BASIC PARAGRAPHS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit 1: Paragraph Structure
Unit 2: Unity and Coherence
Unit 3: Writing process
Unit 4: Narrative Paragraph
Review 1
Unit 5: Descriptive Paragraph
Unit 6: Expository Paragraph
Unit 7: Persuasive Paragraph
Review 2

1
Unit 1: Paragraph Structure

DEFINITION
What is a A paragraph is a group of related sentences that discuss one (and usually only
Paragraph? one) topic. A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten
sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph
should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly.
Note:

o A paragraph should have a centered title.

o You can indent about one inch to begin a paragraph or follow block style.
o You should write on every other line (double-spaced lines) and leave
one inch margin on the left, on the right, and at the bottom of each
page in order that the teacher can check your writings and write
comments more easily.

MODEL

Paragraph GOLD

2
Writing
Gold, a precious metal is prized for two important characteristics.
First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold
never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a
Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted
twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its
usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in
hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in
astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection
outside spaceships. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its
beauty but also for its utility.

Writing Technique Questions

1. What is the paragraph about?
2. What is the role of the first sentence?
3. What is the main idea about the topic?
4. What ideas help explain the main idea?
5. What is the role of the last sentence?
6. What are the linking words used here?

PRACTICE

A Good Put a tick next to the group of sentences that make a good paragraph. Why
Paragraph or are not the other groups of sentences not good paragraphs?
Not

a.
My best friend has many different hobbies, such as skiing, cooking, and
playing the piano, and she is very good at all of these activities. For example,
she has played the piano for ten years and has won three piano competitions.
She also likes to spend time travelling, and she has been to many different
countries in the world. She grew up speaking Spanish and English, but now
she can also speak French and Italian. I like my best friend very much.

3
 b.
Iceland is not a place for ordinary tourists. The landscape, first of all, is bare
an strange – though many consider it beautiful, too. Then, too, the far northern
climate is not ideal for tourism. The winter weather is extremely severe and
the summers are short and cool, with constant strong winds. The remote
location also means that many products have to be imported and so they are
expensive. However, the few tourists who do put up with these difficulties are
warmly welcomed by the Icelanders. Iceland may not be the choice of visitors
who are little risky.

c.
Classes in literature are useful no matter what job you intend to have when
you finish university. Books are about life. People who study literature learn
the skill of reading carefully and understanding characters, situations, and
relationships. This kind of understanding can be useful to teachers and
business people alike. Literature classes also require a lot of writing, so they
help students develop the skill of clear communication. Of course, a
professional writer needs to have this skill, but it is an equally important skill
for an engineer. Finally, reading literature helps develop an understanding for
many different points of view. Reading a novel by a Russian author, for
example, will help a reader learn more about Russian culture. For anyone
whose job may bring them into contact with Russian colleagues, this insight
can help encourage better cross-cultural understanding. Studying literature is
studying life, so it is relevant to almost any job you can think of.

d.
One good way to learn another language is to live in a country where that
language is used. When you live in another country, the language is around
you all the time, so you can learn to listen to and speak it more easily.

THREE PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH

All paragraphs have a topic sentence and supporting sentences, and some
paragraphs also have a concluding sentence.

4
Topic The topic sentence states the main ideas of the paragraph. It not only names
sentence the topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one specific area that
can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The part of the
topic sentence that announces the specific area to be discussed is called
controlling idea.

Supporting Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they explain or
sentences prove the topic sentence by giving more information about it.

First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to

corrosion.
For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today
as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago.
The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits.

Concluding The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the
sentence readers with important points to remember.

In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also
for its utility.

Concluding sentences are customary for stand-alone paragraphs. However,

paragraphs that are parts of a longer piece of writing usually do not need
concluding sentences.

MODEL

Three A Hawaiian Wedding

parts of a
1
The mix of cultures in Hawaii makes weddings there very special occasions.
Paragraph
2
Certainty, Hawaian clothing, music, and other Hawaiian customs play a big
role. 3For example, the bride often wears a long white holoku (wedding dress),

5
 and the groom wears a long-sleeved white shirt and pants with a red sash
around his waist. 4Both the bride and the groom wear leis! 5The bride's lei is
traditionally made of white flowers such as pikake (jasmine) and the groom's
is made of green maile leaves. 6Another Hawaiian custom is the blowing of a
conch shell three times to begin the ceremony. 7Hawaiian music is played
both during the ceremony and during the luau afterward. 8Other customs
included in the festivities depend on the ethnic backgrounds of the couple.
9
For instance, there may be noisy firecrackers, a Chinese way of keeping bad
spirits away. 10There may be a display of Japanese origami, or there may be a
pandango, a Filipino custom. 11During a pandango, the wedding guests tape
money together and wrap it around the couple during their fist dance together
as husband and wife. 12
All in all, a Hawaiian wedding is ally a magical,
multicultural event.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

Three 1. A topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains at least one
important subject and one verb. The following are not complete sentences because they
points do not have verbs:

Driving on freeways.
How to register for college classes.
The rise of indie films.

2. A topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea. It names the
topic and then limits the topic to a specific area to be discussed in the space of
a single paragraph.

3. A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because it

6
 gives only the main idea. It does not give any specific details.

Good: The Arabic origin of many English words is not always obvious.

Too specific: The slang expression so long (meaning "good-bye'] is

probably, corruption of the Arabic salaam.

Too general: English has been influenced by other languages.

MODEL

Topic Synonyms
Sentence Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning do not always have the
same emotional meaning. For example, the words stingy and frugal both mean
"careful with money." However, calling someone stingy is an insult, but
calling someone frugal is a compliment. Similarly, a person wants to be
slender but not skinny, aggressive but not pushy. Therefore, you should be
careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not really
synonymous at all.

Medical Miracles to Come

By the year 2009, a vaccine against the common cold will have been
developed. By the same year, the first human will have been successfully
cloned. By the year 2014, parents will be able to create designer children.
Genetic therapy will be able to manipulate genes for abilities, intelligence,
and hair, eye, and skin color. By 2020, most diseases will be able to be
diagnosed and treated at home, and by 2030 cancer and heart disease will
have been wiped out. These are just a few examples of the medical miracles
that are expected in the next few decades.

The A topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea, which reveals
controlling the focus of the paragraph. It names the topic and limits the topic to a specific
idea area to be discussed in the paragraph. In other words, the controlling idea
plays the role of a signpost which directs the rest of the paragraph, helping the
reader to understand the paragraph easily. The controlling idea also contains

7
 the specific parts of the topic sentences as in the previous section.

Topic sentence: "In Canberra, there are many sights to interest the tourist.”
The controlling idea is in black print. The writer has stated the plan: she/he
plans to describe some of these sights. The reader can expect to read about
these sights.

Phrases to express the controlling ideas

Two main types Several ways Several reasons Three main causes
Three groups Two aims Four steps Three characteristics
The following Results These effects Several problems
Three routes Two classes Three kinds These disadvantages

Adjectives to be considered for the controlling ideas

unsuitable beneficial
suitable
good bad
successful
unhealthy fortunate
harmful
unsuccessful unfortunate

PRACTICE

Task 1 Circle the topic sentence. Underline the controlling idea about the topic.

Identifying 1. Smoking is harmful for four reasons.

parts of a 2. School canteens have three disadvantages
topic 3. I always run into some problems when I try to study at home.
sentence 4. There are only two ways of getting thin.
5. I usually work harder at weekends than I do during the week
6. Last weekend I had a bare.
7. I can get from my house to the Olympic Pool by three different routes.
8. I think it is a good idea for everyone to study a foreign language.
9. Everyone should have a chance to travel overseas for these reasons.
10. The use of chemical pesticides can be harmful for animals and plants.

Task 2 Read each pair of sentences. Write TS next to the sentences that are more
effective. Be prepared to explain your choice.
Identifying

8
 1. TS a. An English-English dictionary is the best choice of English learners.
effective
___b. Many English learners use dictionaries.
topic
2. ___a. The grains of rice should not stick together.
sentences
___b. Persian rice is only considered authentic if it is made in the following
way.
3. ___a. The Internet has changed the way students do research for term
papers.
___b. The Internet is changing students’ lives.
4. ___a. A college degeree is important.
___b. Having a college degeree has many positive effects on a person’s
life.

Task 3 Remember that a topic sentence is a complete sentence and is neither too
general nor too specific.
Identifying
effective Step 1. Read the sentences in each group, and decide which sentence is the
topic best topic sentence. Write best TS (for "best topic sentence") on the
sentences line next to it.

Step 2. Decide what is wrong with the other sentences. They may be too
general, or they may be too specific, or they may be incomplete
sentences. Write too general, too specific, or incomplete on the lines
next to them.

The first one has been done for you as an example.

Group 1
too specific a. A lunar eclipse is an omen of a coming disaster.
too general b. Superstitions have been around forever.
best TS c. People hold many superstitious beliefs about the moon.
incomplete d. Is made of green cheese.
Group 2
___________a. The history of astronomy is interesting.
___________b. Ice age people recorded the appearance of new moons by
making scratches in animal bones.
___________c. For example, Stonehenge in Britain, built 3500 years ago to

9
 track the movement of the sun.
___________d Ancient people observed and recorded lunar and solar events
in different ways.
Group 3
___________a. It is hard to know which foods are safe to eat nowadays.
___________b. In some large ocean fish, there are high levels of mercury.
___________c. Undercooked chicken and hamburger may carry E.coli
bacteria.
___________d. Not to mention mad cow disease.
___________e. Food safety is an important issue.
Group 4
___________a. Hybrid automobiles more economical to operate than
gasoline-powered cars.
___________b. The new hybrid automobiles are very popular.
___________c. Hybrid cars have good fuel economy because a computer
under the hood decides to run the electric motor, the small
gasoline engine, or the two together.
___________d. The new hybrid automobiles are popular because of their fuel
economy.
Task 4 For each of these paragraphs, choose the sentence from the list below that
would make the best topic sentence.
a.
1. One of my closest friends, name Ken, is a person I can trust.
2. My friend Ken is a very successful student.
3. I admire my friend Ken because he doesn’t give up.
……………………………………………………..………………………
When
Ken wanted to enter a good university, he studied hard to pass the
examination. The first time he took the exam, he did not do well, and he felt
very discouraged. But he knew he wanted to study at that university, so he
studied more. The next year, he tried taking the exam again. The second time,
he did very well, and now he is studying engineering. I believe Ken is a good
role model for me, and he has taught me that never giving up is the best way

10
 to succeed.
b.
1. I love playing football and I hope I can become a professional
player one day.
2. There are many popular sports in my country, but the most
popular sport is football.
3. Football is a difficult sport to learn.
……………………………………………………………………………..Man
y
children begin learning to play football when they are very young. You can
often see them playing at school or in the streets around their houses. At
secondary school, students may play football in a team and compete in
championships. If a player is very good, he might go on to play for a
professional team. People in my country love watching football on television
and also go to matches whenever they can. Many people have a favorite team
of player, and everyone loves to talk about matches and competitions.
Football is really like a national sport in my country.

Task 5 Change the following general topic sentences into specific ones by
providing the specific controlling idea. Use the questions in the parentheses
to guide you.
Example
Businesses can offer their employees many benefits. (What benefits?)

 Health insurance, vacation time, and yearly bonuses are benefits that
businesses can offer their employees.

1. Football is the most popular sport in the world. (Why?)

2. Television has negative effects on children. (What effects?)

3. The developing countries are faced with many problems. (What problems?)

4. College students face a number of pressures. (What pressures?)

Task 6 Write a specific topic sentence for each of the following topics:
A) your favorite possession
B) an interesting person you know

11
 C) a beautiful place / a favorite place to relax
D) differences between vacationing in the mountain and at the beach
E) playing a musical instrument

SUPPORTING SENTENCES

Supporting details develop, explain, and support the main idea. Examples of
details are reasons, steps, facts, descriptions and examples.

Note: Supporting details should NOT begin a new topic or introduce a new
idea.

Example:

Topic Sentence: Pete’s sloppiness is a terrible habit.

Supporting sentences:
o His apartment is full of dirty clothes, books, and candy wrapper.
o He jots time-and-place information for dates and appointments on
scraps of papers that are soon forgotten.
o Papers for classes wrinkled and carelessly scrawled

Kinds of Good writers use many different kinds of supporting sentences. Good
Supporting supporting sentences:
Sentences • explain:
The family moved from the village to the capital for economic reasons.
• describe:
She lived in a lovely, three-story castle surrounded by a forest.
• give reasons:
Larry finally quit his job because of the stressful working conditions.
• give facts:
More than ten percent of the university's student population is
international.
• give examples:
Oranges and grapefruits grow in California.
• define:
My grandmother has a samovar, which is a large copper tea urn.

12
 Example:
Using facts and statistics:

Traffic accidents are a serious problem in Vietnam (topic sentence).

According to the newest research in Vietnamese news, each year more
than 10,000 people lose their lives in road accidents in this country.
(supporting ideas - statistics).

Using explanation:

Also, cooking takes a lot of time (topic sentence). While the food
might not actually be on the stove for very long, you also have to
consider the time that is spent shopping for the food, cleaning and
chopping it, and cleaning up the kitchen it is cooked. (supporting ideas
- explanation).

Using examples:

Great athletes do not reach the top by talent alone but by pushing
themselves to the limit and beyond (topic sentence). For instance, golf
legend Tiger Woods keeps striving for perfection (supporting ideas -
example).

Categories of There are two categories of supporting details—major and minor.

Supporting A major supporting detail provides essential information to help the reader
Details understand the main idea. Whereas a major detail offers primary support of
the main idea, a minor supporting detail offers more explanation of the major
detail. Minor supporting details are not critical to understanding the main
idea.

Examples:

Topic sentence: Students should consider many variables when choosing

classes.
Major supporting details:
Time of day
Whether it is required or not
How much reading/writing may be involved

13
 Minor supporting details:
Time of day: You can choose classes that meet early in the morning, mid-
morning, early afternoon, mid-afternoon, early evening, or evening.
Whether it is required or not: You may not want to take classes that do not
qualify as credit toward your degree.
How much reading/writing may be involved: You may not want to take
several classes at the same time that will involve a lot of reading, such as
novels, or that require writing multiple papers.

MODEL

A. The Benefits of Forming a Study Group

1
Forming a study group is a great way to improve your grades and make
friends. 2Studying with others helps you review what you know about the
course content, allows you to re-teach the content to your group members, and
lets you work with others to determine what the instructor wants you to know.
3
All of these items reinforce your classroom experience and your knowledge
of the material. 4Forming a study group is also a great way to make friends on
campus. 5Often when people are new to a college setting they don’t know
many people. 6Study groups can help you make new friends by using your
common interest in the course to bring you together. 7That can make it much
less scary to approach others about getting together.

Topic Sentence: 1

Major supporting idea 1: 3

Minor supporting idea 1: 2

Major supporting idea 2: 4

B. Minor supporting idea 2: 5-6-7

Flea markets and garage sales appeal to people for a couple of reasons. First,
of course, a used item costs less than a new one. Many people on a budget
have wonderful wardrobes they have assembled with good used
clothing. Second, many who shop at flea markets and garage sales are
collectors. There are people who collect old hats, 1950s toasters, toaster

14
 C. covers, salt and peppershakers, comic books, and just about anything else you
can think of.

There are several parenting styles. The first is the authoritarian

style. Authoritarian parents give orders and punish their children if those
orders are not quickly obeyed. There is also the authoritative
style. Authoritative parents make it clear they are in charge, but they are open
to seeing their children's point of view. The next style is that of permissive
parents. They avoid ever saying "no" and give the children a good deal of
power. The final parenting style is uninvolved. An uninvolved parent does not
ask much of children, and does not give much attention either.

PRACTICE

Task 1 Read the following scrambled paragraphs and decide which sentence is the topic
sentence, which is supporting details. Write TS on the line next to the topic sentence,
Distinguishing
MJ on the line next to the major ideas and MN for minor ideas.
the Topic
Sentence from Paragraph I
Supporting ____a. A notes/memo function lets you make quick notes to yourself.
Details
____b. Other capabilities include word processing, spreadsheets, and e-mail.

____c. A voice recorder that uses a built-in microphone and speaker works
like a tape recorder.

____d. Basic tools include a calendar to keep track of your appointments, an

address and phone number book, to-do lists, and a calculator.

____e. MP3 playback lets you listen to digital music files, and a picture
viewer lets you look at digital photos.

____f . Most personal digital assistants (PDAs) have tools for basic tasks as
well as for multimedia functions.

____g. A few models also include a built-in digital camera and keyboard.

Paragraph 2

____a. Twelve years after Sputnik, the United States caught up by becoming

15
 the first nation to land a man on the moon.

____b. The Europeans have joined the competition, vowing to land European
astronauts on the moon by 2025 and on Mars by 2035.

____c. The number of nations competing in the "space race" has grown since
the early days of space exploration.

____d. China joined the competition in 2003 when it launched Shenzhou S.

____e. Initially, the former Soviet Union took the lead when it sent the first
man into Earth orbit in the spaceship Sputnik in 1957.

____f. For almost 50 years, the United States and Russia were the only
competitors in the contest to explore space using manned spacecraft.

Paragraph 3

____a. Another important change was that people had the freedom to live and
work wherever they wanted.

____b. The earliest significant change was for fanning families, who were no
longer isolated.

____c. The final major change brought by the automobile was the building of
superhighways, suburbs, huge shopping centers, and theme parks such
as Disney World in Florida.

____d. The automobile revolutionized the way of life in the United States.

____e. The automobile enabled them to drive to towns and cities comfortably
and conveniently.

____f. In fact, people could work in a busy metropolitan city and drive home
to the quiet suburbs.

Paragraph 4

____a. In time, this melted part rises as magma.

____b. The formation of a volcanic eruption is a dramatic series of events.

____c. As the plate' sinks, friction and Earth's heat cause part of it to melt.

16
 ____d. The magma produces heat, steam, and pressure.

____e. First of all, most volcanoes are formed where two plates collide.

____f. Then one of the plates is forced under the other and sinks.

____g. When the heat, steam, and pressure from the magma finally reach the
surface of Earth, a volcanic eruption occurs.

Task 2 Work with a partner or in a small group. Read each topic sentence. Then fill
in the blanks with additional supporting sentences. Add as many supporting
Writing
sentences as you can, but you do not have to fill in all of the blanks.
Supporting
Sentences 1. Owning a small car has several advantages.
a. A small car is easier to park. b. A small car use less fuel.
c. It is easy to control in small space d.___________________________
2. To keep your teeth healthy and your smile bright, do the following things.
a. Don't eat sugary foods.
b. Brush your teeth at least twice a day
c. Should go to the dentist every 6 months
d.___________________________
3. Consider these three/four/five factors when planning a family vacation.
a. Consider the interests of everyone. b.___________________________
c. ____________________________ d.___________________________
4. A good friend has two/three/four important qualities.
a. He/She can keep secrets. b.___________________________
c. ____________________________ d.___________________________
5. Avoid taking the following actions to study for a big test.
a. Turn on the television, the radio, or your CD player.
b. ____________________________________
c. ____________________________________
d. ____________________________________
6. A college education is important for these reasons.
a. It prepares you for a career. . b.___________________________
c. ____________________________ d.___________________________

THE CONCLUDING SENTENCE

17
Three The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. Its job is to
Purposes of bring the paragraph to a logical conclusion.
Concluding A concluding sentence serves three purposes:
Sentence. Signal the end of the paragraph
Summarize the main points of the paragraph
Give a final comment on the topic and leave the reader with the
most important ideas to think about.
Example: In conclusion, a professor is always a very busy person;
however, she or he usually enjoys her or his work.
Writing A concluding sentence can be written according to the following methods:
Concluding 1. Begin the concluding sentence with a signal phrase that tells the reader
Sentence that the paragraph is completed.
Conclusion Signals

Followed by a Comma No Comma

1. All in all, In summary, 2. It is clear that…

In brief, To conclude, These examples show that…
In conclusion, To summarize, We can see that…
Indeed, To sum up, The evidence suggests that…
In short, There can be no doubt that…
1. To summarize, Japanese food is both beautiful to look at and delicious to eat.
Indeed, many U.S cities and regions have a special food for everyone to enjoy.
2. It is clear that fad diets don’t work and may even damage a dieter’s health.
State the topic sentence in different words. Do not just copy the
topic sentence.
Topic sentence: Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do
not always have the same emotional meaning.
Concluding sentence: Therefore, you should be careful in choosing
words because many so-called synonyms are not really synonymous at
all.
3. Summarize all main points in the paragraph.
Topic Sentence: Gold, a precious metal is prized for two important
characteristics.

18
 Concluding sentence: In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its
beauty but also for its utility.
Note:
Concluding sentence is not absolutely necessary; in fact, it is not
customary for every paragraph in a multi-paragraph essay. However, for
single paragraph, a concluding sentence is helpful to the reader.
PRACTICE
Task 1 From the choices listed, choose the best concluding sentence for this
paragraph.
Animals in Captivity
Animals living in modern zoos enjoy several advantages over animals in the
wild. The first advantage is that zoo animals are separated from their natural
predators.' They are protected, so they live without risk of being attacked.
Another advantage is that someone feeds them regularly, so they do not have
to hunt for food. Also, they do not suffer times when food is hard to find. A
third advantage of living in zoos is that veterinarians give animals regular
checkups, and sick animals get prompt medical
attention.__________________________
______________________________________________________________
__
1. In conclusion, because all their needs are taken care of, most
zoo animals are healthy and contented.
2. In conclusion, living in a zoo has many advantages for
animals, but it also has some disadvantages.
3. In conclusion, zoos keep animals safe from predators.
Task 2 On the line at the end of each paragraph, write a concluding sentence. Be
sure to begin with a conclusion signal.

1. The college cafeteria is an inexpensive place to eat. For example, you can
get a cheeseburger, french fries, and a soda for only $3.00. A slice of pizza is
only $1.50, and a cup of coffee is only 504. There is a daily special for about
$2.50. It includes an entrée, rice or potatoes, and a vegetable. The salad bar is
the best deal of all. You get all you can eat for $2.00.

19
 ___________________________

______________________________________________________________
_

2. Watching children's programs on television is a good way to learn a foreign

language. First, the actors speak slowly and repeat often. Also, the vocabulary
is not difficult. Finally, there is always a lot of action, so you know what is
happening even if you don't understand the words.
_______________________
______________________________________________________________
__
Task 3 Read these paragraphs. Is the main idea developed by details, explanation,
or an example? Add a good concluding sentence to each paragraph. You
may either paraphrase the topic sentence or summarize the main points.
Paragraph 1

My favorite subject is psychology. I enjoy learning about the ways people

think and behave. I am also interested in learning about the ways children’s
minds develop.

Means of support: _____________________

Concluding Sentence:
______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
__

Paragraph 2

I will never eat dinner at The Little French Bistro again. The restaurant is not
very clean. You can see dust in the corners and on the shelves. The food is
expensive, but the portions are small. I never feel full after I’ve finished
eating. In addition, the waiters are not very friendly.

Means of support: _____________________

Concluding Sentence:

20
______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
__

Paragraph 3

School uniforms should be optional for three reasons. For one thing, they are
very expensive nowadays especially for teenagers. For another thing, although
the style may suit one student, it doesn’t often suit another. Another problem
is the colour. Boys and girls nowadays like to express themselves by wearing
the different coloured clothes that are available in the shops. They do not want
to wear the same dark blue or yellow and brown that everyone else is wearing,
especially if it doesn’t suit them.

Means of support: _____________________

Concluding Sentence:
______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
__

Paragraph 4

You can reduce gas consumption in your car by careful driving and good
maintenance. Don’t speed. Gas consumption is about 10 percent higher at 60
miles per hour than at 50 miles per hour and even greater at higher speeds.
Avoid fast stops and starts because they wear your tires out in addition to
using a lot of gas. Check your tire pressure often because underinflated tires
reduce gas mileage considerably. Get your car turned up regularly because an
inefficient operating engine results in inefficient fuel consumption.

Means of support: _____________________

Concluding Sentence:
______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
__

21
Task 4 The following scrambled groups of sentences include a topic sentence, a
concluding sentence, and a concluding comment. Study each group
carefully, and identify them.

1. You can lose weight if you follow these steps. It will take both time and
effort, but the results will make you happy. Losing weight is not difficult.
2. Everyone should be aware of the dangers of heavy smoking. Smoking is the
cause of several serious diseases. Smoking can harm important organs of the
body.
3. A working couple should divide home responsibilities. By sharing the
work, they will have more time for leisure activities. A husband should be
willing to help his wife with the children, housework, and shopping.

4. It is important for consumers to be aware of the dangers of such false

advertising. These advertisements carry the message that young people can
smoke and still be good-looking, healthy, and athletic. Cigarette
advertisements try to attract young people in several ways.

5. Take the boredom out of exercising and do it to music. Exercising to music

can increase your enthusiasm. Listening to fast-tempo music while running or
aerobic dancing will make exercising easier and fun.

22
Unit 2: Unity and Coherence

UNITY

An important element of a good paragraph is UNITY. Unity means that a paragraph

Unity discusses one and only one main idea from beginning to end. For example, if your
within a paragraph is about the advantages of owning a compact car, discuss only that. Do

Paragraph not discuss the disadvantages. The second part of unity is that every supporting
sentence must directly explain or prove the main idea. For example, in a paragraph
about the high cost of prescription drugs in the United States, you could mention
buying drugs from pharmacies.

In short, a paragraph has UNITY when all the sentences support one single
idea:
The paragraph must have one controlling idea in the topic sentence.
Otherwise, the paragraph loses focus.

The supporting sentences must support, demonstrate, prove, or develop the

main idea in the topic sentence. If they do not, they will be irrelevant or off-
topic and destroy the unity of the paragraph.

The concluding sentence should restate the idea in the topic sentence to
reinforce the main idea for the reader.

23
PRACTICE

Task 1: The three paragraphs that follow all discuss the same topic. Only one of
Unity them shows unity. First read the paragraphs. Then answer these questions.

1. Which paragraph has unity?

2. Which paragraph does not have unity because it discusses two different
topics?

3. Which paragraph does not have unity because it has sentences that are
not related to the main topic?

Effects of Color
A.
Colors create biological reactions in our bodies. These reactions, in turn,
can change our behavior. In one study, prisoners were put in a pink room,
and they underwent a drastic and measurable decrease in muscle strength
and hostility within 2.7 seconds. In another study, athletes needing short
bursts of energy were exposed to red light. Their muscle strength
increased by 13.5 percent, and electrical activity in their arm muscles
increased by 5.8 percent. Athletes needing more endurance for longer
performances responded best when exposed to blue light. Other studies
have shown that the color green is calming. Green was a sacred color to
the Egyptians, representing the hope and joy of spring. It is also a sacred
color to Moslems. Many mosques and religious temples throughout the
world use green (the color of renewal and growth) and blue (the color of
heaven) to balance heavenly peace with spiritual growth. To sum up,
color influences us in many ways.
B.
Effects of Color

Colors create biological reactions in our bodies. These reactions, in turn,

can change our behavior. In one study, prisoners were put in a pink room,
and they underwent a drastic and measurable decrease in muscle strength
and hostility within 2.7 seconds. In another study, athletes needing short
bursts of energy were exposed to red light. Their muscle strength
increased by 13.5 percent, and electrical activity in their arm muscles

24
 increased by 5.8 percent. Athletes needing more endurance for longer
performances responded best when exposed to blue light. Other studies
have shown that the color green is calming. After London's Blackfriars
Bridge was painted green, the number of suicides decreased by 34
percent. These and other studies clearly demonstrate that color affects not
only our moods but our behavior as well.
C. Effects of Color

Colors create biological reactions in our bodies. These reactions, in turn,

can change our behavior. In one study, athletes needing short bursts of
energy were exposed to red light. Their muscle strength increased by
13.5 percent, and electrical activity in their arm muscles increased by 5.8
percent. Athletes needing more endurance for longer performances
responded best when exposed to blue light. Blue is not a good color for
dinnerware, however. Food looks less appetizing when it is served on
blue plates, perhaps because very few foods in nature are of that color.
Other studies have shown that the color green is calming. After London's
Blackfriars Bridge was painted green, the number of suicides from it
decreased by 34 percent. It is clear that color affects not just our moods,
but our behavior as well.

Task 2: Both of the following paragraphs break the rule of unity because they contain
Unity one or more sentences that are off the topic.

Step 1 Locate and underline the topic sentence of each paragraph.

Step 2 Cross out the sentence or sentences that are off the topic.

A. Adventure travel is the hot trend in the tourism industry. Ordinary people are no
longer content to spend their two weeks away from the office resting on a sunny
beach in Florida. More and more often, they are choosing to send their
vacations rafting down wild rivers, hiking through steamy rain forests, climbing
the world's highest mountains, or crossing slippery glaciers. J People of all ages
are choosing educational study tours for their vacations.

B. Daredevil sports are also becoming popular. Young people especially are
increasingly willing to risk life and limb3 while mountain biking, backcountry

25
 snowboarding, or high-speed skateboarding. Soccer is also popular in the
United States now, although football is still more popular. One of the riskiest
new sports is skysurfing, in which people jump out of airplanes with boards
attached to their feet. Skysurfing rivals4 skydiving and bungee jumping for the
amount of thrillsand risk. c. Both of the following paragraphs not only have
sentences that are off the topic but also discuss two or more topics.

Task 3. Both of the following paragraphs not only have sentences that are off the topic
but also discuss two or more topics.

Step 1 Decide where each paragraph should be divided into two paragraphs.

Underline the topic sentence of each.

Step 2 Find sentence(s) that are off the topic and cross them out.

A. A Common Language

Because the Internet makes the world a smaller place, the value of having a
common language is greatly increased. The question is-which language? Because
the Internet grew up in the United States, the largest percentage of its content is
now in English. Bill Gates, Microsoft's president, believes that English will
remain valuable for a long time as a common language for international
communication. His company spends $200 million a year translating software
into other languages. He says, "Unless you read English passably well, you miss
out on some of the Internet experience." Someday, software may be available to
instantly translate both written and spoken language so well that the need for any
common language could decline. That day is decades away, however, because
flawless machine translation is a very tough problem. Computer spelling checkers
also exist for various languages. Software that does crudes translations already
exists. It is useful if all you are trying to do is understand the general idea of
something you see on your computer screen. However, if you are trying to
negotiate a contract or discuss a scientific subject where details are important,
machine translation is totally useless.
B.
Different Cultures

Even when you try to be polite, it is easy to do the wrong thing inadvertently in a
new culture. For example, when someone offers you food or a beverage in the
United States, accept it the first time it is offered. If you say, "No, thank you"
because it is polite to decline the first one or two offers in your culture, you could

26
 become very hungry and thirsty in the United States. There, a host thinks that
"no" means "no" and will usually not offer again. Meals in the United States are
usually more informal than meals in other countries, and the times of meals may
be different. Although North Americans are usually very direct in social matters,
there are a few occasions when they are not. If a North American says, "Please
drop by sometime," he mayor may not want you to visit him in his home. Your
clue that this may not be a real invitation is the word "sometime." In some areas
of the United States, people do not expect you to visit them unless you have an
invitation for a specific day and time. In other areas of the United States,
however, "dropping by" is a friendly, neighborly gesture. Idioms are often
difficult for newcomers to understand.

Task 4: Read the following topic sentences. Put a check () next to each sentence
Recognizing below that supports the topic sentence.
unity in
1. There are several reasons why online courses are increasing in popularity.
supporting
___a. Online courses are flexible in terms of time.
sentences.
_____b. Online courses have been available since the 1990s.

___c. Online courses are more convenient for students who live far away
from the campus.

2. Childhood diabetes has many possible causes.

_____a. Obesity is a major cause of diabetes.

_____b. Children who eat too much sugar can get diabetes.

_____c. Children with diabetes need constant medical care.

3. The best way to reduce traffic in our city is to build a metro subway system.

_____a. Pollution is very bad in our city.

_____b. Widening the freeways has not solved the problem of traffic
congestion

_____c. A metro subway system would encourage people to take public

transportation to work.

4. I am afraid of dogs because I had a scary experience with one when I was

27
 ten.

_____a. My children are not allowed to have a pet dog.

_____b. My neighbor owned a collie dog that ran around the neighborhood
without a leash.

_____c. The dog bit me.

5. Scenic Beach is my favorite picnic spot because of its beauty.

_____a. It is a quiet narrow beach covered with oyster shells.

_____b. One time I had an interesting experience here.

_____c. The Olympic Mountains rise straight up out of the water on the side of
the channel.

6. Train stations are interesting places to visit.

_____a. The architecture of each train station is often connected to the history
of city.

_____b. The passengers are frequently more interesting to watch than other
types of travelers.

_____c. Trains are a good alternative for people who are afraid of flying.

Task 5: Write two or thee supporting sentences for each of the following topic
Developing sentences. Then exchange books with a partner and check your partner’s
Unity sentences for unity.

1. Joining a sports team can provide many benefits.

2. My first day in my new school was full of surprises.

3. A road trip is the best way to see the United States.

4. Many people do not realize that packing a suitcase requires skill and
planning.

COHERENCE

Coherence in a Another element of a good paragraph is COHERENCE. The Latin verb

Paragraph cohere means "hold together." For coherence in writing, the sentences must

28
 hold together; that is, the movement from one sentence to the next must be
logical and smooth. There must be no sudden jumps. Each sentence should
flow smoothly into the next one.

In other words, COHERENCE in a paragraph means that the ideas have a

logical flow: the relationship between the sentences is clear and one idea
connects to the next. There are four ways to achieve coherence:

1. Repeat key nouns

2. Use consistent pronouns

3. Use transition signals to link ideas

4. Arrange your ideas in logical order:

time order, spatial order, or order of
importance.

Repetition The easiest to achieve coherence is to repeat key nouns frequently in your
of Key paragraph.
Nouns

Read the model paragraph about gold to see how it uses this technique
to smooth the flow of sentences. The key noun in this paragraph is gold.
Circle the word gold and all pronouns that refer to it.
GOLD
Paragraph Gold, a precious metal is prized for two important characteristics.
with First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
Coherence Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes.
Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever.
For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the
day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important
characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For
many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications.
The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear
gold-plated heat shields for protection outside spaceships. In
conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its

29
 utility.

Paragraph GOLD
without Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.
Coherence First of all, it has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes.
It never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For
example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day
it was made 25 centuries ago. Another of its important characteristics
is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been
used in hundreds of industrial applications, such as photography and
dentistry. Its most recent use is in astronauts' suits. Astronauts wear
heat shields made from it for protection when they go outside
spaceships in space. In conclusion, it is treasured not only for its
beauty but also for its utility.

Task 6: In the following paragraph, the key noun is never repeated. Replace the
Repetition pronoun it with the key noun English wherever you think doing so would
of Key make the paragraph more coherent.
Nouns English

English has almost become an international language. Except for

Chinese, more people speak it than any other language. Spanish is the
official language of more countries in the world, but more countries
have it as their official or unofficial second language. More than 70
percent of the world's mail is written in it. It is the primary language on
the Internet. Bin international business, it is used more than any other
language, and it is the language of airline pilots and air traffic
controllers all over the world. Moreover, although French used to be
the language of diplomacy, it has displaced it throughout the world.
Brherefore, unless you plan to spend your life alone on a desert island
in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, it is a useful language to know.

Using When you use pronouns, make sure that you use the same person and number
consistent throughout your paragraph. Don't change from you to he or she (change of

30
pronouns person) or from he to they (change of number). Notice the changes the writer
made for consistency in the following example.

Task 7: In the following paragraph, the pronouns are not consistent. Correct them
to make this paragraph more coherent.
Olympic Athletes
Olympic athletes must be strong both physically and mentally. First of
all, if you hope to compete in an Olympic sport, you must be physically
strong. Furthermore, aspiring4 Olympians must train rigorouslyS for
many years. For the most demanding sports, they train several hours a
day, five or six days a week, for ten or more years. In addition to being
physically strong, athletes must also be mentally tough. This means that
you have to be totally dedicated to your sport, often giving up a normal
school, family, and social life. Being mentally strong also means that he
or she must be able to withstand the intense pressure of international
competition with its accompanying media6 coverage. Finally, not
everyone can win a medal, so Olympians must possess the inner strength
to live with defeat.
Transition Transition signals are expressions such as first, finally, and however, or phrases such
Signals as in conclusion, on the other hand, and as a result. Other kinds of words such as
subordinators (when, although), coordinators (and, but), adjectives (another,
additional), and prepositions (because of, in spite of) can serve as transition signals.

Transition signals are like traffic signs; they tell your reader when to go forward,
tum around, slow down, and stop. In other words, they tell your reader when you
are giving a similar idea (similarly, and, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other
hand, but, in contrast), an example (for example), a result (therefore, as a result), or
a conclusion (in conclusion).

31
 Transition signals give a paragraph coherence because they guide your reader from
one idea to the next.

Task 8: Compare paragraphs 1 and 2 that follow. Which paragraph contains

transition signals and is more coherent? Circle all the transition signals
you can identify.

A. One difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the
salinity varies in different climate zones. The Baltic Sea in northern
Europe is only one-fourth as salty as the Red Sea in the Middle East.
There are reasons for this. In warm climates, water evaporates rapidly.
The concentration of salt is greater. The surrounding land is dry and
does not contribute much freshwater to dilute the salty seawater. In
cold climate zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoff created by
melting snow adds a considerable amount of freshwater to dilute the
saline seawater.
B.
One difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the
salinity varies in different climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in
northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the
Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in warm
climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, the concentration of
salt is greater. Second, the surrounding land is dry; consequently, it
does not contribute much freshwater to dilute the salty seawater. In
cold climate zones, on the other hand, water evaporates slowly.
Furthermore, the runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable
amount of freshwater to dilute the saline seawater.

Task 9: Choose the correct signal words/phrases in the following sentences.

1. A recent article in Era magazine suggested ways to reduce inflation. The
Use
article suggested that the president reduce the federal budget; ___________, it
transition
signals to suggested that the government reduce federal, state and local taxes.

link ideas (however, in contrast, furthermore).

2. The same article said that the causes of inflation were easy to find

32
 ________________ the cure for inflation was not easy to prescribe.

(however, for example, therefore)

3. Era also suggested that rising wages were one of the primary causes of
inflation _______________ the government should take action to control
wages.

(however, for example, therefore)

4. In physics, the weight of an object is the gravitational force with which

Earth attracts it; _______________, if a man weights 150 pounds, this means
that Earth pulls him down with a force of 150 pounds.

(moreover, for example, therefore)

Transition Words and Phrases and Conjunctive Adverbs

Meaning / Transition Conjunctive Coordinating Subordination

Others
Function Phrases Adverbs Conjunctions Conjunctions

To introduce also, too, another (+

an additional In addition besides and noun) an
furthermore, additional
idea moreover (+ noun)

To introduce
however, but although, in spite of
an opposite on the other yet
instead, though, (+ noun)
hand, in
idea or nevertheless even though, despite (+
contrast
still whereas, while noun)
contrast

To introduce a
If
choice or otherwise or
unless
alternative

to introduce a
restatement / In fact
That is
indeed
explanation
the first,
First, second,
To list in second,
third
third
order next, last,
the next,
finally
last, finally

33
 an example
To introduce
For example of (+ noun)
an example for instance such as
(+noun)
clearly,
To introduce a in brief
conclusion or in conclusion
indeed
summary in short
in summary
accordingly
To introduce a as a result Therefore
as a consequently so
result
consequence hence , thus

Task 10:
Fill in each blank: with an appropriate transition signal from the list
Recognizing
provided. Use each signal only once. Add punctuation if necessary.
Transition
for example also
Signals in fact similarly
final and most
third second
indeed convincing

Time

One stereotype about North Americans says that they are obsessed with5
time. It sometimes seems true that for North Americans, time seems as
valuable as money. (1)_______ they even say, "Time is money."
(2)_______ have you noticed how many verbs can be followed by both
time and money? (3)______ you can spend time, save time, lose time,
find time, make time, waste time, and run out of time. (4)__________ you
can spend, save, lose, find, make, waste, and run out of money.
(5)__________ North Americans seem to regard time as a "thing" that
one can own. You can have time, buy time, and take time. (One wonders
how much it costs and where it is taken.) A (6)__________ piece of
evidence that North Americans are obsessed with time is their fanaticism
about always being on time. (7)___________ people who are habitually
late risk punishment ranging from frowning disapproval to losing their
jobs. The (8)__________ proof is that these poor people sometimes take
courses in time management! That is really overdoing it, don't you agree?

34
Logical In addition to using transition signals and repeating key nouns and pronouns, a
order fourth way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of
logical order.

The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of

order that is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way of writing.
Some common kinds of logical order in English are chronological order,
logical division of ideas, and comparison/contrast.

• Chronological order is order by time-a sequence of events or steps in a

process.

• In logical division of ideas, a topic is divided into parts, and each part is
discussed separately.

• In a comparison/contrast paragraph, the similarities and/or differences

between two or more items are discussed.

Task 11: Read the following paragraphs and decide which kind of logical order is
Recognizing used in each: comparison/contrast, chronological order, or logical division
Kinds of of ideas.
"Logical
Order
The process of machine translation of languages is complex. To
A. translate a document from English into Japanese, for example, the
computer first analyzes an English sentence, determining its grammatical
structure and identifying the subject, verb, objects, and modifiers. Next,
the words are translated by an English-Japanese dictionary. After that,
another part of the computer program analyzes the resulting awkward
jumble' of words and meanings and produces an intelligible sentence
based on the rules of Japanese syntax2 and the machine's understanding
of what the original English sentence meant. Finally, a human bilingual
editor polishes the computer-produced translation.

Kind of logical order: ___________________________

B. French and U.S. business managers have decidedly different

35
 management styles. French meetings, for example, are long and rambling
and rarely end on time. Furthermore, meetings often end without closure.
Managers in the United States, on the other hand, make an effort to start
and stop a meeting on time, and North American business meetings
typically end with decisions and action plans. Another difference
involves documentation. North Americans adore documentation; they
have a procedure manual for everything. The French, in contrast, think
this is childish. French managers find it difficult to stick to a schedule,
but U.S. managers are intolerant of delays. In addition, the French prefer
to work alone, whereas North Americans like to work in teams. Another
major difference in management style is that in French companies,
authority comes from the top; French managers do not share information
with subordinates and make decisions with little participation by
employees beneath them. In U.S. companies, however, top managers
share information and frequently solicit5 input from subordinates.

C. Kind of logical order: ___________________________

It took more than 2,500 years to develop the calendar used in most
Western countries today. In about 700 B.C.E.,7 the ancient Romans used
a calendar that had 304 days divided into 10 months; March was the
beginning of each year. There were more than 60 days missing from the
calendar, so very soon the calendar did not match the seasons at all.
Spring arrived when the calendar said that it was still winter. A few
decades later, the Romans added the months of January and February to
the end of the year. This calendar lasted about 600 years. Then in 46
B.C.E., Julius Caesar, the Roman ruler, made a new calendar. His
calendar had 365 days, with one day added every fourth year. He also
moved the beginning of the year to January 1, and he renamed a month
for himself: Julius (July). In Caesar's calendar, February had 29 days.
The very next emperor, Augustus, not only renamed a month for himself
(August), but he also took one day from February and added it to August
so that "his" month would be just as long as Caesar's. This calendar
worked better than the previous ones, but it still was not perfect. By

36
 1580, the first calendrical day of spring was 10 days too early, so in
1582, Pope Gregory XIII, the leader of the Roman Catholic religion,
made a small change to make the calendar more accurate. In the
Gregorian calendar, the year is still 26.3 seconds different from the solar
year, but it will be a long time before this causes a problem.

Kind of logical order: ___________________________

REVIEW UNITY AND COHERENCE

These are the important points covered in this chapter.
1. Every good paragraph has both unity and coherence.
2. You achieve unity by
• discussing only one idea in a paragraph.
• always staying on the topic in your supporting sentences.
3. You achieve coherence by
• repeating key nouns.
• using consistent pronouns.
• using transition signals.
• arranging your ideas in some kind of logical order.
4. There are different types of transition signals. Each type is punctuated
diferently
In the following paragraph, notice how the four elements work together to
create a unified and coherent paragraph.

37
38
Unit 3: Writing process

OVERVIEW

Writing is never a one-step action; it is an ongoing creative act.

When you first write something, you have already been thinking about what to
say and how to say it. Then after you have finished writing, you read over
what you have written and make changes and corrections. You write and
revise and write and revise again until you are satisfied that your writing
expresses exactly what you want to say.

The PROCESS OF WRITING has roughly four steps. In the first step, you
create ideas. in the second step, you organize the ideas. in the third step, you
write a rough draft. in the final step, you polish your rough draft by editing it
and making revisions.

39
STEP 1

The first step is called PREWRITING. Prewriting is a way to get ideas. In

Prewriting this step, you choose a topic and collect ideas to explain the topic.

LISTING Listing is a prewriting technique in which you write the topic at the
top of a piece of paper and then quickly make a list of the words or phrases
that come into your mind.

MODEL
Listing Writing task: Write a paragraph about a person who has made a difference in
the world, in the community, or in your life.
List 1-
Choose a
person

List 2 –
Ways in
which the
person has
made the
defferences

Revise List
2 - Choose
several
ways of
differences

40
STEP 2

Organizing The next step in the writing process is to ORGANIZE THE IDEAS into a simple
outline.

The writer of our models wrote a sentence that named the topic (his grandfather) and
told the main idea (his grandfather helped his community). Below the first sentence,
he listed the two main ideas and any other words and phrases from the list that gave
more information about them.

MODEL

Simple
Paragraph
Outline

STEP 3

Writing The next step is to WRITE a rough draft, using your outline as a guide.

Write your rough draft as quickly as you can without stopping to think about
grammar, spelling. or punctuation. Just get your ideas down on paper. You will
probably see many errors in your rough draft. This is perfectly usual and
acceptable—after all. this is just a rough draft. You will fix the errors later.

Notice that the writer added some ideas that were not in his outline. Notice
also that he added a concluding sentence at the end.

MODEL

Rough Draft

41
STEP 4
In this step, you POLISH what you have written. This step is also called
Polishing:
REVISING and EDITING.
Revising
Polishing is most successful if you do it in two steps. First, attack the big
and Editing
issues of content and organization (revising). Then work on the smaller issues
of grammar, punctuation, and mechanics (editing).
In the following model, the peer editor's comments are on both sides of the
page. The writer's replies are in blue. The writer and peer editor discuss the
comments, and then the writer writes a second draft.

MODEL Rivising

42
 Second Draft
MODEL

MODEL Final Writing

43
PRACTICE

Task 1: Choose a person who has made a difference in the world, in his or her
Writing community, or in your life. Write a paragraph of about 200 words about
assignment this person.

Follow all the steps in the writing process:

Step 1 Prewrite to get ideas.

Step 2 Organize the ideas. Decide which idea will go first, second, third, and
so on. Make a simple outline listing the ideas in the order you will write about
them. Use the outline to guide you as you write.

Step 3 Write ROUGH DRAFT at the top of your paper.

• Begin your paragraph with a sentence that names the person and tells
where or on whom he or she made a difference.

My high school physics teacher changed my ideas about

school.

44
 Martin Luther King, Jr. changed the way black people live in
the United States forever.

• Pay attention to your sentence structure. Make sure all of your

sentences have at least one subject and one verb.

Step 4 Polish the rough draft.

• Exchange papers with a classmate and ask him or her to check your
rough draft using Peer-Editing Worksheet. Then discuss the completed
worksheet and decide what changes you should make. Write a second
draft.
• Use Self-Editing Worksheet 1 to check your second draft for grammar,
punctuation, and sentence structure.

Step 5 Write a final copy.

45
Unit 4: Narrative Paragraph

A NARRATIVE is a type of writing in which the details or the ideas in a sequence of events or
the steps of the process are arranged on the basis of time.
The details are arranged in chronological order. Here, the transitional words or phrases
expressing time such as: soon, immediately, afterwards, as soon as, are commonly used. The
use of these devices gives the readers a clear picture of the sequence of events.
A narration is concerned with time. A series of events move through time, and what connects
these events is a plot or sequence: a beginning, a middle and an end.
Effective narrative paragraphs:
• include all the significant events.
• do not bring up unsignificance points.
• follow a logical time sequence.
• it do not drag on; its pace is brisk.

46
 • usually has a point that can be drawn from the story. (lesson/ impression/ meaning)
The following is the example of a narrative paragraph written in the first person point of view:

MODEL

Narrative
Paagraph

1. In which four sentences does the word earthquake appear?

2. What words and phrases show when different actions took place? Circle
them.

In the model narrative paragraph, the writer used CHRONOLOGICAL

Chronolo- ORDER to tell what happened first, what happened next, what happened after
gical Order that, and so on.

Notice the kinds of words and phrases used to show time order. These are called
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER SIGNALS because they signal the order in
which events happen.

Put a comma after a chronological order signal that comes before the subject at
the beginning of a sentence. (Exception: Then, soon, and now are usually not
followed by a comma.)

At fist, none of us realized what was happening.

47
 For a minute or two, we were too scared to move.

Then we tried to call our parents at work.

Chronolo- Words Phrases

gical Order
Signals

Finally, At last,

First (second, third, etc.) At 12:00.

Later, After a while,

Meanwhile, After that

Next, Before beginning the lesson,

Now In the morning,

Soon The next day,

PRACTICE

Task 1: Complete the paragraphs with chronological order signals from the lists
provided, and capitalize and punctuate them correctly. Use each word or
Chronolo-
phrase once. There is more than one possible word or phrase to fill in some
gical Order
of the blanks.
Signals
Use these words and phrases:

A.
first soon

after dinner then

on the night before Thanksgiving before taking the first bite

in the morning after that

about 3:00 in the afternoon finally

Thanksgiving

48
 Thanksgiving in the United States is a day for families to be together and enjoy
a traditional meal. (a)________, our mother bakes a pumpkin pie, the traditional
Thanksgiving dessert. (b)___________ she gets up early to prepare the other
traditional dishes. (c)____________ she makes dressing. (d) ____________
she stuffs, the turkey with the dressing and puts the turkey into the oven to
roast. (e)____________ she prepares the rest of the meal. She cooks all day
long. (f)____________ the family sits down at the table. (g)____________
everyone around the table says one thing that they are thankful for.
(h)____________ we can begin to eat. We stuff ourselves just as ftd as Mother
stuffed the turkey earlier in the day! (i)____________ we are al groaning'
because we have eaten too much. (j)____________ we collapse on the living
room sofa and watch football games on TV. No one moves for at least two
hours.
B.
Use these words and phrases:

on the day of the party finally

first before the party

next then (use twice)

during the party later

after that at the beginning of the party

Fifteen Years

A girl's fifteenth birthday is a very special occasion in many Latin American

countries and requires a lot of planning. (a)____________ the parents make
many preparations. (b)___________ they buy a special dress and order a
bouquet of flowers for their daughter. They also plan a large meal for the guests
and hire an orchestra. (c) ____________ they decorate a big room where the
party will be held. (d) ____________ there are many special traditions.
(e)____________ the father and daughter enter the big salon accompanied by
special music. (f) ____________ the father makes a speech, and the daughter
gets some presents. (g)____________ everyone drinks champagne.
(h)____________ the father and daughter dance a waltz, and the daughter and

49
 every boy dance one dance together. (i)____________ all of the guests make a
line to congratulate her. (j)____________ all of the boys stand in a group
because she will throw the bouquet, and the boy who catches it dances with her
(k)____________ everyone dances to different kinds of music until six o'clock
in the morning.

BUILDING BETTER SENTENCES

The model for this section is a folktale. A folktale is a traditional story that has been passed
down orally from one generation to the next until someone finally writes it down. Every culture
is rich in folktales. This one is from Japan.

MODEL

Compound Omusubi Kororin (The Tumbling Rice Balls)

Sentence A Folktale from Japan

Once upon a time, an old couple lived in the countryside. They were
happy, but they were poor. One day, the old man went to work in the
forest and took his usual
lunch of three rice balls.
During lunch, he dropped a
rice ball, and it rolled into a
hole in the ground. He heard
happy singing coming from
the hole, so he dropped the
other two rice balls into it.
Inside the hole, some mice were having a party. They thanked him for
the rice balls and invited him to join them. After a while, the mice told
him to choose a box as a reward for his generosity. He could choose a
big box, or he could choose a small one. He thought about taking a big
box, but he finally chose a small one. Back at home, he and his wife
discovered that the box was full of gold coins. A greedy neighbor heard
about their good fortune and quickly made plans to visit the same hole.
At the hole, he pushed several rice balls into it, and sure enough' the

50
 mice invited him in. The greedy man wanted all of the mice's gold, so
he pretended to be a cat. He started meowing loudly, and the frightened
mice ran away. The gold disappeared with the mice, so the greedy man
got nothing, not even a rice ball.

1. What kind of order does this folktale use?

2. Circle the time order signals.

Compound A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of at least two simple clauses

Sentences joined by a comma and a coordination conjunction.
with and, but,
so, and or

PRACTICE

Task 2: Decide which of the following sentences are compound sentences and which
Compound are simple sentences. Write CS or SS on the line at the left. Then add
Sentences commas to the compound sentences.
with and, Monsieur Seguin's Goat
but, so, and
A Folktale from France
or
__SS__1. A long time ago, high in the Alps, an old man lived with his goat,
Blanchette.

_______2. She was a wonderful white goat and was very kind to her master,

51
 Monsieur Seguin.

_______3. They had lived together for many years.

_______4. Blanchette was always fastened to a tree.

_______5. She was often sad and sometimes she didn't eat her food.

_______6. Every day, she looked at the big mountains and dreamed of being
free to explore them.

_______7. One day, she asked her master for more freedom.

_______8. "You can tie me with a longer ropc or you can build a special
enclosure for me," said Blanchette.

_______9. At first, he tied her with a longer rope but Blanchette was still sad.

_______10. A few days later, he built a special enclosure.

_______11. For a while, Blanchette was very happy about this decision but
soon the enclosure seemed very small in front of the big mountains.

_______12. One summer morning, Blanchette decided to leave for the

mountains so she jumped out of the enclosure and ran away.

_______13. "I am free," she said.

_______14. She ate many varieties of plants and enjoyed meeting new friends.

_______15. All day, she ran in the Alps.

_______16. Finally, the sun set behind the hills.

IDEAS FOR NARRATIVE PARAGRAPHS

A good beginning is as important as a good ending. A good beginning should

make your reader want to go on with your story. A good ending will make your
reader feel satisfied.
You can start your story by:
a. describing weather, surroundings, people. etc. using the senses
b. using direct speech

52
 c. asking a rhetorical question (a question which expects no answer)
d. creating mystery or suspense
e. referring to your feelings or moods
f. addressing the reader directly
You can end your story by:
a. using direct speech
b. referring to your feelings or moods
c. describing people's reactions to the events developed in the main body
d. creating mystery or suspense
e. asking a rhetorical question
Note that more than one technique can be used in the beginning or ending of
your story.

PRACTICE

Task 3: Which of the following beginnings and endings are more interesting? Why?
Vivid BEGINNINGS..
Beginning A. I woke up and got out of bed. I tied a shower, ate breakfast and left.
and Ending B. Bright morning sunlight shone through my bedroom window when I woke. I
lay there lazily for a few minutes, then jumped out of bed ax stepped under the
hot water of the shower. TrE smell of coffee drifted through from the kitchen.
ENDINGS
A. Exhausted and soaked to the skin, j slammed the front door behind me. I
threw myself onto my bed, stared into the darkness and thought bitterly, 'Why
me?"
B. At last I was home again, and soon went to bed. It had been a tiring day.

Task 4 Read the different beginnings and endings and decide which techniques
have been used in each of the beginnings and endings.
BEGINNINGS...
1. 'Oh gosh, look at the timer gasped my flatmate Caroline as she nudged me
awake. We gathered up our books and sleepily made our way to the library car
park.
2. It was a damp, chilly night when Caroline and I eventually left the library. As

53
 soon as I stepped outside I shivered, feeling that something strange was about to
happen.
3. You know those spring nights that are still really cold and damp? Well, I'll
tell you what happened to my friend Caroline and me, on a night just like that.
...ENDINGS
1. Safe at home, we decided we had probably imagined the whole thing. The
next morning, however, as we opened the front door to leave for the college, we
both froze with shock. There, propped up against the wall, was a long wooden
cane.
2. The next day in class, our professor showed us some slides of the town's
early founders. He clicked his slide machine to the next picture — and guess
whose face flashed onto the screen?
3. The next day I told my professor what had happened, and to my surprise 1 his
eyes filled with tears. "The man you've described was my father," he mumbled.
"He died at that place twenty years ago."

USING VIVID LANGUAGE TO HELP READERS “SEE” YOUR STORIES

Avoid using simplistic adjectives or adverbs (e.g. good, bad, nice, well, etc.) as
these will make your composition sound uninteresting. Try to use more
sophisticated adjectives or adverbs (e.g. luxurious, extravagant, threateningly,
etc.) which will make your composition more exciting to read.
A variety of verbs (e.g. murmur, whisper, mutter instead of "say") will make
your story more lively. e.g. "Hide it," he murmured and put a small box into my
harestead of 'said) She was wandering the streets aimlessly, trying to make a
decision. (instead of 'walking)

PRACTICE

Task 5: The following adjectives or adverbs can be used instead of other simplistic
Narrative ones. Put them into the correct box. Can you think of any more words?
Adjectives absolutely, delighted, enormous, entirely, horrible, massive, miniature,
microscopic, superb, terrific, thoroughly, horrifring, extrentely, gigantic, tiny,

54
 nasty, disgusting, huge, terrible, wonderful, unpleasant, fabulous

BIG

SMALL

VERY

BAD

GOOD/
NICE

Nov replace the words in bold in the following paragraphs with suitable
words from the boxes above.
A. The 1) big______ old castle stood at the top of a(n) 2) big______
mountain in the middle coached and jumped with of a(n) 3) big______
forest. I was 4) very______ terrified as I app fright when I heard a(n)
5) bad______ scream from the direction of the castle. My heart was in
my mouth as I knocked on the 6) big______ front door, and the sound
of 7) small______ scurrying feet behind the door made me imagine 8)
big______, 9) bad______ rats running away to hide. I wanted to run
away, too, but I was 10) very______ exhausted, and had to find
somewhere to sleep for the night.
B. It was a(n) 1) nice______ evening, and after a(n) 2) nice______
sunset the stars were a million 3) small______ points of light in the sky.
"A(n) 4) nice______ end to a(n) 5) very______ 6) nice______ day,"
Brian thought to himself; and after the 7) bad______ week which and
had just passed, he was 8) very______ pleased to breathe a

Task 6: The adverbs below describe the way a person might speak or act. Explain what
Narrative each adverb means, then choose suitable words from the list to complete the
Adverbs sentences.
sarcastically, angrily, threateningly, frantically, hurriedly, miserably,

55
 confidently, suddenly, urgently, nervously, patiently, calmly
1. The woman on the third-floor balcony of the burning building waved her
arms_____________ to attract the fireman's attention.
2. "Get out of here!" Bill shouted_____________ his face turning red.
3. "My dog has run away!" the little girl sobbed_____________
4. _____________, without any warning, her guide spun round and held a knife
to her throat.
5. The detective looked at him in disbelief "Oh, yes, of course a criminal like
you wouldn't want £5 million," he said _____________
6. She gathered her papers together _____________ and rushed off to the
meeting, which had already begun.
7. "If you tell anyone, you'll be sorry," said the kidnapper _____________
8. "Don't worry, I'll kill the dragon," the knight said_____________ to the king.

NARRATIVE VERBS

PRACTICE

Task 7: Put the following verbs into the correct boxes. Try to think of further words to
Narrative add to each box. Now use suitable words from the boxes to complete the
Verbs following sentences.
Gaze – dash - giggle - hiss - murmur - peer - stroll - wonder - yell – sigh -
chuckle – mutter - peep - moan - shriek - grin - whisper - exclaim - rush

Walk/Run ______________ Say ______________

______________ ______________ ______________ ______________
______________ ______________ ______________ ______________
______________ ______________ ______________ ______________
______________ ______________ ______________ ______________

56
 Look ______________ Smile/Laugh ______________
______________ ______________ ______________ ______________
______________ ______________ ______________ ______________
______________ ______________ ______________ ______________
______________ ______________ ______________ ______________

WALE/RUN
1. We…………….. bay along the waterfront, enjoying the warm sunshine as
we watched the fishermen mending their nets.
2. At the sound of the doorbell she…………….. eagerly to the front door.
excited to be meeting him again after so many years.
SAY
3. "Stupid old fool!" he…………….. angrily to himself pushing rudely past the
elderly man limping dawn the steps.
4. "Oh. well," Jill…………….. "perhaps it doesn't really matter - but I Trish
you'd asked me first before telling everyone about it'
5. "Don't look round now, but Fm sure that man sitting behind us is the escaped
prisoner I was reading about in the paper," I…………….. nervously to John.
6. "Help!" Karen…………….. hysterically. "Somebcdy help me!'
LOOK
7. The couple…………….. kningly into each others eyes, completely unaware
of the people hurrying past.
8. Kevin …………….. through the windscreen. hardly able to see niaere he was
going in the pouring rain
SMILE/LAUGH
9. David…………….. cheerfully as he cared to the crowt accepting their
applause for the magnificent race he had run.
10. Sally and Erne…………….. with embarrassment when the two boys
crossed the room and asked than to dance.

57
Review 1
SENTENCE STRUCTURE IMPROVEMENT

PRACTICE 1: Wordiness

Revise these sentences to be more condense

1. Any particular kind of wood will work for this project.

2. My dog, which is small and tiny, likes to sleep at the bottom of my bed.
3. Paying all my bills when I first receive them is basically quite impossible.
4. The players with lots of real motivation and dedication take their conditioning seriously.
5. Without some kind of advance notification, I am not willing to change my schedule.
6. Music that is quiet and soft sets a relaxing atmosphere.
7. The student organization meets together as a group Wednesdays at 2:00 p.m.
8. At this very exact same point in time last year, I was getting married.
9. 1 refused to respond to the letter due to the honest fact that I had already responded three
times.
10. The accident on 1-5 was a horrible, terrible tragedy for Ester's family.

PRACTICE 2: Writing Effective Paragraphs

Topic Sentence and Concluding Sentence

Read each paragraph carefully. Answer the questions after each paragraph.. Use complete
sentences for your answers.

Paragraph 1

(1) Whales, one of nature's largest mammals, can be divided into two categories. (2) Baleen
whales are one kind of whale. (3) Baleen whales have a type of keratin called baleen that hangs
in their mouths and sifts food from the ocean waters. (4) Baleen whales can consume up to 9,000
pounds of fish a day. (5) The toothed whale is the other type of whale. (6) The toothed whales
have teeth instead of baleen. (7) They gnaw and chew on their meals. (8) Like the baleen whales,
the toothed whales consume large portions of food each day. (9) Though many varieties of
whales exist in our oceans, they are all categorized according to whether they have baleen or
teeth inside their gigantic mouths.

1. Which sentence is the topic sentence? Is it an effective topic sentence? Why or why not?

..........................................................................................................................................................

58
..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

2. Which sentence is the concluding sentence? Does it echo the topic sentence? Explain.

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

Paragraph 2:

(1) The letters WWW do not stand for the "Wide World of Wrestling" as hooked wrestling fans
may guess. (2) Nor do they stand for something, such as widow, related to a world war. (3) The
letters WWW refer to the World Wide Web, more commonly referred to simply as the Web. (4)
As millions of people worldwide access the Web on a regular basis, the letter W in triplicate is
typed millions of times on a daily basis. (5) Many web site addresses begin with the letters
WWW, which basically indicate to the user that he or she will enter the World Wide Web in
order to locate the web address. (6) Technology has made the three letters WWW into possibly
the most frequently used and most commonly known letter pattern in the world.

3. Which sentence is the topic sentence? Is it an effective topic sentence? Why or why not?

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

4. Which sentence is the concluding sentence? Does it echo the topic sentence? Explain.

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

Paragraph 3:

Write only a topic sentence for this paragraph.

I hate lie. I always try not to tell lies and I want that from my friends, too. I think it is the most
important behavior. I can believe everything my friends say. In addition, a good friend must say
his ideas to me firstly. I mean, he shouldn't talk about me with other people. Especially about the
bad thing, he doesn't have to talk because it might be wrong. Secondly, a good friend must help
me. He must do his best. He should ask help from me too. If we solve problems together, our
friendship will be better and it will become stronger. Thirdly, the talking time is important. I can

59
talk with my friends for a long time, and during that time I must be happy. That's why we should
like the same things. In conclusion, trust is the basics of a friendship.

Topic sentence:

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

PRACTICE 3: Unity and coherence

1. Unity - Read the original student paper:

I live in a flat with my family. We have two bedrooms and a living room. We have a garden and
we have some flowers there. In weekdays I arrive home at five o'clock and I have lunch. Then I
do my homework and go to bed. I had a computer but now it doesn't work. I have a brother and a
sister and I think I am very lucky to live with them. Sometimes our relatives visit us. Our flat
becomes very crowded sometimes but I like it.

What is the main idea of the paragraph?

a. The description of my house

b. My life at home

2. Coherence – Read the original student paper:

I live in a house in Izmit. It isn't old or modern. It's a normal Turkish house. We can say it is near
the sea. It takes about 10 minutes to go to the sea side on foot. We have one bedroom, one living
room. We also have two other rooms, too. We use them as a dining room. Naturally, we have a
kitchen, a bathroom, and a toilet. I live with my parents. And our house has a little garden; my
parents spend their time there to grow vegetables and fruit.

Is the paragraph well-organized? If not, reorder the ideas in order to make better coherence:

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

60
Unit 5: Descriptive Paragraph

THE DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH

The descriptive paragraph tells how a person, place or thing is perceived by the five senses.
Descriptive writing appeals to our senses (sight, smell, sound, hear, taste) in order to evoke the
concreteness of experience and perception. Description evokes images and impressions. It can
allow a reader to experience something new; it can renew a reader’s appreciation of the
familiar.

A descriptive paragraph creates a vivid picture. Vivid means “clearly and lively”

The following is the example of a descriptive paragraph:

MODEL

Descriptive Lake Harriet

Paragraph Lake Harriet is a great place to to swim and relax. In the summer, the

61
 water is warm and clean, and the beaches attract people seeking relief from
a midsummer scorcher. In addition to swimming, visitors to the lake can
go canoeing, sailing, windsurfing, or fishing. The blue water is a
refreshing, tempting sight. The sweet scent of sun block wafts through the
air from sunbathers lying on the beach. Children laugh and splash in the
water, and nearby volleyball games stir passionate shouts in the heat of
competition. Meanwhile lifeguards sit atop their towers and make sure
everyone is safe. In the distance, sail boats catch the soft breezes that
ripple Lake Harriet’s surface, and canoeists glide quietly past. This is what
summer is all about!

ORGANIZATION

Descriptive writing appeals to the senses, so it tells how something looks, feels,
smells, tastes, and/or sounds. A good description is a word picture; the reader
can imagine the object, place, or person in his or her mind.

A description usually follows a pattern of organization - SPATIAL ORDER.

Spatial order is the arrangement of things in space. The details might be in order
from top to bottom, right to left, outside to inside, near to distant, and so on.

MODEL

Spatial As you read the model paragraph, notice how the description moves from the
Order bottom of the stairway to the top. Also notice how the description of the woman
moves from far away to near.

The stairway
When I was two or three years old, I lived in a house that had a
strange atmosphere. I do not remember anything about the house except
the stairway. It was dark, spueaking, and quite narrow, and its steps were
a little high for me to climb up. From the bottom of the stairway, it
seemed like an endless climb to the top. Beyond the darkness at the top
of the stairway, there was an elegant, middle-aged lady leaning against
the wall. I had to pass her every time I went to my room, for my room
was the first room beyond the stairs on the second floor. The lady wore a

62
 beautiful dress with a quiet pattern and a tinge of blue, and her peaceful
eyes stared at me every time I went up the stairs. As I carefully climbed
up the last step, her eyes became fixed on me. She didn’t talk, nor did she
move. She just stood there and watched me clamber up the stairs. One
day I touched her, but she did not react. Her face did not change
expression, nor did she even blink. She just kept staring at me with her
glittering eyes. Later, we moved out of the house, and I never saw her
again. Now I know that the lady was a mannequin. My aunt, who lived in
the house, used it for her dressmaking class. I did not know my mother.
Maybe I imagined that the mannequin standing at the top of the stairs
was my mother. The stairway with the strange atmosphere has an
important place in my earliest memories.

Questions:

1. What does the writer say about the atmosphere of the house in the first
sentence?

2. How does the writer describe the stairway? Underline words that describe it.

3. When the writer first describe the woman, is he looking up at her or down at
her? What does he describe about her first? What does he describe last.

TRANSITIONAL DEVICES

When we need to clarify the order, we use the types of transitional devices
below:

left below down into across

right center above past a head

Directions

up through behind toward away from

against around in front of in back of backward

first foreground background halfway approximately

Distance
last leading to between distant on the edge of

63
 beyond next to close to long about ten miles

for Short In the center short

of

outside inside interior park outside

Area of
Space lawn garden exterior field lawn

Plain hillside Plain

PRACTICE

Task 1: Find and underline the spartial order words and phrases used in the model
Spartial paragraph “The Stairway”.
Order
Signals

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES

A good descriptive paragraph makes the reader see, hear, as otherwise

experience something. A good description includes references to the senses:
sight, sound, taste, smell and touch. Description can be found in almost any
kind of writing, but it is frequently found in books of travel, history books,
guide books, geography books, scientific articles, and so on.

The following are useful ADJECTIVES FOR DESCRIPTIVE writing:

Descriptive For sight

Adjectives Size: big, small, medium-sized, huge, tiny, gigantic, tall, short, thick, etc.

Shape: round, square, triangular, rectangular, conical, oval, linear, dotted.

Color: red, white, brown, blue, green, orange, pink, violet, gold, silver, and so
forth.

For the other senses

Sound: loud, soft, harmonious, harsh, pleasant, unpleasant, groan.

Taste: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, delicious, tasty, tasteless, cool, warm.

64
 Touch: rough, smooth, slippery, hard, sunny, squeeze, hot.

Smell: strong, fragrant, scented, sharp, hard.

Points To  Descriptive detail is chosen on the basis of the writer’s impression of the
Remember subject, purpose, and audience.
 The writer of description relies heavily on concrete sensory details.
 Descriptive details can be arranged in progressive, spatial, and chronological
order.
 A good descriptive paragraph is so complete and vivid that readers are
compelled to see an exact picture as created by the paragraph
 The central idea stated in the topic sentence of a descriptive paragraph is
often the central impression that the details of the description will reinforce.
 A good descriptive paragraph begins with careful observation of details.
 In describing a place, look for a chance to view it from a particular position,
fixed or moving. For example, if we are going to describe a lunchroom,
describe a lunchroom as it looks to a person coming through the door,
getting the line for food, and then moving to table.
 Appeal to all the senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
 Make comparisons by means of figures of speech.
 Use the language that makes our picture comes to life.

PRACTICE

Task 2: Work with a classmate, a small group, or the whole class. Brainstorm
Descriptive together to think of descriptive details for the following topics. List as
Adjectives many sights, smells, sounds, etc., as you can.

1. A storm: dark cloudy. dark clouds, howling wind, wet sidewalk, slick streets.

…….…………………………………………………………………………….

2. A subway station (or a bus stop) at rush hour

…….…………………………………………………………………………….

…….…………………………………………………………………………….

65
 3. A busy airport terminal

…….…………………………………………………………………………….

…….…………………………………………………………………………….

4. The emergency room of a hospital

…….…………………………………………………………………………….

…….…………………………………………………………………………….

5. A sunny day at the beach

…….…………………………………………………………………………….

…….…………………………………………………………………………….

TOPIC SENTENCES FOR DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPHS

The TOPIC SENTENCE of a descriptive paragraph should name the topic.

The controlling idea should give the overall impression of the place you are
describing. In the model paragraph, the topic is the house that the writer lived in
as a child. The controlling idea is that it had a strange atmosphere. Each of the
following sentences also states a topic and a controlling idea.

My bedroom at home is my refuge from the outside world.

The campus of our school is like a small city.

The cafeteria at lunchtime is the school’s social center.

PRACTICE

Task 3: Read the following topic sentences for descriptive paragraphs. Then
Spartial Order discuss with your partner or group some possible details to describe the
Organization place. Next, decide on the best kind of spatial order to use in the
and Details description: right to left, left to right, top to bottom, far to near, outside to
inside, and so on. Finally, write your details in spatial order on the lines.
1. After my sister spends two hours getting ready to go out, her room looks as if
it had been hit by a magnitude 8.5 earthquake.
a. From the doorway you see nothing but a mountain of clothes all OVPP the

66
 floor.
b. …………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
c. …………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2. The park near my house is full of activity on a sunny weekend afternoon.
a. …………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
b. …………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
c. …………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
3. My uncle's workshop is a model of neatness and organization.
a. …………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
b. …………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
c. …………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

SUPPORTING SENTENCES FOR DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPHS

Supporting sentences are the meat of a paragraph. They not only provide the
details that prove the truth of your topic sentence, but they also make your
writing rich and interesting. In a descriptive paragraph, the more details you
include, the more clearly your reader will imagine what you are describing.
Your details should appeal to the five senses. They should tell your reader how
something looks, smells, sounds, feels, and tastes. Write about colors, sizes,
shapes, odors, noises, and textures.

MODEL

My Banana Garden
Behind my childhood home, there is a large piece of land that is
surrounded by banana trees growing in wild disorder. 'Crowds of banana

67
 trees grow freely everywhere. ''Their green leaves are so thick that sunlight
cannot pass through. `Underneath the trees, the ground is so moist that
wild mushrooms and plants grow there all year around. 'In the center is a
wild field where the children of my village often fly kites. 'Every evening,
just before sunset, some birds arrive to look for a place to rest their tired
wings. They want to land in the dark banana garden, but the banana leaves
are too wide to be made into nests. °The birds cry out and then fly away,
seeking a better place to nest. Tiuring the rainy season, it rains for days
and days, and the banana leaves become glossy and slick. '‘The rain also
makes the banana garden produce a very strange melody. On rainy days, I
used to sit near my window and listen to this wonderful song. "Now,
whenever I hear the plop-plop-plop of raindrops on the roof of my small,
tidy:. apartment in the city, I remember the beautiful, wild banana garden
of my childhood.
Questions.
1. Find the topic sentence of this paragraph. What is the topic? The controlling
idea?
2. Does the paragraph have a concluding sentence?
3. Circle any spatial order expressions you can find. Is there a spatial order
pattern or no pattern?
4. What adjective is repeated four times in the paragraph?

DESCRIPTION OF A PERSON

Describing a person is different from describing a place or a thing. The writer’s

purpose is to capture the essence of a person by going beyond physical
characteristics.

The important parts of a description of a person are appearance, background,

personality, activities, and interests. Here, we present a physical description that
reveal inner qualities as well. A description of a person may almost make the
readers think that they know that person.

When we are describing a person, a progressive arrangement is often the most

useful. We can move from the most to least telling feature, or move from least

68
 to most, and on progressively to the next important feature.

Facial Facial Shapes Eyes Voice

Useful
Expressions
Language for
Scowl: cau có round Beady:nhỏ sáng Booming: trầm to
Person
frown broad Smiling Rasping: chua
Description
ngoa

Smirk: cười narrow snapping squeaky

nhếch mép

worried Heart-shaped flashing Harsh: khan khàn

Pained: phiền Moon-shaped Growling: tròn, deep

lòng to

Vivacious: hoạt angular deep Melodious: êm

bát tai

peaceful oval Bulging: lồi

Mouth Eyebrows Other expressions

full-lipped thick crow’s feet affectionate

thin-lipped arched knitted brow gregarious

sensuous neatly protruding persistent

MODEL

Farid is My Best Friend

Describing a
Of all my classmates, the one that I find most interesting is Farid, a
person
charming boy from a village. First of all, he looks different from other
students in my college. He stands about 170 centimeters tall, lanky and
thin, narrow in the hip and shoulders. Farid’s face is one of the unique, I
have ever seen. He has black hair and has recently grown a mustache and
beard. Surprisingly his mustache and beard are a much darker color than
his curly hair. His chin is square with a small cleft in the center. He’s got a
very thin mouth that it almost like a single pencil line, always turned up
into a smile. His long nose is thin, and turns under a bit, off center, just
above the mustache. His small hazel eyes are set deep into his head. His

69
 eyebrows are thick and bushy. His black hair is curly and wiry. His whole
structure is bowed and when he walks he takes long easy steps swinging
his arms back and forth. Farid is very friendly with everyone and quite
talkative. He can find it easy to make friends. He also loves reading so
much. He never forgets to pray five times a day in the big mosque near his
house. Every night, he recites the Qur’an and always prays in the
midnight. All in all, Farid is someone I will remember for a long time, and
I hope he will always be my best friend forever.

DESCRIPTION OF A PLACE
When we describe a place, we first focus on a specific area, which may be large
or small. The description must be organized that the reader can vividly imagine
the place being described. We, then, briefly mention its surrounding context,
and finally we give details about the place itself.

The arrangement of the details in a descriptive paragraph depends on the

subject. The selection and the description of the details depend on the writer’s
purpose. It is necessary to have a point of view in such descriptions, that is, an
imagined position from which the place being looked at.

Useful Words Position Direction Distance

and Phrases above North upper
for
below South lower
Describing a
Place top East middle

bottom West center

left Northern border

right Southern edge

to Western near

in Eastern nearby

in the distance Southeast adjacent

MODEL

70
 The Supermarket

The supermarket is one of my best favorite places. I often go shopping

there with my father on Saturday afternoon. I love the color of vegetables-
bright green, red, and orange, like a rainbow. And I like the textures of the
fruits: the smooth satiny feel of the apples, the prickly skin of pineapples,
and the fresh yellow of the mangoes. My father sometimes buys fresh
bananas and apples. I listen to all the noise. People chatter, carts bump, and
sales clerks call out prices. I watch people shifting from one foot to the
other, waiting their turn in the check- out line. Sometimes there is a person
in front of the gate giving out free food samplers- pieces of hot cheese
pizza. It’s like getting a free dinner. I know a lot of people who hate
shopping in supermarkets, but I have a good time whenever I go. The most
attractive place that interests me in the supermarket is the bookstore. I
always spend at least two hours reading there. And sometimes I finally buy
one of the best- seller books.

PRACTICE

Task 4 Find and cross out sentences that are off the topic. Cross out two sentences
in paragraph 1 and one sentence in paragraph 2.

Havasu Canyon
A.
There is a canyon ei northern Arizona that is the most beautiful spot on
Earth. It is called Havasu Canyon, and it is part of the Havasupai tribal
reservation. It is not easy to get there, for you have to hike down a long,
hot trail. At the end of the trail is Supai Village. The Havasupai are a tribe
of about 650 people. Their language has been written down only in the
past twenty years. Beyond the village, another trail leads to the top of a
steep cliff overlooking Havasu Canyon. Your first view of the canyon
takes your breath away. Directly in front of you, the trail disappears
straight down the 200-foot cliff. On your right, you see a beautiful
waterfal.Water pours straight down into a bright blue-green pool at the
bottom of the canyon. Directly across the canyon, hundreds of small
waterfalls gush from the cliff face, and little green ferns grow everywhere.

71
 At the bottom, the water cascades from one turquoise pool into another
until it disappears into the trees on the left. As you view this scene, you
can only think that Havasu Canyon is truly a magical place.
B.
My First Apartment

My first apartment was very small. It was a studio apartment, so it had

only one main room and a bathroom. The main room was divided into
three areas. At one end of it was a kitchenette, where I cooked and ate my
meals. My living/sleeping area was at the opposite end. I had just enough
space for a bed, a coffee table, a floor lamp, and a small television. My
study area was against the back wall. al lived there for two years, but I
moved because my landlord raised the rent. My apartment was so small
that I could never invite more than three friends at the same time!

Memorable teacher:

72
UNIT 6: EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

The expository paragraph is a paragraph that presents a certain amount of information about a
subject. The methods of development in expository includes: giving examples or illustration,
supplying reasons, explaining a process, comparing and contrasting, defining, and classifying.

The aim of exposition is to explain, to inform, or to give directions. A good expository

paragraph consists of a group of sentences aimed at explaining a single idea.

To produce a piece of writing in expository paragraph, we should learn how to construct an

expository paragraph.

 First, learn how to arrange a good topic sentence, that is, the central idea of the paragraph.
 Second, consider the elements of a good paragraph, such as: unity, coherence, order,
emphasis, and completeness.
 Finally, learn how to develop the central idea by various methods of development.

73
MODEL

In a number of ways, the State Islamic Institute of Palangka Raya is

Expository making it easier for older students to attend college. For example, the university
Paragraph now offers courses on Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays for older students.
Classes on these days appeal to those students who, because of work or family
responsibilities, cannot enroll in the courses during the week. In addition, many
departments in the university have begun to offer credits for life experience, so
students with a good background in the world of work can complete their
degrees more quickly. Finally, the dean announced last month that the
university will soon open a day-care center for the children of students who
would attend the classes if they had a pleasant on safe place to leave their
children.

THE MODES OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

Cause and It is also called causal analysis. This pattern of development is used to explain
Effect
why something happened and to explain the effects of some happening. Writing
Pattern
that employs causal analysis can be confined to analysis of either cause or
effect or it can combine the two.

Block Organization Point-by-Point Organization

Cause Just as certain transition signals how time order and logical division, certain
Signal words and phrases signal cause/effect relationships. You probably know many
Words and of them already.

74
 Coordinators

for Bison were indispensable to the Native American tribes,

Phrases for this one animal provided them with nearly everything
they needed for survival: meat, clothing, shelter, tools,
and weapons.

Subordinators

because Bison were indispensable to the Native American tribes

because/since/as this one animal provided them with
since
nearly everything they needed for survival: meat,
as
clothing,-shelter, tools, and weapons.

Others

to result from The bison's near extinction resulted from/was the result
to be the result of of loss of habitat and overhunting.

due to Bison nearly became extinct due to /because of loss of

habitat and over hunting.
because of
One effect of/ consequence of westward expansion was
the effect of
the destruction of habitat for the bison.
the consequence of
The areas in which bison could roam freely shrank as a
as a result of
result of/as a consequence of the westward expansion of
as a consequence
the 1800s.
of

PRACTICE

Task 1 Step 1 Underline the part of the sentence that states a cause.

Step 2 Circle the word or words that introduce the cause.

Step 3 Be able to discuss the use of each word or phrase you have circled.

What kind of grammatical structure follows each one? Notice especially the
difference between the use of because and because of

The first one has been done for you as an example.

75
 1. The computer is a learning tool since it helps children o master math and
language skills. (After since, we must use a clause with a subject and a verb.)

2. Due to the ability of computers to keep records of sales and inventory, many
big department stores rely on them.

3. A medical computer system is an aid to physicians because of its ability to

interpret data from a patient's history and provide a diagnosis. (How would
you rewrite this sentence using because instead of because of?)

4. War, famine, and ethnic violence have caused a flood of refugees in the past
50 years.

5. Hollywood movies are known for their special effects because U.S. audiences
seem to demand them.

6. Since European audiences seem to prefer movies that explore psychological

or philosophical issues, European movies are generally quieter and more
thought-provoking.

7. Smog results from chemical air pollutants being trapped under a layer of
warm air.

8. John's promotion is the result of his brilliant management skills and company
loyalty.

9. Little is known about life on the ocean floor, for scientists have only recently
developed the technology to explore it.

10. Holes are created in the protective ozone layer of the stratosphere as a result
of the burning of fossil fuels.

Transition Words and Phrases

Effect
as a result Workers building the new transcontinental railroad
Signal
needed meat; as a result/ as a consequence/
Words and as a consequence
therefore/ thus/ consequently/ hence, hunters killed
Phrases therefore
bison by the thousands.
thus

consequently

76
 hence

Coordinators

So Native Americans began trading bison skins to the

settlers for steel knives and guns, so they began
killing bison in larger numbers.

Others

to result in Loss of habitat and over hunting resulted in/caused

the near extinction of bison.
to cause
The reduced numbers of bison had a terrible effect
to have an effect on
on/affected the lives of the Native Americans who
to affect
had depended on them for survival.
the cause of
The rescue of the bison from near extinction is a
the reason for cause of/a reason for celebration.

thereby The 85 bison that survived were given refuge in

Yellowstone National Park in 1892, thereby saving
this species from total extinction.

PRACTICE

Task 2 Step 1 Underline the part of the sentence that states an effect.

Step 2 Circle the word or words that introduce the effect.

Step 3 Be able to discuss the use of each word or phrase that you have
circled. What kind of grammatical structure follows each one? How is the
sentence punctuated?

1. The performance of electric cars is inferior to the performance of cars with

conventional internal combustion engines; consequently, some improvements
must be made in them if they are to become popular.

2. However, electric cars are reliable, economical, and nonpolluting; therefore,

77
 the government is spending millions of dollars to improve their technology.

3. Electric cars use relatively inexpensive electricity for power; thus, they cost
less to operate than cars that use gasoline.

4. The cost of gasoline is rising; as a result, some automobile manufacturers

have begun to produce electric models.

5. His patient diplomacy resulted in the successful negotiation of a peace treaty.

6. It has been documented that lack of sleep affects a person's ability to think
clearly.

7. Cold water is denser than warm water and will therefore sink.

8. Fresh water is less dense than salt water, soil tends to float on the surface of a
body of salt water.

9. Air pollution creates holes in the protective ozone layer of the stratosphere,
thereby allowing harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach Earth's surface.

10. The cause of the patient's rapid recovery was the excellent care he received
from his doctor.

Comparison This pattern of development is used to compare and to contrast two objects.
and Comparison requires seeing two things simultaneously or seeing two aspects of
Contrast a thing. Comparison may include both similarities and differences. The
Pattern paragraph is called a comparison paragraph when it describes similarities, and it
is called a contrast paragraph when it discusses differences

Block Organization Point-by-point Organization

78
MODEL

A. Right Brain/ Left Brain

The left and right sides of your brain process information in different
ways. The left side is logical, rational, linear, and verbal. The right side,
on the other hand, processes information intuitively, emotionally,
creatively, and visually. Left brains think in words, whereas right brains
think in pictures. People who depend more on the left side of their brain
are list makers and analysts. They are detailed, careful, and organized. In
contrast, right-brained people are visual, intuitive, and sensual. When a
left-brained person has to make an important decision only after careful
analysis. When a right-brained person has to make the same decision, on
the other hand, he or she is more likely to base it in intuition and feelings.
For example, a left-brained automobile shopper bases a decision on how
shiny the chrome is, how soft the seats are, and how smoothly the car
drives. Of course, no one is 100 percent left-brained or 100 right-brained.
Although one side may be stronger, both sides normally work together.

B. Miller Medical Labs

Memorandum

To: Director of Human Resources

79
 From: Barbara Johnson, Interviewer

From the fourteen applications received for the job of receptionist, two
applicants stand out. Following is a summary of their qualifications.
Educationally, the two applicants are quite similar. JZ has completed two years
of college, just as SW has, and their grade point averages are approximately
equal. JZ’s one past employer was very positive. Similarly, SW’s past
employers gave very high recommendations. Finally, both applicants can start
work at the same date (June 1). There are two differences between the job
applicants that may influence the hiring decision. The first difference is that
JZ’s job in a medical office included some contact with patients, whereas SW’s
volunteer work in library and gift shop of a local hospital included no patient
contact. Second, JZ likes to be part of a team, while SW prefers to work
independently. The hiring decision is difficult because both applicants are
equally well qualified. However, JZ would be the better choice for the
receptionist job because of her experience with patient contact and preference
for working with other staff. If there is a future opening for a lab assistant, SW
would be an excellent choice for that position.

Questions on the models

1. Which paragraph discusses both similarities and differences?

2. Which paragraph discusses mostly differences?

3. What is the topic sentence of paragraph 1?

4. What example does the writer give to illustrate the main point in paragraph
1?

5. What is the topic sentence of paragraph 2?

6. How many similarities does the writer of paragraph 2 describe? How many
differences?

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST SIGNAL WORDS

The second key to writing successful comparison/contrast paragraph is the appropriate use of
comparison and contrast signal words. These are words that introduce points of comparison and

80
points of contrast.

Comparison Transition Words and Phrases

Signal
Words similarly Human workers can detect malfunctions in machinery;
similarly /likewise, a robot can be programmed to detect
likewise
equipment malfunctions.
also
Human workers can detect malfunctions in machinery; a
too robot can also.
Human workers can detect malfunctions in machinery; a
robot can too.

Subordinators

as Robots can detect malfunctions in machinery, as/just as

just as human workers can.
both…and Both robots and human workers can detect malfunctions in
not only….but machinery.
also Not only robots but also human workers can detect
neither…nor malfunctions in machinery.

Neither robots nor human workers are infallible.

Others

Like (+noun) Robots, like/just like/ similar to human workers, can detect
Just like (+noun) malfunctions in machinery.
Similar to (+noun)
Robots are like/are similar to/are the same as human
(be) like
workers in their ability to detect malfunctions in machinery.
(be) similar (to)
In their ability to detect malfunctions in machinery, robots
(be) the same as and human workers are the same.
(be) the same
Robots and human workers are alike/are similar in their
(be) alike
ability to detect malfunctions in machinery.
(be) similar

81
 To compare with Robots can be compared to/be compared with human
workers in their ability to detect malfunctions in machinery.

PRACTICE

Task 3 Use appropriate comparison signal words two combine these following
sentences.
1. The United States operates under a two-party system. Great Britain operates
under a two-party system.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2. The British Parliament has two separate houses, the House of Commons and
the House of Lords. The United States Congress has two separate houses, the
Senate and the House of Representatives.
=> The British Parliament has two separate houses, the House of Commons and
the House of Lords; similarly, the US the Senate and the House of
Representatives.

3. The U.S. House of Representatives = the British House of Commons. The

U.S. Senate = the British House of Lords.
=> The US House of Representatives is the same as the British House of
Commons and The U.S. Senate is similar the British House of Lords.
4. The members of the U.S. House of Representatives are elected by district.
The members of the British House of Commons are elected by district.
=> Not only The members of the U.S. House of Representatives but also the
members of the British House of Commons are elected by district.
5. The method of choosing cabinet members in the United States. The method
of choosing cabinet members in Great Britain. (the same)
=> The method of choosing cabinet members in the United States and GB are
the same.
6. In Great Britain, the cabinet is appointed by the prime minister. The U.S.
president appoints the cabinet.
=> In the Gb the cabinet is ….; similarly, the US ….

82
 7. The British monarch has the right to veto' any law passed by Parliament. The
U.S. president has the right to veto any law passed by Congress.
=> The British monarch has the right to veto' any law passed by Parliament, just
as The U.S. president has the right to veto any law passed by Congress.

Contrast Transition Words and Phrases

Signal
Words However, The term rock musk commonly refers to music styles after
In contrast, 1959 that were influenced primarily by white musicians;
In (by) comparison, however/in contrast/in comparison/on the other hand,
On the other hand, rhythm-and-blues music styles were influenced primarily
On the contrary, by black musicians.
Innovation in rock music comes not just from the United
States; on the contrary, the Beatles and the Rolling
Stones were from Great Britain, and the music style
known as reggae came from the Caribbean island of
Jamaica. (Note: On the contrary contrasts an untruth and
a truth.)

Subordinator - Coordinator

While The term rock musk commonly refers to music styles after
Whereas 1959 that were influenced primarily by white musicians,
Meanwhile but rhythm-and-blues music styles were influenced
But primarily by black musicians.

Others

Differ from Early rock music differs from later styles in that later
Compared to/with styles make use of electronics to produce new sounds.
Be different from Compared to/Compared with earlier rock styles, later
Be dissimilar to styles have a harder sound.
Be unlike The punk, rap, grunge, and techno styles of the '90s are
very different from/dissimilar to/unlike the rock music
played by Elvis Presley in the '50s, but they have the

83
 same roots.

PRACTICE

Task 4 Use appropriate comparison signal words two combine these following
sentences.
1. The chief executive in Great Britain is called the prime minister. The chief
executive in the United States is called the president.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2. In the United States, the president fulfills the functions of both political
leader and head of state. These two functions are separate in Great Britain.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
3. In other words, Great Britain has both a monarch and a prime minister. The
United States has only a president.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
4. The president of the United States may be of a different political party than
the — majority of Congress. The British prime minister is the head of the
political party that has the most seats in Parliament.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
5. The United States has a written constitution. Great Britain has no written
constitution.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
6. In the United States, elections are held on a regular schedule, no matter how
popular or unpopular the government is In Great Britain, elections are held
whenever the prime minister loses a vote of confidence.'
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
7. The members of the U.S. Senate are elected. The members of the British

84
 House of Lords are appointed or inherit their positions.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
8. As you can see, the two systems of government differ in several major
aspects. They are both democracies.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

Task 5 Write five sentences of your own, contrasting two things with which you are
familiar. Use a different contrast signal in each sentence.
Possible topics:

 computers/humans;
 English/your first language;
 taking public trans-portation/driving your own car;
 city life/country life;
 schools in two countries;
 the cost of living in two countries;
 family life in two countries.

UNIT 7: PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH

85
THE PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH

The persuasive paragraph is a special type of paragraph that gives reasons. It is also called
argumentation. The reasons in persuasive paragraph must be chosen and organized carefully.
Facts and statistics should provide strong support.

The purpose of persuasion is to change someone’s mind. It is an attempt to prove a point or

defend an opinion. It is also used to argue in favor of an opinion. It is also used to encourage
others to adopt our views, more than just an explanation of a subject.

A persuasive paragraph attempts to win people over to a particular point of view or convince
them to take a particular course of action. Here, our persuasive details must be firmly rooted in
reason, logical, and reasonable.

MODEL

Persuasive SMOKING!
Paragraph Once You Start, You Will Never Stop!

Before you light the end of that ugly, little, white stick, stop and
think! Do you want to be one of those people who smells like an ashtray,

86
 has leathery skin, and who cannot walk up the steps without being out of
breath? I don’t think so! So, listen right now before you start. Smoking
causes hearts diseases, lung cancer, and other atrocious disseases. It also
can shorten your life up to 20 years. If you don’t care about your health
issues, think about your appearance. Smokers have yellow teeth, black
lungs, and smell horribly. Why would you want to smoke? It’s simple.
You don’t! listen up now because there are way to stop! Please put out that
cigarette, take a breath of fresh air, and march in the direction of a smoke-
free life. You don’t want to smoke, believe me.

PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Topic A strong topic sentence is crucial to the development of an effective persuasive

Sentence paragraph. Without the topic sentence that properly introduces both the
topic and the writer’s argument, persuasive paragraphs fail to convince the
reader of the validity of the argument.

Purposes of Introductory sentences introduce the topic and suggest why it is important.
the topic Example: An analysis of the Vancouver Island University Writing Centre
sentence survey answers reveals that a significant portion of tutees improved their
writing skills, and this has correlated to an improvement on their essay scores.

Introductory sentences outline the structure of the paragraph and

highlight the main ideas.

Example: Considering the dropout rate of high-schoolers in Canada, it is

apparent that schools are not addressing the social conditions that lead
students to fail.

Introductory sentences state the thesis.

Example: Kwantlen Polytechnic University should require all students to enrol

in Creative Writing courses in order to better prepare them for employment.

Dos and Don’t of Topic Sentence

Things to always do Things to never do

87
  Capture the interest of your reader.  Apologize: Do not suggest that you
 Introduce the issue to the reader. are unfamiliar with the topic.
 State the problem simply. (Example: I cannot be certain, but

 Write in an intelligible, concise …)

manner.  Use sweeping generalizations.

 Refute any counterpoints. (Example: All men like football …)

 State the thesis, preferably in one  Use a dictionary definition.

arguable statement. (Example: According to the

 Provide each of the arguments that dictionary, a humble person is …)

will be presented in each of the  Announce your intentions: Do not

body sentences. directly state what you will be

writing about. (Example: In this
paper, I will …)

Body In a persuasive paragraph, the body sentences are where the writer has the
sentences opportunity to argue their viewpoint. By the concluding sentence, the writer
should convince the reader to agree with the argument of the paragraph.
Body sentences
 Begin by reflecting the argument of the thesis statement.
 Support the argument with useful and informative quotes from sources
such as books, journal articles, expert opinions, etc.
 Explain each quote and indicate its significance.
 Ensure that the information provided is relevant to the thesis statement.
 End with a transition which leads into the next body sentence.

Comcluding The concluding sentence of a persuasive paragraph is an author’s last chance to

Sentence create a good impression. Hence, it is important to restate the thesis statement at
the beginning of the sentence in order to remind the reader of your argument.
Concluding sentences
 Begin by reflecting the argument of the thesis statement.
 Briefly summarize the main points of the paragraph.
 Provide a strong and effective close for the paragraph.

88
 Dos and Don’t of Concluding Sentence

Things to always do Things to always do

 Stress the importance of the thesis.  Rework your introduction or thesis

 Include a brief summary of the
main idea.
 Be concise.
 Provide a sense of closure.
statement.
 Use overused phrases.
(Example: In summary … or In
conclusion …)
 Announce what you have written in
the body of the paragraph.
(Example: In this paragraph, I
have emphasized the importance of
…)

 Apologize. (Example: Although I
do not have all the answers …)

 Make absolute claims.

(Example: This proves that the
government should …)

THE VARIOUS METHODS TO DEVELOP PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH

Facts Facts are simply statements of what is. They should appeal to the reader’s mind,
not just to the emotions. The source of facts should be clear to the reader. We
might look for supporting facts in appropriate books and magazines.

MODEL

Immigration in the USA

Immigration contributes to the overall health of the American economy.

Despite recent concerns expressed about illegal and some legal
immigration to the United States, this country has largely benefited from
the skills, talents, and ambition that immigrants bring with them. American
businesses gain from a good source of affordable labor, while towns and

89
 cities are revitalized by immigrant families who strengthen communities
through civic participation and the generation of new economic activity.
The United States must continue to welcome new arrivals and help those
who are already here; otherwise, the country will lose the advantages it has
over other industrialized countries that compete against us in the global
marketplace and seek to recruit from a vast pool of unskilled and skilled
global workers.

Referring to An authority is an expert, someone who can be relied on to give unbiased facts
an Authority
and information. If we wish to convince our readers that smoking is a dangerous
habit, we might use one of the surgeon general’s warnings that appear on every
pack of cigarettes. For example: “Smoking causes lung cancer, heart disease,
emphysema, and may complicate pregnancy.” The surgeon general is an
excellent and knowledgeable authority whose opinion on medical matters is
considered valid and unbiased.

Example Example shows readers exactly what the main idea of the paragraph means. An
example should clearly relate to the argument and should be typical enough to
support it. We should avoid examples that are not typical enough to support our
general statement.

Predicting the It helps the reader visualize what will occur if something does or does not
Consequence
happen. We should avoid exaggerating the consequences. To convince the
readers that conserving energy is a duty of every citizen, we might say, “If we
do not conserve our resources, we may soon face the time when schools,
colleges, and public buildings will be open only half-days because they lack of
heating fuel.”

Answering Answering possible critics shows that we are aware of the opposition’s
the argument and are able to respond to it. Here, we should avoid calling the
Opposition opposition “fool,” “dull,” “stubborn,” and so forth. Remember to attack their
ideas, not them. For example, if we wish to convince readers that our candidate
is the best on the ballot, we might say: “Some have criticized him for running a
law-key campaign, but he feels that the issues and his stand on them should

90
 speak for themselves.

An example Purpose Example

persuasive
Topic sentence The strength of a body paragraph lies in its organization.
paragraph

According to The Bedford Handbook, “the body of the

essay develops support for [the] thesis, so it’s important to
Quote/Support #1
have at least a tentative thesis before [one starts] writing”
(Hacker 38).

As this quote suggests, it is hard for a writer to support his

or her thesis in a body paragraph before the thesis has even
Explanation (1 to
been developed. Thus, it is crucial to decide upon a thesis
2 sentences)
before starting to compose the body, or support, of an
essay.

Writing an essay in this order will ensure that the body

Significance (1 to
paragraph argues the point which the writer is trying to
3 sentences)
make.

What’s more, it is always important to “sketch a

preliminary outline” and “draft the body of [the] essay by
Quote/Support #2
writing a paragraph about each supporting point listed in
the planning stage” (Hacker 38).

In creating both an outline and a draft, the writer will begin

Explanation (1 to
creating his or her body paragraphs before the final draft is
2 sentences)
even begun.

Moreover, this process will ensure that the writer never

forgets any of his or her key points since they have already
Significance (1 to
been written down. Hence, the writer can leave and revisit
3 sentences)
his or her work without fear of forgetting or losing any of
the key arguments of the paper.

91
 Concluding/ Although organization is essential to the effectiveness of a
Transition body paragraph, there are other factors which contribute to
sentence its overall strength.

Review 1. What are three of the main purposes of an introductory sentence?

Question
2. What should you never do in an introductory sentence?
3. How should you refute counterpoints?
4. What is the formula for a well-argued body sentence?
5. What should you include in a concluding sentence? What should you
never include in a concluding sentence?

PRACTICE
Task 1 Create three main points for each side of the following arguments.

A. Should homework be abolished?

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

B. Should sugary snacks be banned from school?

Sugary snacks should be banned. Sugary snacks shouldn’t be banned.

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

92
Task 2: TRAVELLING BY CAR - Write the words in the correct columns. Write

Check your A for advantage of travelling by car or D for disadvantage next to each
word.
vocabulary
fast expensive passengers private
convenient parking pollution tiring
cheap door-to-door traffic jam petrol
independent short trip stressful repairs
accident long trip relaxing speed limit
comfortable environment driving license

Adjectives Nouns

fast (A)

Task 3: TRAVELLING BY CAR - Write the linking words in the correct column.
Extend Some can go in more than one column
Vocabulary
because Secondly, First of all, Thirdly, but

for example Also, However, Firstly, and . . . also

Explaining why
Starting sentences Putting in order Giving examples
(not)

1. I like travelling by plane _______________ (because/however/for example)

93
 it is fast.

2. Travelling by bus is convenient and it is _______________ (firstly/ because/

also) cheap.

3. Travelling by bike is cheap. _______________ (Because/Also/However), it

is not good for long trips.

4. _______________ (Thirdly/Also/First of all), walking is good for your

health. Secondly, it is not bad for the environment.

Task 4: Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verb.
If/when + 1. If too many people _______________ (will travel/travel) by plane, pollution
will will increase.

2. If you catch a train, you _______________ (will/won’t/are) get stuck in a

traffic jam.

3. When you travel by train, you _______________ (will arrive/arriving/will)

on time.

4. You will have an exciting trip when you _______________ (will

travel/travel) by helicopter.

5. If you travel by ship, you can _______________ (have/having/will have) a

relaxing trip.

Task 5: Complete the sentences about advantages and disadvantages.

Verb 1. There _________ (is/are) two advantages of travelling by car. Firstly,............
agreement ................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
2. Travelling by plane _________ (is/are) fun. However,.....................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
3. Driving a motorbike _________ (is/are) dangerous and it _________ (is/are)
also .........................................................................................................................
4. Cycling _________ (has/have) several advantages. First of all,.......................
................................................................................................................................

94
 ................................................................................................................................
5. There _________ (is/are) many disadvantages of air travel; for example,........
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

Task 6: Write counter argument sentences for each topic.

Counter 1. Although most people think they help make students look respectable and
Argument polite, some students don’t want to wear uniforms.

2. While many people think finger print ID…………………………………....

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

3. While most people think family dinners are a good dea,…………………......

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….…………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………
4. Unfortunately, one disadvantage of electric cars is……………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….…………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………

5. Some people disagree with the idea that having many job choices is good.
They think………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………….
…………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………

6 Working at home, however, has some disadvantages. For example,…………

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….…………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………

7. On the other hand, some people think gossiping has benefits. They………….

95
 ……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….…………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………

8. Although daydreaming is usually a healthy and relaxing activity,……………

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….…………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………

Task 7 Write about the advantages and disadvantages of travelling by ONE form
of transport. Start with a topic sentence and use linking words. Write at
least 100 words. Finish with a concluding sentence.

96
REVIEW 2
PRACTICE 1: Narrative Paragraphs

Read the following narrative paragraph. Answer each question by writing a response.

Bigfoot

Most people laugh at the idea that a Bigfoot roams the rugged Northwest mountains, but I
hesitate to laugh. Ten years ago, I went bow hunting for deer. My friends dropped me off at one
of the four corners of the area that we were going to comb. The idea was that we would beat the
brush and walk toward the center of the land that we had plotted. We would force the deer to
move to the center, which was an open field. I beat the brush and made steady progress. Then I
heard loud breaking of branches. I thought one of my friends was trying to scare me. When no
one responded to my calls, I got scared. Horrid thoughts raced through my mind. I pictured
myself getting beaten up or abducted by a stranger. For my own safety, I crouched behind some
bushes. Looking through the low-lying brush, I saw two enormous, thick, black, furry legs
scrambling through the brush and stomping everything in sight. My heart pounded so fast that I
could not breathe. I froze. I did not dare stick my head up to see what kind of animal had such
enormous stride or power. Worried that I had not shown up in the center, my hunting buddies
came looking for me. They called my name, but I still was too frightened to respond. They
finally found me crouched in the bushes and shaking uncontrollably. I told them what happened.
Together we gawked at the path of broken limbs and puzzled over the distance between each
section of crushed brush. In unison, our eyes widened in disbelief, and we hollered our lungs out
as we ran for the main logging road. Our interest in deer hunting waned. We retreated willingly
from this rugged terrain, the roaming ground of Bigfoot or some unknown creature.

1. The first sentence is the topic sentence: Most people laugh at the idea that a Bigfoot roams the
rugged Northwest mountains, but I hesitate to laugh. 

Is this an effective topic sentence for a narrative? Explain your answer.

2. The last sentence is the concluding sentence: We retreated willingly from this rugged terrain,
the roaming ground of Bigfoot or some unknown creature. 

Is this an effective concluding sentence for this paragraph? Explain your answer.

3. Does this paragraph have unity? Explain.

PRACTICE 2: Descritive Paragraphs

Edit the paragraph by writing the corrections or changes in the space between the lines.

A Powerful Teacher

My nephew Chris is a powerful teacher. As he sits in his chair and listens to young children read

97
his large blue eyes peer through his gold-rimmed glasses at the reader. His attention hangs on

every word that is sounded out and every sentence that is completed his thin face and his

nodding head signal to the reader that he or she read the words correctly. When the story is over

Chris leans over to type in a message for the student on his talking computer. Sometimes he asks

the student a question about the story sometimes he praises the student or gives a boost of

encouragement. One young reader who just finished his turn reading out loud to Chris smiles at

Chris gently touches his arm and then moves closer to give Chris a quick hug. The corner of

Chris's mouth curls up into a quick smile of pleasure. The next reader moves in to sit in front of

Chris's wheelchair and to begin her turn practicing reading out loud. Once again Chris's attention

completely focused on the reader. After Chris responds to the reader he says good-bye to the

class with his computerized voice. As I watch Chris's stiff hand poke at the controls of his

wheelchair to back up and then move forward toward the door. I realize how much he is teaching

these young readers he is teaching them intangible values. He is teaching them that people with

physical limitations or challenges can be productive members of society. He is teaching them

that behind his physical body that has limited mobility an individual with intelligence feelings

and personality resides. He is teaching them to value and respect diversity. The lessons Chris

teaches are subtle but incredibly powerful.

PRACTICE 3: Cause-Effect Paragraphs

Writing Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences

Use the information given to write complex and compound-complex sentences. You do not need
to include all of the information in your sentences.

1. Clara Barton is the founder of the American Red Cross. Her work started during the Civil
War. She tried to locate missing soldiers.

2. President Abraham Lincoln had authorized Clara Barton to help families find their missing
loved ones. Lincoln authorized her work in 1865. Lincoln authorized her work shortly before he
was assassinated.

3. Clara Barton founded the Missing Soldiers Office. The Missing Soldiers Office was believed
to have been started around 1866. Its mission was to locate missing soldiers. Clara Barton
answered over 63,000 letters.

98
PRACTICE 4: Comparison-Contrast Paragraphs

Read the following paragraph carefully. Answer the questions that follow

Quilting Techniques

Though the early Colonists taught quilting techniques to Native Americans, the Colonists' "crazy
quilts" differ greatly from Native American quilts. Quilting for the Colonists was born out of
necessity. As the Colonists' blankets and coverlets wore out, they patched their bedding with
fabric remnants that they salvaged from worn-out clothing. As a result, the Colonists' quilts
became random conglomerations of fabrics of varying colors, fabrics, and textures. Early crazy
quilts show no signs of fancy quilting stitches or batting for added thickness. The traditional
crazy quilts lack symmetrical designs or specific color schemes. The quilts were functional and
not intended to be a form of art. Unlike the crazy quilts, Native American quilting was born out
of the desire to express traditions through storytelling. Native American quilts depict tribal
histories, pictorial records of people's lives and significant events, and reflections of visions and
cultural beliefs. They show traditional motifs, colorful designs, detailed patterns, and fabrics
selected specifically to enhance the design. Native American quilts show meticulous attention to
the consistency between each quilting stitch. Though stitched by hand, each stitch penetrates the
fabric and the batting equally. Native American quilting is an art form that represents the
cooperative effort of many individuals and often several generations working together to finish
the heirloom. Though both forms of quilting are different in origin, purpose, and design, each is a
valued symbol of the past that is living in the present.

1. Is the topic sentence effective? Explain your answer.

2. In the topic sentence, which follows, what is Subject A, and what is Subject B?

Though the early Colonists taught quilting techniques to Native Americans, the Colonists' "crazy
quilts" differ greatly from Native American quilts.

3. Are the subtopics and secondary details organized by using the point-by-point method or the
block method? Explain your answer.

4. Create an outline for this paragraph. Your outline should identify each subtopic. The
beginning of the outline is shown below.

Example:

Topic Sentence

Colonists' quilts

Subtopic 1: Purpose of the quilts

Subtopic 2:

5. Does this paragraph have unity? Explain.

99
6. Does this paragraph have coherence? Explain.

7. Is the concluding sentence effective? Explain.

PRACTICE 5: Comparison-Contrast Paragraphs

Read the following paragraph carefully. Answer the questions that follow the paragraph.

Higher Education

A high-school senior's decision about whether to attend a community college or a four-year

university can be difficult since similarities exist between both forms of higher education. At a
university, students work the first two years to complete their basic education requirements.
Emphasis is often on survey classes plus writing, math, social science, and science sequences.
After students fulfill these mandatory requirements, they begin to work on courses related to
their major or primary field of study. At a community college, many two-year degrees require
survey courses and sequences of classes in the areas of writing, math, social science, and science.
After students complete these basic education requirements, they earn an Associates Degree and
can then transfer to the university to begin courses related to their major or primary field of
study. At a university during the registration process, students usually have a choice of classes,
professors, and class times. If several different sections of a course are available, students can
select early morning, daytime, or evening classes. They can often group their classes on Monday,
Wednesday, Friday or Tuesday and Thursday. The same is true during the registration process at
a community college. Students can select their classes, instructors, and class times as long as
sections of the courses are available. One additional similarity between the two forms of higher
education involves expectations. At the university, professors expect students to be responsible,
to study without being reminded or reprimanded, and to learn to balance the different demands
and aspects of their personal and academic lives. These expectations stun many students during
the first term as a freshman. They quickly have to learn to behave and think more maturely and
responsibly. The same is true for students attending community colleges. At the community
college, instructors expect students to be responsible for their work as well as with decisions in
their personal lives. They expect students to study without being frequently reminded, lectured,
or reprimanded. The responsibility for learning shifts to the students. The students need to learn
to balance the different demands and activities of their personal and academic lives. Because
both universities and community colleges are similar in so many ways, the decision to attend one
or the other may best be made by looking at the differences rather than the similarities of the two
forms of higher education.

1. How does the topic sentence signal that a comparison paragraph follows?

2. What is subject A? What is subject B?

3. How does the paragraph achieve unity and coherence?

4. Is the concluding sentence effective? Explain your answer.

100