and after colonial rule, since it has not been proved that women in decision-making
 35

positions have been a disappointment when in those positions of authority, a favourable attitude among the

educated people and others

 36

should be created. Thus the growing ascent of women into decision-making positions should be

allowed (Ijere, 1991). The adoption of democratic rule in 1999 provided an opportunity for

women’s political participation, but the position of women in terms of women in power and

decision-making has only slightly improved (UNIFEM, 2004).

Table 2.2: The table below shows number and percentage of female candidates who

successfully contested in 1999, 2003 and 2007 general election.

Positions 1999 2003 2007

No. of No. of Total No. of Total No. of Total

seats women % women % women %

available elected Elected elected

Presidency 1 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%

Senate 109 3 2.75% 4 3.7% 8 7.33%

House of Reps 360 12 3.33% 21 5.83% 23 6.38%

Governorship 36 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%

Deputy Governorship 36 0 0% 2 5.55% 6 16.6%

House of Assembly 990 12 1.21% 38 3.84% 52 5.25%

Source: WomenAid Collective, 2008 report from National Bureau of Statistics CWTQ 2006.

With regard to Enugu State, out of the 17 local government areas of the state no woman

was elected as the executive chairman and only five women are in the 24-member state house of

assembly.

2.6 THE INFLUENCE OF GENDER STEREOTYPES ON THE

REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN

According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, “stereotype is a fixed idea or

image that many people have of a particular type of person or thing, but which is often not true

in reality: cultural / gender / racial stereoptypes”. ( AS Hornby, 2005. P. 1449).” Stereotypes are

usually based on prejudice and could be detrimental, especially if they are negative. They may
 37

be useful in helping people know what to expect from others but, once adopted, stereotypes are

difficult to change. People actually tend to remember information that supports a stereotype but

may not recall such that contradicts their stereotypes (Hamilton, Sherman and Ruvolo, 1990).

The mass media are replete with several female stereotype representations ranging from

the “bra–burning feminists to housewives, from sex–crazed Seductresses to neurotic career

women” (Macdinald, 1995:13). Each of these representations carries a negative image, some

kind of stigma. They are actually different forms of condemnation. The continuous, portrayal of

women as sex objects, teenage girls whose sole function is to provide sexual satisfaction to their

male partners or matrons whose only duty is house keeping, would delude the women into

believing that the most they can accomplish in life is becoming housewives, mistresses or

homemakers. Such representations can also lead them into seeing themselves as incapable of

making significant contributions to

 38

society. Consequently, it will affect the women by limiting their efforts towards personal and

collective development.

The media also portray stereotype representations of men, for example, the “macho

man,” the “play boy” and the “new man”. Instead of denting their image, attracting

condemnation, eliciting negative response or weakening male power, these images rather attract

some measure of acceptance from the media audience. The “macho

– man” look and confident poise of the male models in St. Moritz advertisement and the

MTN’s “achieve what you want to achieve” advertisement are anything but demeaning. The

male “play – boy” image could pass for the female “mistress” image. But as the practice of the

media is, the women mistresses have often been criticizes and branded all sorts of names

including “whores,” “seductresses”, “dangerous babes”, “home – breakers”, “husband

snatchers”.

The only female image which would have given the women some positive rating, that is,

the image that come close to telling the true story of today’s woman – a career woman who tries

to combine her job with running her home effectively but with some effort, the media will

instead in a derogatory way position her as a “superman” or the “superwoman” who effortlessly

combines her career, children, sexual pleasure and leisure pursuits. The pattern of voiceovers in

television advertisements have continued to reveal the inequalities in female representation in

the media. Many of the advertisements come with male voice dominating, even in products that

have very little to do with men. Female voice are heard in areas considered “feminine” such as

baby products, house – cleaning detergents, washing powders, sanitary products and some

luxury goods targeted at men when the appeal is at a subliminal level. The marginalization of

female voices is
 39

so visible that some spot announcements considered “very important” can only be taken by a

male voice. In many radio stations, disc jockeys are still predominantly males, irrespective of

the fact there is no proof that men are better informed in the area of music. Males also dominate

in some desks in the media, such as sports, politics, foreign affairs and the military. Women are

considered not ideal for such beats. The obvious question in all of these is: what justification or

explanation do media operators have in marginalizing women this much?

Stereotyping according to the world book Encyclopedia 2004: 893, is the act of holding

or promoting generalized and oversimplified beliefs about members of a group. These beliefs

which commonly involve personality traits, physical appearance, and types of behaviour, are

called stereotypes. In many cases, the use of stereotypes is unfair and harmful. Some others

based on such characteristics as ethnicity, life style, race, sex, and sexual orientation. Common

negative stereotypes include the mistaken beliefs that women are overly emotional and that

African Americans are lazy.

Whenever individuals are organized into groups, people expect group members to share

some common qualities. For example, an observer might classify basketball players as tall or

children as lively. Such general observations become stereotypes when they are exaggerated

and applied to all members of a group without regard to individual characteristics. Stereotypes

can provide a basis for prejudice that is, unfair negative attitudes or feelings directed at

members of a group.

Numerous cultural, sociological, and psychological factors affect the creation and

maintenance of stereotypes. Television programmes, motion pictures, and other mass media

presentations can influence popular beliefs about certain groups. Families and peer
 40

group are probably the most important sources of children’s attitudes toward other groups.

Stereotyping is the application of a standardized image or concept to members of certain

groups, usually based on limited information. Because media cannot show all realities of all

things, the choices media practitioners make when presenting specific people and groups may

well facilitate or encourage stereotyping. Numerous studies conducted over the last 40 years

have demonstrated that women and people of colour are consistently underrepresented in all

media. An exhaustive analysis of prime – time programming on all the major television

networks published in 2002, for example, came to these conclusions:

First, older adults, children, and women are underrepresented on comedies and dramas shown

in prime- time network television. Second, white characters, men and middle-aged

individuals are Over represented… third, women tend to be overrepresented in younger

adulthood, but underrepresented in later middle – age. Fourth, older adults tend to be portrayed

in a more negative fashion than young adults. Latino characters… were also

underrepresented… {There is} “ghettoization” of black characters in a limited number of

shows. Of the black characters in our sample, half were from only seven of the {61} shows

{about 11% of the shows studied}. (Harwood and Anderson, 2002, p.89).

Any of a number of theories, especially cultivation analysis, symbolic interaction, and

social construction of reality, can predict the probable out come of repeated and frequent

exposure to these limited and limiting representations. They influence people’s perceptions and

people’s perceptions influence their behaviours. Examine your own perceptions not only of

women and people of colour but of the elderly, lawyers, college

 41

athletes, and people sophisticated in the use of computers. What images or stereotypes come

immediately to mind?

The release of new game industry demographic statistics, and not coincidentally the

movie catwomen, recently put the issue of the portrayal of women in video game into the

cultural forum. Games continue to be considered a “boy thing.” One reason is that game

developers “have a blind spot to females”. They continue to operate under the assumption that

boys are more interested in technology and are more technologically literate than girls

(chmielewski, 2003), an unfounded assumption given the fact that not only are games

increasingly of both genders, but there are more females than males online.

This situation has led groups such as the media Awareness Network (www.media

– awareness.ca) to raise concerns not only about the exclusion of and disregard for girls as

players, but about the degradation of women through gender stereotyping. When “girl games”

first became popular, their success was based on appearance and fashion content. Barbie’s

fashion Designer and cosmopolitan Virtual Makeover, for example, both emphasized the

importance of clothing, hair, makeup, and body type. And when girls began gravitating to “boy

games” like Grand Theft Auto 3, Lara Croft: Tomb Raider, BMX XXX, and Extreme Beach

Volleyball, what they found was women portrayed as prostitutes, victims, and sex objects;

violence directed at women; an absence of strong female characters; and wildly

mispropertioned body types, specifically unnaturally small waits and large breasts.

For many years women have striven to overcome the various social and cultural

restrictions imposed on them by the society. While, for example, a man is valued for what
 42

he ‘does’, a woman is valued for what she ‘is’ and her ability to produce children. Women have

for long been fighting against this stereotype. Today, however, many women have sought to re–

define themselves by what they are. These women, including those in the media, have met with

considerable difficulties and barriers. Although a good number of women have been in the

communication profession in the past years, these women have not been treated any differently

from women in other professions for instance, women have for long complained about being

stereotyped as weak, not serious minded, apolitical, not having image of their own, as domestic

housewives. These constantly affect the image of women in communication. In the light of the

above, women in various parts of the world have of late been demanding their rights and for a

redress for the social injustices and inequalities they have had to bear over centuries due to their

gender.

According to a UNESCO report (1980), which indicated that women represent 50

percent of the adult world population, constitute one – third of the world’s official labour force,

perform nearly two – thirds of all working hours, but receive only one – tenth of the world’s

income? Women are said to be increasingly pressurizing for a better treatment in the society,

essentially in areas of job opportunities, remuneration, taxation and child custody. The issue is

the same in communication, women employed in media houses at various times complained

about domination of men in the field. Their claim is t that women are under – represented and

discriminated against while some issues that are of interest to women are not given adequate

coverage quantitatively and qualitatively.

However, there is the contention that the changes in status and roles of women in the

Nigerian society have necessitated the concern about what feature in women’s
 43

columns. Presently, there is hardly a Nigerian newspaper that does not have at least once a

week under whatever title, a specific issue about women. As a rule, the columns seem to

contain tips on cooking, dieting, house and family keeping matters. But when more serious

issues such as cancer are highlighted articles are either reprints from foreign sources or more of

the writers’ opinions.

Apart from the stereotypes associated with the editorial policy, the social class of the

readership also contributes in distorting women’s pages in newspapers. Research in this area

indicates that women’s pages are read by relatively few women those with social status,

including club women and the educated class, most times, these club women do not read

news about organizations they do not belong to, and assume that they already know the news

about their own, and as a result should not bother themselves with reading about them. On the

other hand, it has been found that most educated women do not read newspapers and thus find it

difficult to keep abreast with what goes on around them. However, it is one thing to identify the

problems associated with women’s pages in the newspapers and quite another to devote time to

find practical solutions to the problems. It is also expected to be a success when women in the

media start using their offices, beats, columns, programmes to highlight their own issues,

thereby, correcting the embarrassing and uncomfortable stereotypes with which they have

always been portrayed.

2.7 THE ROLE OF THE MASS MEDIA IN REDRESSING THE IMBALANCE AND

REDEFINING THE IMAGE OF WOMEN.

‘The Portrayal of women in the mass media has got tremendous impact and influence on

society… No matter how much at variance with reality it was initially […] it literally becomes a

self – fulfilling prophecy’. (Gender and Media Reader. Student Christian Movement (India).

2007.
 44

For activists, research is not an end in itself but a means towards a greater goal. For the

Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP), that ‘greater goal’ is gender– balanced media, an

intervention at the discursive level that can potentially contribute to stemming, indeed

reversing, gender–based discrimination in practice. Comparative analysis of the results of the

GMMPS of 1995, 2005 evidences little positive change in selected indicators of gender in

media. In the context of news–making, in news content and in journalistic practice, gender bias

and negative gender stereotyping have continued unabated.

According to Fab–Ukozor Theresa Nkem in Gender and Media in Nigeria,writes that, an

X–ray of media coverage of gender issues in Nigeria depicts an inglorious image of women’s

exclusion or marginalization.

Several non-governmental organizations have over the years joined efforts with the

World Association for Christian Communication (WACC) via the Global Media Monitoring

Project (GMMP) to create awareness as it concerns the under representation of women in the

news. However, women have continued to attract poor visibility to the point that they are most

of the time excluded in coverage that affects their lives as individuals. Undoubtedly, the

marginalization and exclusion of women in the mass media is not unrelated to the patriarchal

systems practiced in most societies. Hence, the current emphasis on Gender and Development

(GAD) approach as an outcome of the Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA), no doubt, bring to

bear the need for media practitioners to appreciate the plight of women by promoting gender

balance in all media, including structures, policies and content.

 45

In this vein it becomes pertinent to reason that gate–keepers of news themselves should

begin to change their mindsets and attitudes in favour of women rights agenda before they can

positively perform the task of shaping gender realities. It was for this reason that the Nigeria

Association of Women Journalists (NAWOJ), Enugu State Chapter, after having participated in

the one–day seminar on “media, Gender and National Development”, held on February 23,

2006 as part of the activities to mark the “Who makes the News Campaign in Nigeria”

organized a week of activities in May 2006. The programme was targeted at sensitizing their

members on the need to work harder and promote their image and credibility in order to attract

more responsible positions in their work places and in the long run influence better media

portrayal for women.

The results of the GMMP 2005 equally show that similar studies if conducted in other

societies will give the same result. Rather than give fair and balanced reports of issues from

women’s and men’s angles, the news media either exclude women’s voices or portray them as

objects that do not have an opinion, or worse still as objects that are only fine for advertising

products. This trend does not only show symptoms of insensitivity, but poor media ethics.

According to the Gender and Media Advocacy Training Workshop for Central and Eastern

Europe (2006), in its words said that:

“Workshop participants shared their experiences on how women are represented in the media

in central and Eastern Europe, discussed the work of their respective organizations and

exchanged ideas on how to redress gender imbalances in the media”.

Participants identified the prevalence of discrimination against women, domestic

violence against women and media portrayals of women as common issues prevalent in
 46

their respective Countries. Other concerns identified by participants included media ownership

structures, the use of gender blind language, and the continuing production and reproduction of

stereotyped roles for men and women in the educational system. The workshop focused on

understanding the media (its structures and functioning), strategies for developing and

implementing advocacy campaigns to promote gender equality and using the media to raise

awareness on women’s issues and problems.

Results from the three GMMPS have consistently indicated that women rarely feature in

the news and that when they do; they are rarely cited as experts or people in positions of

authority. While men are frequently consulted to offer expert opinion, women repeatedly

appear in a personal capacity as eye-witnesses, giving personal views or as representatives of

popular opinion. Yet, there are significant number of women professionals who can offer expert

opinions in their fields of expertise.

The overall objective is to redress the erroneous assumption that professional expertise

is male, and to promote a more balanced representation of women in the media. Participants

also agreed on future collaborative research focusing on the image of women in the media.

Gender and media advocacy can sometimes appear to be a daunting task. You have identified

issues of concern which, among others, include the marginalization and stereotyping of women

in media portrayals in your local context, the use of violence against women to attract

audiences, and the confining of women to lower positions in the newsroom. Determined to

challenge and improve these, you are at once faced with some tough questions: what to do,

when to do it and more importantly how to conduct a consistent, sustainable and successful

advocacy campaign. Where do you begin? Following the Global Media Monitoring Project

(GMMP) of 2005, the World

 47

Association for Christian Communication (WACC) developed ‘mission impossible’: A Gender

and Media Advocacy Toolkit. The toolkit is a practical resource for information, guidelines and

tips on how to approach and conduct advocacy on gender and the media

Aimed primarily at activists and organizations concerned with gender in media, the

toolkit covers a range of topics and offers concrete steps towards successful gender and media

advocacy. The toolkit draws on diverse experiences of successful gender activism aimed at the

media, and highlights case studies of successful initiatives aimed at changing gender

representation and portrayal in and through the media. The toolkit is divided into two sections:

section one defines the conceptual issues on gender and media advocacy. It examines why the

media should be a focus of gender and feminist activism. It highlights the key issues for gender

and media advocacy using the findings of the GMMP 2005. It also discusses the various target

audience significant to achieving a change. Section two provides the practical information on

the steps, tools and strategies that can be helpful in gender and media advocacy. It offers handy

tips and pointers on how to engage with the media and to put gender on the news agenda.

Gender and media advocacy includes lobbying, campaigning, research, training, media

monitoring, communication and alliance – building activities which seek to advance women’s

rights and gender equality in and through the media. There are two angles to gender and media

advocacy:

1. Media as target audience: Planned and consistent advocacy for gender equality in

the media’s workplace policies and conditions of service, as well as in editorial and advertising

content.
 48

2. Media as partner and tool for getting across messages on gender equality: The

strategic use of the media as a tool for advancing gender equality in all sectors, especially public

policy, and to bring gender justice to the public’s attention.

At first glance, it may seem as if two different gender and media advocacy strategies are

called for to address these two issues. But, by taking on the media as institutions within which

the struggle for gender equality is situated, activists will create also the opportunities for

priming the media to be a credible voice when it reports on and covers gender equality issues.

Often gender and media activists are tackling both of these angles at the same time. The media

cannot be used as an effective and credible tool to advance message on gender equality if the

messages it sends daily through reports on events and issues are gender–blind or negative about

women’s roles and contributions in a society. Likewise, the media cannot challenge the lack of

women in decision–making in governance structures, if there is a paucity of women in

leadership positions within the media.

In targeting the media to bring about more gender sensitivity and awareness to the

editorial content and to ensure equal opportunity and equal access for women in media work

places, gender and media activists are at the same time opening the space to engage more

effectively with the media in getting across messages on gender equality. There is no easy way

of dismantling the obstacles faced by women media professionals. Mentoring systems,

networking, improved recruitment procedures, management and skills training, family–friendly

working conditions, setting numerical targets to redress gender imbalance in creative and

decision–making post, regular monitoring, performance assessments–all these can help. But

the hardest task is to change the attitudes which

 49

foster inequalities, and the organizational culture that supports these attitudes. To pursue those

goals, some media companies have adopted polices and action programmes. These are more

often found in the broadcast media than in the press, and more often in the publicly funded than

in the commercially financed sector. In that sense, market trends do not present a promising

scenario for women. The pursuit of equal opportunities does not easily coincide with the pursuit

of maximum financial gain. Moreover the overall context of competition in which the public

media now operate has an impact on employment structures and policies – for example, by

increasing the use of short–term contract and casual staff, the majority of whom are women

(Gallagher, 2000). Major public broadcasters such as the Australian Broadcasting Corporation

(ABC), the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the British Broadcasting Corporation

(BBC) and various others which launched optimistic and well–funded equality programmes in

the 1970s and 1980s, have had to struggle to justify such expenditure in the very different

economic–and ideological–climate of the past decade.

But do these programmes and policies make any real different? Indeed are they actually

necessary? It goes without saying that policies alone change absolutely nothing if they are not

backed up by commitment at the highest level, and by line managers who ‘own’ policies and

who are themselves given proper advice and support in implementing them. Given those

conditions, progress does seem possible. For instance, a European review of equality policies

concluded that broadcasting organizations in Den mark, Germany, Ireland and the United

Kingdom that pursue a vigorous policy of positive action have managed to increase the

proportion of women in their management and decision–making echelons (Gallagher 2000).

 50

Media representations in general and of women in particular, are deeply embedded in

political and economic contexts. For instance, in Asia the media in many Countries have

recently seen a spectacular transformation with arrival of new commercial cable and satellite

channels, and the privatization of old state–run media has led to new market oriented content.

Current studies from this region highlight the tensions and conflicts that such changes introduce

into representation of women. The findings indicate a greater diversity in women’s roles and a

more away from the subordinate housewife– mother image. However, studies from India and

Singapore point to the often contradictory ways in which the media and advertising are

accommodating to women’s multiple identities in contemporary society. Images of the ‘new

woman’ as an independent consumer whose femininity remains intact, or as a hard–headed

individualist, whose feminine side must be sacrificed, illustrate new stereotypes of women–

whose ‘femaleness’ is always the core issue (for example Wildermuth, 2002; Malhotra and

Rogers, 2000; Lee, 1998). Others not the emergence of new and highly sexualized image in the

commercial media, for example, in Cambodia and Korea–images that are considered shocking

and culturally intrusive.

The numbers tell only a tiny part of the story–Behind them lies a power structure–

social, political and economic–in which men are considered to be central and predominant.

News values intertwine with political priorities to portray a particular view of what is important.

For instance, despite China’s declaration during the welcoming ceremony of the 1995 Fourth

World Conference on Women that ‘gender equality is a basic state policy’, analysis of the

Official party newspapers in the years following the FWCW has shown that this is the least

mentioned basic state policy. In 1996 the

 51

People’s Daily (circulation two million) published over 5,000 articles that mentioned education

policy, 400 that mentioned environmental protection, and 221 that mentioned family planning.

But only 20 articles mentioned equality between women and men (Yuan, 1999).

Issues that are particularly central in women’s lives come low down in the scale of

what is regarded newsworthy. At best, they may become ‘news’ in coverage around a particular

event such as Women’s Day. For instance, studies by the Media Monitoring Project in South

Africa have shown that while coverage of women’s issues increased dramatically in the run–up

to National Women’s Day (9 August), there is an equally drastic decline immediately

afterwords. And despite the increase in coverage around Women’s Day, most of it fails to

represent women as active participants in society. For example, the initiatives of civil society

organizations are largely ignored. Infact, the overall conclusion from this study is that the sharp

increase and decrease in stories around Women’s Day, allied with inadequate reporting, serve

only to underline the marginalization of women in society (Media Monitoring Project, 1998).

These kinds of data illustrate just how deeply embedded is the problem of women’s

portrayal in the media. It is not simply a matter of notching up a few percentage points in the

share of women’s time on air or in print. What is at stake is not just the number of women who

appear in the media, but their ability to influence. Despite the small shifts noted in some

contemporary analyses, by and large media content still reflects masculine vision of the world

and of what is important. The very fundamental nature of this vision means that women’s

portrayal in the media will not be improved by increasing the number of women journalists, or

by getting rid of the worst excesses of

 52

sexism in advertising. What it actually required is a social and political transformation, in which

women’s rights–and women’s right to communicate–are truly understood, respected and

implemented both in society at large and by the media. In effect, whether or not a ‘critical

mass’ of women working in the media can make on imprint on media content is a secondary

question to the need for wider and deeper social change. This can be illustrated by an analysis

of how the media reflect the experiences of two specific groups–older women, and women from

ethnic minority communities.

A research from the USA shows that not only do women’s share of roles in prime– time

television decline precipitously after the age of 40, but that as they get older, women are more

likely to be cast in the role of ‘villain’. This increasing ‘villainization’ of age is, it seems,

confined to women. It is actually reversed in the case of men who, as they get older, are less

likely to be portrayed in the ‘villain’ role (Gerbner, 1998). The double standard is undoubtedly

linked to a gender–based tendency to judge women in terms of youth and sexuality, and to

regard ageing in women as synonymous with de– sexuality. Gender-based assumptions and

cultural images of this sort help to shape older women’s lived experiences in sometimes

devastating ways. In 1997 the Tanzanian Media Women’s Association (TAMWA) highlighted a

practice, based on beliefs about witchcraft that was leading to the killing of elderly women in

one particular region of the country. TAMWA launched a well–publicized media campaign and

public debate that resulted in a three–year plan of action to address the problem of the killings

(Gallagher 2001). The example is an extreme one, but it reminds us that the ‘fantasy’ images of

the media are rooted in particular cultural discourses, which reflect real power relations in

society.
 53

The issue of the lack of change in media content, despite the measurable presence of

more women working in media organizations, has increasingly preoccupied feminist activists

and researchers over the past decade. In an important 1994 essay the late Donna Allen, founder

of the Women’s Institute for Freedom of the Press, emphasized the need to bridge the gap

between women’s groups and associations outside and inside the media, if women’s

experiences and viewpoints were to get a better hearing (Allen, 1994). At more or less the same

time, groups such as Cotidiano Mujer in Urugay, the Media Advocacy Group in India (now

known as the centre for Advocacy and research), Women’s Media Watch in Jamaica–to

mention just a few–were simultaneously thinking along the same lines (Gallagher, 2001). Their

view was that without interaction and dialogue–between researchers, activists, audiences,

advertisers, journalists, radio and television producers–there could be no way out of the impasse

in which the debate about gender portrayal appeared to be locked. From this position,

establishing a dialogue means not simple trying to get certain ‘over locked’ issues or events

covered in the media–the traditional feminist approach–but working to promote an entire

perspective, a gender vision within the media. In essence this approach is a form of media

education. It argues that the predicable patterns of gender stereotyping also tend to produce

predictable, tire media output–and that paying some attention to gender can lead to more

creative, higher equality content. In other words it tries to convince media practitioners that

gender is a professional issue. Important key words in this endeavour include ‘diversity’

‘balanced’, ‘pluralism’, ‘creativity’, ‘innovation’ and ‘equality’. The development of critical

media skills, aimed at engaging the general public in various types of critique and debate

around media practices, is another strategy that has been vigorously and successfully

pursued
 54

over the past decade. Groups like Media Watch (Canada), the Women’s Media Centre

(Cambodia), Women’s Media Watch (South Africa), the Forum for citizens’ Television (Japan),

and ZORRA (Belgium) are among those who have spearheaded innovative media literacy

approaches with a focus on gender. Apart from programmes aimed at the general public, some

groups target specific audiences. For instance in addition to its main website, Media Watch

(Canada) has a special website for young people aged under 25 which included media literacy

tools and topics packaged and presented with a youthful audience in mind. Women’s Media

Watch (Jamaica) has been working with young men to analyse media images of masculinity,

sexuality and violence (Nicholson and small, 2002).

In many ways, media education is the bedrock on which other approaches can take root.

A media literate public can help to ensure that policies and codes of practice are implemented,

that monitoring studies are given credence, and that complaints and protests are listened to.

Above all, an informed and media literate audience is in a position to evaluate media content,

to make its opinion known, and to push for change. Counter balancing the homogenizing trends

exemplified by Google News is the fact that the Internet has brought women’s news and views

into the public domain with countless websites targeted specifically, if not exclusively, at

women. Many of the early sites have not survived, and some have reoriented their columns

away from ‘serious’ news to more ‘popular’ content. Yet, despite the unfulfilled ‘revolution’

that many commercial sites promised, at least in the USA, it seems clear that the web has

changed things for a lot of women–primarily in terms of creating strong online communities.

“Women’s sits encourage women of all ages to become their own publishers and then thrust

the content
 55

…in front of eyes of millions…. Every point of view is being expressed in the public eye, and

that’s a start’ (Brown, 2000). Despite the vast amount of content available on the World

Wide Web, however, little of it can be of relevance or use to most women in most parts of the

world. A web search is early 2000 found some 200,000 websites related to women and

gender, but only a fraction of these originated in developing Countries (Fontaine, 2000).

For most women, content–whether in the established media or the new ones–is directly linked

to use. If women are to benefit from ICTS, there must be more relevant content. This pertains

to both susbstance and language. Moreover, it is important that the new technologies such as

computer and internet do not deflect attention from technologies that have been around for

longer–radio, television and video, print, CD– ROMS. Often a mix of ‘traditional’ and new

technology is the most appropriate choice. In many situations, the combination of Radio and

Internet is proving especially powerful.

One example is FIRE (Feminist Interactive Radio Endeavour), created in 1991 as a

short wave radio programme in Costa Rica. In 1998 FIRE launched an Internet Radio initiative,

to broadcast women’s perspective on issues and events around the world. Its web page contains

text images and embedded sound files for ‘on demand’ listening (CDEACF, 2000). A different

example comes from South Africa, where just 7% of the population can access the Internet, but

90% has radio. Here, the women’s Net community radio project is based on appropriate

technology use. It includes a web–based clearinghouse of radio content on women’s issues,

whose main features are a database of searchable audio features, clips and news, links to gender

resources for ‘radio on the Internet’, and a help section that includes information about how to

get connected and where to get the right software (Boezak, 2000). The principle of content

repackaging that
 56

under lies these and many other projects is a key to providing information to ‘unconnected’

women. Many ‘connected’ women–particularly in the global South–can and do act as bridges to

unconnected groups in their communities by repackaging information they find online and

sharing it through other communication channels such as print, fax, telephone, radio or theatre,

sometimes also translating it into more accessible language (Far well et al., 1999; Morna and

Khan, 2000). These new linkages and new approaches to information provision hold great

promise in terms of bringing women to the centre of media and communication developments

in the future. In the name of freedom of speech, the media claim the right to represent women

as they wish. In the name of claiming the right to fair portrayal, women often find themselves

denounced as ‘feminist police’. Those who are struggling for change are confronted by this

double standard on a daily basis.

The situation is complicated by the fact that advocates for media change may indeed

find themselves temporarily in the company of some unlikely and unwelcome travelers.

Whether it is conservative groups whose aim is to limit sexual expression or authoritarian

regimes that seek to censor media criticism, women striving for genuine diversity in the media

must frequently side–step false allies. The shadowy presence of such unwanted company is just

one of the things that can make it difficult to explain to media industry bodies, practitioners and

policy–makers that the search for a policy framework within which rights and freedoms can be

fairly evaluated has nothing to do with censorship, but every thing to do with openness and

inclusivity. The two central axes of women’s critique of media are quite differently situated in

relation to available policies and codes of conduct. Generally speaking, when it comes to

issues of
 57

employment, things are relatively clear. Many countries have policies, and even legislation, to

prevent discrimination in the workplace. These apply to the media industry, just as they do to

other occupational sectors. Frequently, media organizations have their own in–house policies

and guidelines–sometimes quite elaborate–to ensure that women experience neither direct nor

indirect discrimination. Although it is not always easy for employees to make effective use of

these policy measures and codes, their very existence is a public statement of the rights and

treatment to which women are entitled. Even if policies are implemented inadequately, or

sometimes not at all, they do introduce an element of accountability against which organizations

can be judged.

In the area of media content, however, the situation is utterly different. In their report on

the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action’s media recommendations, Women

Action 2000 concluded that one obstacle common to all regions is the lack of adequate media

policy on fair gender portrayal. In many countries a strong ethos of freedom of expression

means that self–regulatory measures are entrusted to media enterprises or to

compliance/complaints authorities, who often action is left to private citizens, who must watch,

challenge and litigate. However, in a survey of Canadian women and men carried out for Media

Watch in 2000, only 6% said they had tried to complain when they were offended by something

they saw or heard in the media. This suggests that a complaints–based system of regulation will

catch only a very small proportion of those who encounter offensive content, and that other

channels of public criticism are needed (Media Watch, 2000).

Another problem is that when codes are specific Vis `a vis the portrayal of women, this

tends to be expressed in moralistic terms in relation to the depiction

 58

provocative or obscene imagery. Often these exhortations reflect obsolete interpretations of

public taste. For example, the Broadcasting Standards Code of the National Association of

Commercial Broadcasters of Japan includes a section on ‘sex’ whose portrayal must not, inter

alia, “cause feelings of unpleasantness or consternation” and must “arouse undue passion on the

part of the audience” (code reproduced in venkateswaran, 1996). In India the only relevant

legislation is the Indecent Representation of Women (prohibition) Act of 1986, which forbids

‘indecent representation’ of women in print media, including advertisements. The limitation of

obscenity laws is not simply that they are incapable of dealing with the many aspects of gender

portrayal that concern women today. The more profound problems is that if they are invoked

they help to maintain an extremely conservative system of values to which many women do not

subscribe.

In countries without well–developed structures for policy implementation, however,

there is often a legitimate fear that legislation or codes of practice could simply strengthen the

power of government to close or gap unfriendly media in an arbitrary way. In newly emerging

democracies, the specter of censorship is very real. For example, the Women’s Media Centre in

Cambodia believes that the best solution is media education– with programmes aimed at the

general public, the media and relevant policy–makers–to build a climate in which the cultural

assumptions that lead to stereotyping and women’s oppression are fully understood (Gallagher,

2001). Instinctive media relation to the idea of any kind of regulation, even voluntary, usually

tends to be negative. From a position outside the media, it is sometimes difficult to understand

vigorous opposition to attempts to introduce codes that reflect taken–for–granted precepts of

civil society
 59

organizations. While a requirement to ensure “accurate; fair and responsible reporting” may

seem self–evident to some, by others it may be perceived as a jeopardizing “fundamental

guarantees to freedom of expression and editorial independence” (Index on Censorship, 2002).

In this mine field it is, however, important to work towards frameworks that encourage

reflection on the potential conflicts between human rights, freedoms and responsibilities, and

which acknowledge that ‘rights’ have a different legal basis from ‘freedoms’ (mclver, 2000).
 60

REFERENCES

Abiola, A. (2002). “Gender Gaps in the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria” unpublished lecture

mimeograph.

Aina, O. (1994). Gender overview of the status of women in Nigeria, Ife, OAU Press. Aldridge,

M. (2001). Lost Expectations? Women Journalists and the fall – out of the

Toron to Newspaper War’, media, culture and society, volume 23 No. 5, 607 – 624.

Allen, D. (1994). Women in media, women’s media: the search for linkages in North America. In

Margaret Gallagher and Lilia. Quindoza – Santiago(eds). Women Empowering Communication.

Baran, S. (2009). Introduction to mass communication media literacy and culture, MCG raw – Hill

Higher Education, New York, NY 10020 5th edition.

Boezak, S. (2002). Crossing the Digital Divide: Converging Old and New Technologies pp. 49 – 56

in pi Villanueva (ed.) Networking for change: The APCWNSP’S First 8 Years. Volume 2 in

‘women in sync: A Toolkit for Electronic Networking’. London: APC women’s Networking

Support Programme.

Bolande, A. (1992). A keynote address at the “Women and the Media in Nigeria”

workshop, Enugu.

Branston, G. (2002). September 11th, As we Now Call Them. Feminist Media Studies,

Volume 2, No.1, 129 – 131.

Brown, J. (2002). What happened to the Women’s Web? www.salon.com, 25 August 2000.

Changing Lenses (1999). Women’s Perspectives on Media, Manila: Isis – International.

CIRDDOC (2001). Gender and Politics in Nigeria. CIRDDOC Public Education Series,

No.5. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.

 61

CIRDDOC (2002). Violence Against Women. CIRDDOC Pubic Education Series, No. 8.

Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publishers.

Coulter, N. (2001). Watching the Watchers: New Media Market Place. Burnaby: Simon Fraser

University. Report Commissioned by Media Watch Canada.

Curry, J. (2002). Media in Crisis: Gender and Terror, September 2001, Feminist Media Studies,

Volume 2, No. 1, 139 – 141.

De Clerq, M. (2002). Shedding Light on Absence: Women’s Under – Representation In the News

room. Unpublished paper, presented at the conference of the International Association for

Media and Communication Research, Barcelona, 20 – 26 July, 2002.

Djerf–Pierre, M. (2002). Why it’s Lonely at the Top: Gendered Media Elites in Sweden.

Unpublished paper, presented at the Conference of the International Association for Media and

Communication Research, Barcelona, 20 – 26 July, 2002.

Drotner, K. (2002). New Media, New Options, New Communities? Toward a convergent Media

and ICT Research, Nordicom Review, Volume 12, No. 1 – 2, 11 – 22.

Dunn, M. (2002). Where Are All the Women? Feminist Media Studies, Volume, 2 No. 1, 136 –

137.

Evans, G. (2001). Play like a Man, Win like a Woman: What Men Know About Success That

Women Need to Learn. New York: Broadway Books.

Ezeigbo, A. Gender Issues in Nigeria: A Feminine Perspective. Lagos, Nigeria: Vista Books.

Fontaine, M. (2002). A High – Tech Twist: ICT Access and the Gender Divide, in Techoknow

Logia, Volume 1.2, No. 2; available at: www. Techknowlogia. org.

Gallagher, M. (1995 a). An Unfinished Story: Gender Patterns in Media Employment, Reports and

Papers on Mass Communication 110, Paris: UNESCO.

 62

Gallagher, M. (1995 b). Gender Portrayal in European Broadcasting: Policies and Practice. Paper

Presented at ‘Reflecting diversity: the challenge for women and men in European broadcasting’,

2nd European Commission/ European Broadcasting Union Conference on equal opportunities

London, 3 – 5 May 1995.

Gallagher, M. (2000). Occupational Segregation Still Exists: Women in EU Public Broadcasting. In

Danielle Cliche, Ritva Mitchell and Andreas Wie sand (eds) Pyramids or Pillars: Unveiling the

Status of Women in Arts and Media Professions in European (Pp. 229 – 234). Bonn: AR Cult

Media.

Gallagher, M. (2001). Gender Setting: New Agendas for Media Monitoring and Advocacy.

London: Zed Books.

Goga, F. (2001). Issues of Race and Gender in the Post – Apartheid South African Media

Organizations, 1994 – 2000. In Keyan Tomaselli and Hopeton Dunn (eds.) Media, Democracy

and Renewal in Southern Africa (Pp. 209 – 229). Colorado Springs: International Academic

Publishers.

Iman, A. (1992). “Women and the Mass Media in Africa Parts”, UNESCO.

Jensen, M. (2002). Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Africa: A status

Report. Report presented to the third UNICT Task Force Meeting, New York, 30 September – 1

October 2002.

Joseph, A. (1994). Whose News? The Media and Women’s Issues, New Delhi: sage Publications.

Joseph, A. (2000). Women in Journalism: Making News, New Delhi: Konark publisher. Joseph,

A. (2001). Women, War and the Media, Nieman Reports, Volume 55, No. 4,p.84.

Ladan, M. (2001). Introduction to International Human Rights and Humanitarian Laws Zaria,

ECONET Publishers.
 63

MacDonald, M. (1995). Representing Women: Myths of Femininity in the Popular Media

London: Arnold.

Matewa, C. (2002). Media and the Empowerment of Communities for Social Change. Unpublished

PHD thesis, University of Manchester, Faculty of Education, June 2002.

Media Monitoring Project (1999). A Snapshot Survey of Women’s Representation in the South

African Media at the End of the Millennium. Study Commissioned by Women’s Media Watch,

Johannes burg: Media Monitoring Project.

Morolake, O. (2003). Gender Inequality in Nigeria, Ibadan Spectrum Books Limited. Nicholson, H.

(2002). Targeting Men for Change, Media and Gender Monitor, Issues 10, 1- 2.

Nuun, K. (2004). The World Book Encyclopedia World Book, Inc. a Scott Fetzer Company Chicago

Volume 18. 2004 edition.

Nwankwo, O. (2001 b). Inheritance Rights of Women in African. CIRDDOC series No.4.

Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.

Onyebode, O. (2002). Nigeria Women and the Nation’s Future, Abuja Zed Books. Oyebanji, A.

(2004). Portrayal of Women’s Contribution to Social Development in Select

NTA Network Programmes. An unpublished BA project of the Communication Arts

Department, University of Uyo, Uyo.

Peters, B. (2001). The Varied Pace of Women’s Progress, Nieman Reports Volume 55, No.4, 97 –

99.

Roper, L. (2002). WOMEN is Not Pacifism: A Personal View of the Politics of War, Feminist

Media Studies, Volume 2, No.1, 149 – 151.

Soola, S. (2003). Media, Gender and Political Participation in Nigeria. A paper presented at the

ACCE Conference Uyo, Nigeria.

 64

Sreberny, A. (2002). Seeing Through the Veil: Regimes of Representation, Feminist Media

Studies, Volume 2, No. 2, 270 – 272.

Tuchman, G. (1995). The Symbolic Annihilation of Women by the Mass Media. In Boyd– Barrett,

O. and New bold, C. (eds). Approaches to Media: A Reader. London: Arnold.

 65

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Survey method was used in carrying out this study because of its suitability to the nature

of the research at hand, a guide for the researcher. Okoro (2001:37) described survey thus:

“Survey are useful in the measurement of public opinion, attitudes and orientations

which are dominant among a large population at a particular period.” Also he went further to

assert that, surveys are highly useful in the field of social/ behavioural sciences and , indeed, in

any study area that has to do with human action.

According to Wimmer and Dominick (2005:167) in their book “Mass Media Research”,

described survey research thus:

“Survey research requires careful planning and execution, and the research must take into

account a wide variety of decisions and problems.”

Over the years, most researchers find survey method of research very useful because of

its advantages, convenience and cost effectiveness. For example, survey method;

(1) They are used to investigate problems in realistic settings. Newspaper reading, television

viewing, radio listening, and consumer behaviour patterns can be examined where they

happen rather than in laboratory or screening room under artificial condition.

(2) The costs of surveys are reasonable when one considers the amount of information gathered.

Researchers also can control expenses by selecting from

 66

four major types of surveys: mail, telephone, personal interview, and group administration.

(3) A large amount of data can be collected with relative ease from a variety of people. Surveys

allow researchers to examine many variables (demographic and lifestyle information, attitudes,

motives, intentions, and so on ) and to use a variety of statistics to analyze the data.

(4) Survey are not constrained by geographic boundaries; they can be conducted almost

anywhere.

Data helpful to survey research already exist. Data archives, government documents,

census materials, radio and television rating books, an voter registration lists can be used as

primary sources (main sources of data) or as secondary sources (supportive data) of

information. With archive data, it is possible to conduct an entire survey study without ever

developing a questionnaire or contacting a single respondent.

3.2. POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The population of the study cuts across both males and females in Enugu State but more

particularly in the mass media especially in broadcasting who are aware that Nigerian women

are marginalized.

Enugu State, with its capital at Enugu, has a total population of 2.45 million going by

census 2006 figure. The State was divided into three senatorial zones. Enugu West, Enugu East

and Enugu North. Out of the three senatorial zones, three towns were chosen through a random

sampling technique. The towns chosen were Enugu Urban, Nsukka and Agbani. Enugu Urban

was chosen because of the metropolitan nature of the town. The town enjoys the presence of

the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria, Enugu, Nigeria

 67

Television Authority Enugu, many Tertiary institutions, Army Barracks, Police Stations and

Newspaper houses where many readers of newspapers, magazines and listeners and viewers of

television broadcast are located and where some well exposed and educated people lives who

can reason rationally as respondents.

Nsukka town is one of the towns that made up the area of the study and was chosen

because of the presence of the University of Nigeria (UNN) from where learned people from

different fields of disciplines were drawn as respondents. It also has other tertiary institutions

like the Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) and also the Lion FM

which is situated right inside the UNN.

Agbani town was also chosen because of the rising profile of the town as a cosmopolitan

area. The presence of the Nigerian Law School and other State and Federal Establishment in the

town, provide avenues for drawing well exposed respondents from the area. Also, the

inhabitants are exposed to private, federal and state owned radio and television stations.

3.3 SAMPLE SIZE

Based on the nature of the study and the size of the population under study, a sample of

300 respondents randomly was drawn from the study population. Sampling therefore, is the

process of obtaining that small representative sample from the large population. A major

educational Institutions in Enugu Urban and Nsukka town because of the presence of the

University of Nigeria which embraces people from different fields of disciplines.

 68

Wimmer and Dominick (2005:466) describe sample as a “ subgroup or subset of a

population or universe.” Generally speaking, the larger the scope of the study, the larger the

sample size should be.

3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

The sample population for the study was drawn from the three chosen towns through

random sampling which involves giving all members of the population an equal chance of being

selected for the study.

Each of the three towns was randomly selected representing different areas where the

respondents were picked. Random sampling technique was used in the study in order to make

the sample representative of the population that yields it. This presupposes that all members of

the population can be identified and reached. Because of the elimination of Bias, the method

helps to increase the representative ness of the sample eventually to be chosen.

For each of the three towns, 100 respondents were selected. Attempts were made

however, to balance both sexes (male and female) in the selection process and also to balance

the social groups ( students, workers, artisans, media practitioners etc .)

TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF SAMPLE POPULATION

CATEGORY OF RESPONDENTS MALES FEMALES TOTAL

1. ENUGU URBAN TOWN

(a) NTA ENUGU 20 10 30

(b) FRCN ENUGU 15 5 20

(c) CIVIL SERVANTS 15 10 25

(d) ARTISANS 13 12 25
 69

2. NSUKKA TOWN

(a) UNN STAFF/STUDENTS 10 20 30

(b) COLLEGE OF MEDICAL

SCIENCE (ESUT). 10 10 20

(c) OGIGE MARKEK TRADERS. 15 10 25

(d) BANK WORKERS 10 15 25

3. AGBANI TOWN

(a) NIGERIAN LAW SCHOOL 15 15 30

STAFF/STUDENTS

(b) CIVIL SERVANTS/ OFFICE 10 10 20

WORKERS

(c) POLICE OFFICERS 15 10 25

(d) ARTISANS 10 15 25

TABLE 1:1 DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE POPULATION IN ORDER OF WOMEN IN THE MASS

MEDIA: REDRESSING THE IM BALANCE AND REDEFINING THE IMAGE OF

WOMEN

3.5 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

Self - administered questionnaire was the instrument used in this research for data

collection. Obasi (1999) described the questionnaire as “a vital instrument for gathering

information from people about their opinions, attitudes, behaviours and perceptions on given

phenomena.

In the same angle, Sobowale (1983) quoted in Okoro (2001, page 52) stated that:

After subjects have been exposed to experimental stimuli the questionnaire can be and it is

often used or elicits information from the subjects about what they have seen or experienced. It
 70

can also be employed when supplementary information is necessary after a content analysis to

answer questions that Content analysis may not be able to answer.

In view of this position of the questionnaire in data collection, it becomes very important

to properly construct questions that would measure actually what the researcher wants to

measure. The questionnaire is designed in a way to elicit the answers necessary to provide the

required solution to the research questions.

 71

The questionnaire that was used in the study consisted of three major parts. Part one is

the instruction section which gives a guide to the respondent on how to fill the questionnaires.

Part two contains five questions Demographic and Psychographic characteristics of the

respondents. Part three is the main body of the questionnaire, which starts from question

number six to question number twenty-two, that is eighteen questions arranged and

sequentially to elicit necessary data were structured while some others were unstructured that is

open-ended. Open-ended questions and the opportunity to express their opinions based on their

own discretions.

3.6 VALIDATION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Wimmer and Dominick (2005, P. 159) defines validity as the degree to which an

instrument actually measures what it sets out to measure and intimately connected with the

procedures used in the analysis.

3.7 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

The validated questionnaires were administered to three categories of respondents

before the actual test. The idea was to determine the degree to which the pre-test agrees with the

post-test. This buttresses what Wimmer and Dominick (2005; P156) say that a study is reliable

when repeated measurement of the same material results in similar decisions or conclusions,

3.8 METHOD OF ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

The method of data presentation and interpretation that was used in the study was

Tabulation/Percentage methods. Tabulation helps to present the research data in a concise and

comprehensive manner in such a way that anybody viewing it at once understands

 72

what the research is all about as well as the result of the findings. The data collated from the

field were analyzed using simple percentages and frequency distribution tables.
 73

REFERENCES
Jackson, B. (1979). The demonstration of power; Violence profile No. 10. Journal Communication,
29(3).

Kincaid, D. (2000). Mass media, ideation and behaviour. Communication Research. Lowery, S.
(1995). Milestones in mass Communication Research (3rd ed). White Plains. N.Y: Longman.

Lubbers, M. (2000). Exposure to newspapers and attitudes forward Ethnic minorities.

Howard Journal of Communication, 11 (2).

Ohaja, E. (2003). Mass Communication Research and project Report Writing. John Letterman Ltd.
Surulere, Lagos, Nigeria.

Okoro, M. (2001). Mass Communication Research: Issues and Methodologies. A.P. Express
Publishers. 3 Obollo Road, Nsukka.

Rossler, P. (2001). Do talk shows cultivate adolescent’s views of the World? A Prolonged –
exposure experiment. Journal Communication, 51 (1).

Wicks, R. (1992). Improvement overtime in recall of media information. Journal Of

Broadcasting and Electronic media, 36(3).

Wimmer, R. (2001). Analysis of panel study participation methods. Replication of 1995 Results.
Denver: Wimmer Research.

Wimmer, D. (2005). Mass Media Research, An Introduction. Wadsworth. Thomson Learning 10,
Davis Drive Belmont, Ca 3094 USA.
 74

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

This chapter presents and analyses data gathered from the field work which is used in

facilitating this research. Simple Percentages with tables were used in data explanation. The

formular for the simple percentage is : No. of Respondents x 100

Population 1

No. of Respondents means the total number of respondents who answered a particular

question where as population is the total population sample.

PART A

Demographic Data

In all the 300 copies of the questionnaires administered, 297 were returned and found

usable, representing 99 percent rate. A breakdown of the returned questionnaires indicated that

the University of Nigeria, Nsukka accounted for 105 (35.0%) responses; Enugu metropolis

102 (34.0%); and

Agbani town 90 (30.0%).

Male respondents dominated the sample by 155, giving rise to 52.2 percent while female

respondents were 142, resulting to 47.8 percent (see table 1).

 75

Table 1: Sex of Respondents

Sex Frequency Percentage

Male 155 52.2

Female 142 47.8

Total 297 100.0%

The age distribution of the respondents indicated that those within the age range of 15-

30 years were 21, resulting 7.1 percent. Respondents within the ages of 31-40 years were 132,

44.4 percent while those respondents that fall within the age range of 41-50 were 123, 41.4

percent and respondents within the age range of 51-above were 21, 7.1 percent. (See table 2).

Table 2: Age of Respondents

Age Range Frequency Percentage

18-30 21 7.1

31-40 132 44.4

41-50 123 41.4

50-above 21 7.1

Total 297 100.0%

The data on marital status indicated that a large number of respondents 165,

representing 55.6 percent were married while 132, representing 44.4 percent were single (see

table 3).
 76

Table 3: Marital Status of Respondents

Marital Status Frequency Percentage

Married 165 55.6

Single 132 44.4

Total 297 100.0%

The data on occupational distribution showed that an increased number of the

respondents 90 were civil servants, representing 30.0 percent; followed by student respondents

who were 60, accounting for 20.0percent. Another in line were businessmen/women

respondents 57, representing 19.0 percent, while trader respondents 50, accounting for 17.0

percent. Also, housewife respondents, 40, representing 14.0 percent

Table 4: Occupational Distribution of Respondents

Occupation Frequency Percentage

Student 60 20.0

Civil servant 90 30.0

Businessman/woman 57 19.0

Trader 50 17.0

Housewife 40 14.0

Total 297 100.0%

Analysis of data on educational level of respondents showed that all have acquired one

level of education or the other. About 35 (12.0%) had

 77

attended Secondary School. Seventy (24.0%) respondents were graduates in tertiary education,

Ninety (30.0%) respondents were post-graduates, Sixty- two (21.0%) respondents were

undergraduates while forty (13.0%) respondents fell into others’ category. All the respondents

were literacy encountered.

Table 5: Educational Level of Respondents

Level of education Frequency Percentage

Secondary school 35 12.0

Undergraduate 62 21.0

Graduate 70 24.0

Post-graduate 90 30.0

Others 40 13.0

Total 297 100.0%

PART B

Table 6: To what extent are Nigerian Women aware of their marginalization in the media?

Options Frequency Percentage

Yes 290 98

No 7 2

Total 297 100%

From the above, 290 respondents representing 98 percent agreed that they are aware of

their marginalization in the media, while 7 respondents disagreed that they are not aware of

their marginalization in the media.

 78

Table 7: To what extent do the mass media portray women negatively?

Station Frequency Percentage

Television 150 51

Radio 110 37

Newspaper 37 12

Total 297 100%

Respondents that strongly agreed that television is often the medium that portrays the

image of women negatively were 150 (51%), also respondents that agreed that radio is often the

medium that portrays women negatively were 110 (37%) while respondents that disagreed that

newspaper is often the medium that portrays women negatively were 37 (12%).

Table 8: Which media misrepresent women?

Station Frequency Percentage

Newspaper 187 63

Radio 110 37

Total 297 100%

From the table above, 187 respondents representing 63 percent agreed that newspaper is

the media that misrepresent women while 110 respondents representing 37 percent believes that

radio is the media that misrepresent women.

 79

Table 9: what efforts are made to minimize the discrimination on the image of women?

Organizational Frequency Percentage

Bodies

Non-Governmental 200 67

Bodies (NGOS)

Governmental Bodies 97 33

Total 297 100%

Respondents who agreed that the efforts made by Non-Governmental bodies to

minimize the discrimination on the image of women by giving women a leadership position in

the society, educating and enlightening people on the negative impacts of marginalization,

training women in different skills and encouraging women’s education, also by publishing the

efforts of women achievers in the media were 200 (67%) while respondents who said they do

not know any non-governmental organizations promoting the course of women in the society

were 97 (33%), The non-governmental organizations are as follows: Women Aid Collective

(WACOL), Women in Action (WIA), Women Lawyers Association (WLA), Pink Dove

Initiative (PDI), National Association of Women Journalist (NAWOJ), United National

International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF).

 80

Table 10: What other effective measures can the media employ to Improve the image and

status of women?

Station Frequency Percentage

Television 125 42

Radio 80 27

Newspaper 40 14

Interpersonal Communication 20 7

Magazine 12 4

Microphone 10 3

Film 10 3

Total 297 100%

From the above table, respondents who said that other effective measures the media can

employ to improve the image and status of women is through television by redressing and re-

defining the image of women through the issue of gender sensitive language about media

products and messages were 125 (42%), also respondents who agreed that through radio

programmes on information dissemination and education, allowing more women to play active

part in politics and leadership were 80 (27%), and respondent who agreed that other effective

measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women is through

newspaper were 40 (14%), while respondents who chose interpersonal communication as other

effective measures the media can employ to improve the women the image
 81

and status of women by giving women equal opportunity in all fields just as their male counter

parts were 20 (7%), respondents who were in affirmative that other effective measures the

media can employ to improve the image and status of women is magazine were 12 (4%), again

respondents who agreed that other effective measures the media can employ to improve the

image and status of women is microphone by encouraging women to be independent through

different skills acquisition were 10 (3%), and respondents who said that other effective

measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women is film were 10

(3%).

Discussion and interpretation of Data Relevant to each Research Question.

Research Question 1: To what extent are Nigerian women aware of their marginalization in the

media?

To answer this question, reference is made to table 6, and questions 6, 7, 8 out of the

297 questionnaires returned, 290 respondents representing 98 percent asserted that they are

aware of their marginalization in the media while 7 respondents disagreed that they are not

aware of their marginalization in the media were 7 (2%).

 82

Research Question 2: To what extent do the Mass Media portray women negatively?

The answer to this question is derived from table 7 and questions 9,10. In all the media

stations, 150 (51%) respondents strongly agreed that Television is often the medium that

portrays the image of women negatively,

110 (37%) respondents asserted that Radio is usually the medium that portrays women

negatively also 37 (12%) respondents are in affirmative that newspaper is always the medium

that portrays women negatively.

Research Question 3: Which media misrepresent women?

To answer this question, reference was made to table 8 and questions 11,12, out of 297

questionnaires distributed 187 respondents representing 63% opined that newspaper is the

medium that misrepresent women while respondents who agreed that the media which mostly

used to misrepresent women is radio were 110 (37%).

Research Question 4: what efforts are made to minimize the discrimination on the image of

women?

Data from table 9, and questions 17,18,19, provide answer to this question. In table 9,

200 respondents representing 67 percent asserted that efforts made by Non-Governmental

bodies to minimize the discrimination on the image of women. By giving women a leadership

position in the society, educating and enlightening people on the negative impacts of
 83

marginalization while 97 respondents representing 33 percent affirmed that they do not know

any non-governmental organizations promoting the course of women in the society,

Research Question 10: what other effective measures can the media employ to improve the

image and status of women?

From the data gathered in table 10, 125 respondents representing 42 percent opined that

other effective measured the media can employ to improve the image and status of women is

through television by redressing and redefining the image of women through the issue of gender

sensitive language about media products and messages. Also, 80 respondents representing 27

percent agreed that radio is other effective measures the media can employ to improve the

image and status of women, however, 40 respondents representing 14 percent were of the

opinion that newspaper is the other effective measure the media can employ to improve the

image and status of women while 20 respondents representing 7 percent consented that

interpersonal communication is the other effective measures the media can employ to improve

the image and status of women. Furthermore, 12 respondents representing 4 percent agreed that

magazine is the other effective measures the media can employ to improve the effective

measured image and status of women. Similarly, 10 respondents representing 3 percent

observed that microphone is other effective measures the media can employ
 84

to improve the image and status of women. Equally, 10 respondents representing 3 percent

emphasized that film is other effective measures the media can employ to improve the image

and status of women.

Findings

1. About 98% of Nigerian women agreed that they are aware of their marginalization in the media.

This fact is made manifest by 290 respondents representing 98 percent while 7 respondents

representing 2 percent disagreed that they were not aware of their marginalization in the media.

2. From the data gathered, it was observed that television has been pointed out as the media that

portrays women negatively with 150 respondents representing 51 percent as against the rest of

the media respectively

3. Newspaper was also indicated during the findings made as the media that misrepresents women

with 187 respondents representing 63 percent.

4. Furthermore, the media employed other effective measures through which it can improve the

image and status of women. These effective measures were through non-governmental bodies

and governmental bodies and individuals by giving women leadership positions, educating and

enlightening people on the negative impacts of marginalization, engaging women in politics,

training women in different skills, also by publishing the efforts of women achievers in the

media and in the society at large. Women should be regarded as

 85

assets and instruments of development not as recessive, passive and never-do-wells as the

society and the media perceive them to be.

5. Women should be regarded as assets and instruments of development not as recessive, passive

and never-do-wells as the society and media perceive them to be.

 86

REFERENCES
Aksoy, K. (2003). “The enlargement of meaning: Social Demand in a transnational context”.
Gazette: The International Journal for Communication Studies, 65 (4-5): 365-388.
Chua, J. (2000). “Women, Culture, development: A new Paradigm for development Studies?” Ethic
and Racial Studies, 23 (5), PP. 820-841.
Couldry, J .(2003). Contesting Media Power. Boulder, Co: Rowman and Littlefield.

Dahms, E. (2002). “Development from within: Community Development, Gender AND ICT’s in
Floyal, C. et al (eds.) Feminist Challenges in the Information age. Opladen Leske Und Budrich.

Danida (2000). “Gender Equality in Danish Development Co- operation: A contribution to the
Revision of Danish Development Policy”. Working paper 10.

Estrella, M .(2000). Learning from Change: Issues and Experiences in participatory Monitoring and
evaluation. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Fettterman, D. (2001). Foundations of Empowerment Evaluation.

Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Gazette (2004). Special Issue on the World Summit on the Information Society, No.3-4.

Hernanddez, V. (2000). “Feminist at Work. A case study of transforming power relationships in

everyday life: Puntos de Encuentro”. In Institutionalization gender equality: commitment,
policy and practice.
 87

Oakley, A (2000). Monitoring and Evaluation of Empowerment: A resource document. Oxford:

INTRAC.

Rodriquez, C. (2001 C). Race, Class and Gender in Yo Soy Betty La Fea: The National and the
Transnational”. A paper delivered at the Global Fusion 2001: Mass Media, Free Trade, and
Alternative Responses, Saint Louis, 10, October.

Stald, T. (2002). Global Encounters: Media and cultural Transformation.

Luton: University of Luton Press.

Steeves, H. (2000). “Gendered Agendas: Dialogue and Impasse in creating social change”. In
Wilkins (2000), PP. 7-26.

UNESCO, (2003). “Basic Text on the Information Society”. Paris: UNESCO WSIS Publications
series.

USAID, (2000 a). “Women in Development”. Washington, DC: USAID.

 88

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion.

The data from the study showed that Nigerian women are misrepresented and

marginalized by the media through what the media present to the public on women.

The media should set the right agenda by making sure that they carry out balanced

coverage of male and female activities. They should help in ensuring the elimination of all

forms of discriminations against women by creating national awareness of women’s right. By

so doing, they will help in removing the legal, religious constraints against the attainment of

social justice and equality in the media and society as a whole.

The study has shown that women should be seen as those who have bright future and

can do better in politics and positions of authority therefore, they should be given a chance to

exhibit their talents. Also Nigeria, being a developing country cannot achieve meaningful

potentials without women’s full participation in all areas.

5.2 Recommendations

The media inform us, entertain us, delight us, annoy us, they move our emotions,

challenge our intellects and insult our intelligence. Media often

 89

reduce us to mere commodities for sale to the highest bidder; media help define us; they shape

our realities. The media so fully saturate our every day lives that we are often unconscious of

their presence not to mention their influence.

According to pontiff, who wrote that:

“The mass media can and must promote justice and solidarity according to an organic and

correct vision of human development by reporting events accurately and truthfully, analyzing

situations and problems completely, and providing a forum for different opinions. An

authentically ethical approach to using powerful exercises of freedom and responsibility,

founded upon the supreme criteria of truth and Justice” (2005, p.54).

The media being a powerful instrument of development. Its relevance in the upliftment

and empowerment of media women in Nigeria. However, findings from this study indicate that

much need to be done. Occurring from the findings, the following recommendations were

however made:

(1) The media should highlight the disadvantaged position of women and its negative impact on the

economic and social development of Nigeria. A significant step would be to admit more women

into journalism and other media professions. This will raise the image of women and erase

some stereotypes.
 90

(2) The mass media should focus on educational programmes on women since education is a

human right and essential tool for achieving goal of equality, development and peace. Non-

discriminating education benefits both boys and girls this contributes to more equal

relationships between men and women thus lead to economic growth and sustainable

development.

(3) Since the media cannot alone shoulder the responsibilities of fostering women empowerment in

Nigeria, then the government of Nigeria should enact laws to guard against various forms of

violence against women, such as rape, domestic violence like wife battering and neglect, female

Genital circumcision, sexual harassment and assault, also a unit should be created in the Nigeria

Police Force to be run by women and to handle cases of violence against women.

(4) The inclusion of women in decision-making positions within the media, as well as broader

society should be advocated by the government.

(5) The government should open a workshop focused on understanding the media strategies for

developing and implementing advocacy campaigns to promote gender equality, and using the

media to raise awareness on women’s issues and problems.

(6) Government should take time to learn how the media work, how and why journalists choose the

sources they do, how sub-editors do their jobs, and who are the key players in media decision-

making.

(7) Nigeria being a signatory to the agreements is bound to take specific measures to ensure

women’s equal access to full participation in power structures and decision-making and such

actions include measures to substantially increase the number of women with a view
 91

to achieving equal representation of women and men, if necessary through positive action, in all

government and public positions. A central question that then arises is: How do we ensure that

some of the provisions of the various international conventions, treaties, declarations and

resolutions to which Nigeria willingly signed onto, are internalized by all major stake-holders in

the political process (including the primary beneficiaries-women) especially at the local

government level”. Following issues act as guide to ensure women- sensitive electoral space

ahead of the 2007 round of electrons, even though it is no doubt almost late for women to make

significant impact.

(8) The desire is for women to step forward and fulfill their leadership role in Nigeria without

further delay. We cannot continue to

 92

discriminate against women and assume that all is well. Women’s full participation in the

policy making process, especially at the local government level of governance is a necessary

but missing link in our desire for sustainable development and economic prosperity in Nigeria.
 93

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Adam,G. (2003). “The Media’s Role in Peace
Building: Asset or Liability?”. Our media 3 Conference, Barranquilla, Clombia.
Bandura, A. (2004). “Social Cognitive Theory for Personal and Social Change by enabling media”.
In singhal et al, PP.75-96.
Baumann, Z .(2000). Globalization. The human consequences. Cambridge: polity press.

Campbell, V. (2004). Information Age Journalism. London: Anold.

Centre de documentation sur l’education des adultes et la condition Feminine (CDEACF) (2000).
Women and Media for Social Change: Communication Initiatives worldwide. Montreal:
Women action/les Editions du remue – menage.

Cross-River State of Nigeria (2004). “A law to prohibit Domestic Violence Against Women And
Maltreatment of Widows”.
Bill no. 2004.

Dagron, A. (2000).Making Waves, Stories of Participatory communication for social change. New
York: Rockefeller Foundation.

Department of Communications (2001). Department of Communications, Government of South

Africa. Gender Equity Guidelines.

Department of Communications (2002). Engendering Broadcast Legislation: Final Repot. Report

prepared by Women’s Net for Department of Communications, Government of South Africa.
 94

Downing, J. (2001). Radical Media: rebellious Communication and Social Movements. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.

European Database on Women and Decision-making (2002). Women in Telecommunications.

FAO (2002). “Regional Workshop for Designing and mplementing Multimedia Communication
Strategies and National Communication Policies”.

Grapova, Y. (2000). Anthology of Gender Theory. Minsk:propilei.

ILO (2001. World Employment Report 2001: Life at work in

the Information Society. Geneva: International Labour Office.

Joseph, A. (2002). Women in Journalism: Making News, New Delhi: Konark Publishers.

Melkote, S. (2001). Communication for Development

in the Third World: Theory and practice for Empowerment. New Delhi: Sage.

Moma, C. (2000). Net Gains: African Women Takestock of Information and

Communication Technologies. Research report Communication by the Association of
Progressive Communicators (APC) – Women – Africa and FEMNET.

Morris, N. (2003). “A Comparative Analysis of the Diffusion and Participatory Models in

Development Communication”. In Communication Theory, Vol. 13, No. 2, P.225 – 248.

Population Reference Bureau (2001). “Abandoning Female genital cutting”. Washing ton, DC:
PRB.
 95

Rathgeber, E. (2002). Women, Men and ICTS in Africa: Why Gender is an Issue, PP.17-34 in Eva.
M. Rathgaber and
Edith Ofwona Adera (eds) Gender and the Information Revolution in Africa. Ottawa:
International Development Research Centre.

Rivero, Y. (2002). “Erasing blackness: The Media Construction of ‘race’ in M I Familia, the first
Puerto Rican situation Comedy with a black family”. In media, culture, and society 24, 4,
PP.481-497.

Saunders, K. (2003). Feminist Post-Development Thought.

Rethinking Modernity, Post-Colonialism and Representation. London: zed Books.

Scannell, P. (2000). “For – anyone – as – someone structures”.

In Media, Culture and Society, 22 (1), PP.5-24.

United Nations (2002). “Global Challenge, global opportunity: Trends in sustainable development”.
New York: UN.

USAID (2000 b). “Women, Men and Development”. Washington DC: USAID.

Van Zoonen, L. (2002). Gendering the internet: Claims Controversies

and Cultures, European Journal of Communication, Vol. 17, No. 1, 5- 23.
 96

JOURNALS
Naira, M. (2001). “Gender Issues in Nigeria Politics”, Lagos, UNESCO. Nigeria Labour
Congress Report (2003). “Build Women: Build Unions”.
UNICEF, Convention On The Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women Article 2.

UNICEF (2000). “Facts and Figures”, New York. Shokpeka, C.A (2002). “Nsukka Journal of the
Humanities”.

ARTICLES
Agwu, F. (2003). Responsibility of the Media. The comet Tuesday Dec 23, P. 10

Ismail Hajia (2000). Poverty is women’s problem. Punch Wednesday July 2, P.4.

Onyeukwu (2000). Gender Forum Abuja: Mainstreaming. This Day April 13, 2000, PP.44.

INTERNET ADDRESS

Dictionary of Gender Terms HYPERLINK Http:/www.owl.ru/gender/

312 htm.

Feofa nova, A (2003). Women in Ukraine: Personality or object? http/www. feminist org. ua.

Monakhova, V, Paradoxes of Nation Creation in Ukraine: Gender Aspect. http:/www/feminist org ua.

Veronica, O. Gender. HYPERLINK http:/www.owt.ru.

 97

.
 98

QUESTIONNAIRE PART A DEMOGRAPHIC DATA.

Please thick good in the boxes where appropriate and give

some short sentences where necessary.

1. Sex: Male Female

2. Age: 18 – 30 ;’ 31 – 40; 41 – 50

51 and above

3. Occupation: Student Civil servant Housewife

Trader

Businessman/ women Applicant

4 Educational level: Secondary School Under graduate Graduate

Post-graduate Others

5 Marital Status: Married

Single Other
 99

PART B PSYCHOGRAPHIC DATA.

6. Which media do you watch, read or listen to?

(a) Television

(b) Radio

(c) Newspaper

7. Why did you choose the medium?

(a) Because of its reachness to large audience

(b) Because of its visual and instantaneous effect on the audience

8. Are Nigerian women aware of their being marginalized by their male counterparts in the

media?

(a) Yes

(b) No

9. Which medium often portrays the image of women negatively?

(a) Television

(b) Radio

(c) Newspaper

10. Are women integral part of the society?

(a) Yes

(b) No

11. Which media is mostly used to misrepresent women?

(a) Television

(b) Radio
 100

(c) Newspaper
 101

12. In what various ways do the media portray women negatively to members of the

society?

(a) Through Cultural representation

(b) Through Programmes that portray women as never-do-wells

(c) By Proving to the audience that women’s place are always in the kitchen

(d) Through Programmes that place women as inferiors to the men

(e) Through their Subordination of women

13. How can the Stereotypes of women be addressed?

(a) By promoting women achievers

(b) By redefining their social roles

(c) By allowing them participate in decision-making capacity

14. What other ways – (List)?

15. Should women be given equal rights in positions of authority with their male

counterparts in the media?

(a) Yes

(b) No

16. In what ways should women be given equal rights in positions of authority with their

male counterparts in the media?

(a) By appointing women as counterparts in decision-making

(b) By involving women in political participation

 102

17. Do you know any Non-Governmental organizations (NGOS) promoting the course of

women in the society?

 103

(a) Yes

(b) No

18. List the Names of such NGOS?

19. What numerous efforts have both the individuals, Governmental and Non-Governmental

bodies made in helping to eradicate marginalization on the images of women?

20. What other effective measures can the media employ to improve on the image and status

of women as integral part of the society?

21. Which media can effectively be used to improve on the image and status of women as

integral part of the society?