Physics 486

Lecture 1

Physics 486: Course Description

Physics 486, Spring ‘07 Physics 486 is the first of a two-semester sequence in
intermediate quantum mechanics. In this course, we’ll cover
the following topics (roughly Griffiths chapters 1-4):

z Quantization of light, matter waves, blackbody radiation

Lecture 1
z Schrödinger’s equation (SEQ)

z Bound state solutions to various 1D SEQ

z Expectation values and probabilities

Coursex Description; z Particle scattering and tunneling in 1D potentials

Quantization of Light: z Introduction to approximation methods: perturbation

theory and variational methods
Blackbody Radiation, Solutions to 2D and 3D SEQ: Degeneracy and Angular
Photoelectric Effect, etc.
z

Momentum

z Solutions to the hydrogen atom problem

z Spin angular momentum, addition of angular momentum

Physics 486 Course Description Physics 486 Course Description

In this course, I’ll provide some of the necessary mathematical
and physics background, but it would be helpful if you have
working knowledge of:
• Newton’s laws and equations at the level of Phys. 211
• The fundamentals of linear algebra, matrices and matrix algebra
(Math 415)
Physics 486 is composed of several components:
z Lectures – discussion of concepts, illustration of example
problems, some demonstrations when possible
z Discussion – You’ll have a one-hour session on Tuesday or
Wednesday evenings, during which you’ll solve relevant
problems under the supervision of a TA. Participation
constitutes 10% of your total grade.

• The properties of complex quantities
• Multivariable calculus and elementary differential equations
z Homework – You’ll get an assignment almost every
Tuesday, which will be due the following Tuesday. Late
homework will be accepted the following week for ½
credit, and no Homework will be accepted more than 2
weeks after it is handed out. HW is an important part of
the course, which is why it is worth 45% of your grade!

z Exams – There will be one in-class exam (15%), one take-

home exam (15%), and a final exam (15%).

z Reading – I’ll provide suggested reading assignments from

Griffiths, and occasionally other sources such as Shankar.

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Physics 486 Course Description Historical Background

All materials from Physics 486 are available to you to review at z Quantum mechanics connects two seemingly disparate
the following website: phenomena: matter and light. To understand how
http://online.physics.uiuc.edu/courses/phys486/Spring07/ remarkable this connection was when it was established in
the early 1900’s, note the strong dichotomy between the
classical views of light and matter at this time:
On this website will be:
z Course announcements
Waves (e.g., light) Particles
z Instructor/TA contact and office hour information Delocalized Localized
z Powerpoint and pdf copies of lectures Oscillatory Not oscillatory
Exhibits interference Doesn’t exhibit interference
z Homework assignments and solutions

z Discussion section solutions

z Before diving into the bulk of the course, let’s trace the
z The course syllabus historical development of the important connection
z The course description between light and waves
z The on-line Gradebook

Historical Background (cont.) Blackbody Radiation

When an object is heated, it emits radiation consisting
In 1801, Thomas Young definitively established that light
z

of electromagnetic waves with a broad range of

z

was a wave by demonstrating interference of light and by

frequencies.
explaining Newton’s rings – although it took time for people
to be convinced of Young’s work, mainly because Isaac z The spectral distribution of the Planck’s
radiation is governed by the radiating distribution:
Newton had promoted the corpuscular description of light
object’s temperature. Consequently, an
(for an interesting book about Young, see The Last Man object’s temperature can be determined
Power ~ T4
Who Knew Everything, by Andrew Robinson). from the distribution of this radiation! λmax ~ 1/T
z In 1865, James Maxwell put the wave theory of light on Incandescent bulb,
firm theoretical footing when he developed a set of heated to T ~ 3000K
equations describing the generation of, and relationship
between, the electric and magnetic fields comprising light. very inefficient!

z However, around 1900, several phenomena exposed flaws • Early potters estimated the temperatures
in the wave description of light: of their kilns by noting the color of the fire
z Blackbody radiation
z Photoelectric effect • Steelmakers estimate the temperature of
molten steel by noting its color
z Compton scattering
z Bremsstrahlung radiation

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Examples of blackbody radiation

Thermal emission: stars
z In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s,
many scientists, including Max
Star color mostly due to
Planck, recognized the fundamental
z

‘blackbody’ radiation, reflects

importance of the “blackbody”
the temperature of the star:
radiation spectrum, because it was
universally observed in a variety of
systems: red stars are “cool”
blue stars are “hot”

Solar blackbody spectrum, λmax ~ 0.5 µm

Planck’s
distribution:
Power ~ T4
Penzias and
T = 2.73 K Wilson won the λmax ~ 1/T
Nobel Prize for
“discovering”
this!
see T.L. Swihart.,
“Astrophysics...,” (1968)

It’s not all about temperature!: Notice

Microwave ‘background’ radiation of Universe, λmax ~ 2 mm absorption bands due to gases in sun
remnant radiation from Big Bang!

Blackbody Radiation Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck’s Laws

Motivated by similarities between Blackbody distribution z The classical treatment resulted in the Rayleigh-Jeans law for the
radiance, R(λ,T),
z

the observed “blackbody” Planck’s 2πckT

spectrum and the Maxwell distribution: R (λ , T ) = ultraviolet catastrophe
distribution of velocities for Power ~ T4
λ4
heated gas molecules in a closed λmax ~ 1/T and for the radiation energy density,
container, Wilhelm Wien, and later u(ν,T), in a cavity:
Lord Rayleigh and Sir James 8π f 2
u( f , T ) = kT
Jeans, tried to treat the c3
blackbody radiation problem in the Where c is the speed of light, k is
same way as an ideal gas of atoms Maxwell distribution
Boltzmann’s constant, f and λ (=c/f) are
the frequency and wavelength of
z In particular, in order to describe electromagnetic radiation, respectively,
this radiation spectrum, Lord and T is the temperature.
Rayleigh and Sir James Jeans Importantly, while the Rayleigh-Jeans law agreed reasonably well with
applied the equipartition theorem to
z

measured results at low frequencies (large wavelengths), it incorrectly

light waves in a closed box. In this predicted an infinite intensity for radiation emission in the ultraviolet
description, the available energy is region and beyond…this was dubbed the “ultraviolet catastrophe” at
shared equally among all possible the time. If the Rayleigh-Jeans law were correct, sitting in front of
the fireplace would prove fatal!
vibrational modes.

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Rayleigh-Jeans Law Rayleigh-Jeans Law

z The reason the Rayleigh-Jeans treatment led to the ultraviolet
catastrophe is fairly straightforward to understand:

z The Rayleigh-Jeans formula for energy

density in a cavity is the product of λ  c 
two terms: (i) the number of modes a = n   or a = n  where n = 1,2,3,...
per unit frequency per unit volume  2 2f 
(which is related to the “density of
states”) AND (ii) the average energy x E
per mode. We’ll show that the number λ f = n fo n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
of modes per frequency per volume is y
B 3a/2
given by: 3 fo
8π f 2
c3 a
2 fo
z To understand why this is, consider electromagnetic waves confined
to a cubical cavity (box) of dimension a on a side. Only standing 2a
waves that satisfy the boundary conditions of the cavity are fo = c/2a
“allowed,” because only these have wavelengths that can fit inside
the cavity: a (c = light speed)

Rayleigh-Jeans Law Rayleigh-Jeans Law

z So, the allowed frequencies of electromagnetic radiation in a cavity z We’re almost done, except that we have to multiply this result by a
of dimension a are given by: factor of 2, because there are 2 independent waves with different
 c  polarizations corresponding to each value of frequency. The net
fn = n   where n = 1,2,3,... result is that the number of electromagnetic wave frequencies in
 2a  nz the range f and f+df is given by: n z
z Note that, for a 3 dimensional cavity, a similar
relationship above applies to the x (nx), y (ny), 8π V 2
and z (nz) directions, and the allowed values of n n N ( f ) df = f df n
can be thought of as points on a grid in a 3- c3
dimensional cartesian coordinate system (to
right). ny ny
Where V=a3 is the volume of the cavity.
nx N(f) is the density of states in the range nx
To calculate the number of allowed states f and f+df.
in a particular frequency range, n and n+dn,
we need to determine the number of 2
states in a spherical shell of volume 4π n2 dn 1  2af   2a 
= π    df
(4πn2dn)/8 (the division by 8 arises 8 2  c   c 
because we’re only interested in the octant
in which nx, ny, and nz are positive). In 4π a3 2
terms of frequency, this can be written: = 3 f df
c

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Rayleigh-Jeans Law Planck to the Rescue!

z So far, so good. Now, to obtain an estimate of the amount of energy z So why is the Rayleigh-Jeans Law a problem? ultraviolet catastrophe
in the cavity, we only have to determine the average energy
associated with each frequency. Rayleigh and Jeans assumed that, z The assumption by Rayleigh and Jeans
in accordance with the classical theory of equipartition, that the that classical equipartition applies, i.e.,
total energy was uniformly distributed among all the states. For an that the total energy of radiation is
oscillator (recall from Physics 113), classical equipartition would distributed equally among all possible
prescribe that each oscillator (standing wave state in the cavity) states, is the problem. This is
would have the same total energy: because the number of states
increases as f2, and so if each state
E = kT contributes kT, there will clearly be a
divergence of the energy with
z Consequently, the energy density in the cavity according to Rayleigh increasing f (decreasing λ).
and Jeans is given by:

8π f 2 z Planck’s genius was to recognize that if each oscillator (i.e., state

u( f , T ) = kT or degree of freedom) in the cavity could only take on discrete
c3 values of energy (say E=nhf, where h is a (Planck’s) constant and
n=1,2,3,…), then the average energy per state would decrease,
rather than increase, at high frequencies. Why? Let’s see.

Planck’s Law: 2 Key Points Planck’s Law: 2 Key Points (cont.)

z There are 2 key features of Planck’s proposal:
(2). Energy spacing scales with frequency f, ∆E = hf:
(1). Discrete energies – By postulating that the distribution of energies
was DISCRETE, rather than continuous, Planck insured that there Large wavelength regime: By postulating that the discrete energy
would be a well defined crossover between the following regimes: separation scales with frequency, i.e., ∆E = hf, Planck ensured that –
(i) ∆E << kT: In this limit, the discreteness of the energies doesn’t for a given, fixed temperature T - his description would give the
“classical” regime (∆E<<kT) at low frequencies (large wavelengths).
matter, as all energy levels are equally occupied (i.e., equipartition
applies), and the classical result for the average energy, <E>=kT,
pertains: En = nε
All energy levels equally
4ε P(E) occupied: equipartition!
3ε
kT 2ε
∆E=hf
ε E
0 0
(ii) ∆E >> kT: In this limit, only the E=0 level is appreciably
occupied, giving <E>~0 for the average energy:
En = nε Small wavelength regime: On the other hand, at large frequencies (small
4ε P(E) Only E=0 level is wavelengths), the condition ∆E >> kT applies in Planck’s description
3ε appreciably occupied! (because ∆E = hf), causing the average energy to be <E>~0 in this regime.
2ε
∆E=hf This insures that the energy density – which is the product of the
density of states and the average energy – will go to zero at small
ε E
kT 0 0 wavelengths!

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Planck to the Rescue! Planck to the Rescue!

Now that we understand Planck’s
z

E n = nε For equally spaced levels, the denominator in, E n = nε

ideas intuitively, let’s do the math:
z

z If the energy of an oscillator can only 4ε Pn = e − nε / kT

/ ∑e − nε / kT 4ε
be E=nhf (n=0,1,2,3,…), then the 3ε
3ε
ε = hf
probability that a particular energy of 2ε ε = hf 2ε
is straightforward to evaluate: ε
the oscillator is occupied is given by ε
0
the Boltzmann factor: 0
∞ ∞

Pn = Ce − En / kT ∑e
n =0
− nε / kT
=Z = ∑x
n=0
n
= 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ... (where x=e-ε/kT)

where En = nhf, n=0,1,2,3,.. (

= 1 + x 1 + x + x 2 + ... = 1 + xZ )
C is a normalization constant, selected to ∞
insure that: ∞

∑P n =1
So: Z = 1 + xZ ⇒ Z = ∑ e − nε / kT =
1
=
1
1 − x 1-e-ε /kT
n =0
n =0

Therefore, C = 1
and
e − nε / kT
∞
Pn = e − nε / kT / ∑ e− nε / kT Therefore, the probability that Pn =
∑e (1 − e )
− nε / kT −1
the nth energy level of an − ε / kT
n =0 oscillator will be populated is:

Planck to the Rescue! Planck to the Rescue!

z With the probability squarely in hand,
E n = nε z Notice that the numerator of this result can
e − nε / kT be written:
Pn = 4ε ∞
hf ∑ ne − nhf / kT = hf ∑ nx n
∞

(1 − e ) (where x=e-ε/kT)
− ε / kT −1
3ε
ε = hf n=0 n =0
2ε
ε
We can now calculate average (or ‘expectation’) ∞
1 E n = nε
values of a number of quantities
0 Recall also that: Z = ∑ xn =
n =0 1− x 4ε
How do we define an expectation value? Recall that ∞

if we have a collection of possible values of a r = ∑ rn Pn

3ε
ε = hf
2ε
quantity r, then the expectation value is defined as: n=0
And note that: dZ ∞
1 ∞ ε
= ∑ nx n −1 = ∑ nx n 0
dx n =0 x n =0
where rn is the nth outcome of a measurement of value r and Pn is
the probability associated with rn.

For example, the average value of the energy is:

So: ∞
dZ {
d (1 − x )
−1
}= x
∑ nx n
=x =x (where x=e-ε/kT)
(1 − x )
2
∞ n =0 dx dx
∞ ∞ ∑ nhfe − nhf / kT

E = ∑ En Pn = ∑ nhfP = n=0
( )
n −1
n =0 n=0 1 − e − hf / kT

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Planck to the Rescue! Planck to the Rescue!

z So finally, the average energy density can be
z So finally, the average energy can be written: written:
∞ u(f) Planck Radiation Law
hf ∑ nx n u ( f ,T ) =
8π hf 3 1
hfx / (1 − x )
2
(where x=e-ε/kT)
E = n =0
= c 3 e hf / kT − 1
(1 − e ) (1 − e )
−1 −1
− hf / kT − hf / kT
hf
2.8 kT
∞
How does energy quantization solve the ultraviolet catastrophe? At
hf ∑ nx n z

hfe − hf / kT hf high frequencies (low wavelengths), even though many modes are
So that: E = n =0
= = possible (i.e., it’s easier to stuff the short waves into the cavity),
(1 − e − hf / kT
)
−1
(1 − e − hf / kT
) e hf / kT − 1 not many are excited because it costs too much energy to make a
high frequency quantum, i.e., E = hf!
Finally, if we multiply this average 8π f 2 (Remember this?
energy per state times the = Summarizing the classical and quantum mechanical results:
We derived it
density of states per energy: c3 # of modes per unit
earlier!) frequency per unit
average energy per average energy
mode density
volume

classical 8π f 2
8π f 2
kT kT
We get the famous Planck’s 8π hf 3 1 c3 c3
radiation law for the energy density u ( f ,T ) =
c 3 e hf / kT − 1 8π hf 3
of blackbody radiation: quantum 8π f 2 hf 1
c3 ehf / kT − 1 c 3 e hf / kT − 1

Example: Peak in the Planck distribution Planck to the Rescue!

At what wavelength is the maximum u(f)
Planck distribution z Now, if we want to determine the total energy per unit area
radiated by our “blackbody” source, we need to integrate the
in the Planck energy distribution? density over all frequencies:
8π hf 3 1 u(f) Planck Radiation Law
u ( f ,T ) = 2.8 kT
hf
c 3 e hf / kT − 1
8π hc 1 hf
But f=c/λ, so: u (λ,T ) = 2.8 kT
λ 5 ehc / λ kT − 1 ∞ ∞
8π h f3
The maximum of u(λ,T) occurs where ∂u(λ,T)/∂λ=0 ∫ u ( f , T ) df
0
=
c 3 ∫0 e hf / kT − 1
df

∂u ( λ , T ) 8π hc  hc  ehc / λ kT
= (
−5 1 − e − hc / λ kT + )
=0 Now, let x=hf/kT. Then df=(kT/h)dx, and f3=(kTx/h)3
∂λ 5 
λ  λ kT  ehc / λ kT − 1 ( )
∞ 4 ∞
a 8π h  kT 
⇒
λ
(
= 5 1 − ea / λ ) where a = hc/kT So one can write: U (T ) = ∫ u ( f , T ) df = 
c3  h 
 ∫e
x3
x
−1
dx
0 0

This transcendental equation 4

1 2898.9 ×10−6 m − K law U (T ) = 8π h  kT   π  = aT 4
4
hc Giving the famous T4 8π 5 k 4
can be solved graphically or λmax = = of radiated energy 3     (a = )
numerically to give: 4.9663k T T c  h   15  15h3c3

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Planck to the Rescue! Planck to the Rescue!

z The result is the famous Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation, giving z The result is the famous Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation, giving
the total energy density radiated by a cavity of volume V the total energy density radiated by a cavity of volume V

4 4
8π h  kT   π 4  8π h  kT   π 4 
U (T ) =     = aT
4
T U (T ) =     = aT
4
T
c3  h   15  c3  h   15 

( a = 7.536 x 10-16 J m-3 K-4 ) ( a = 7.536 x 10-16 J m-3 K-4 )

z The total energy density can be converted to a total flux (total

power per unit area) emitted by the object:

Radiated sun (Not to scale. Sun is much 4

Energy c 2π h  kT   π 4 
Φ (T ) = U (T ) = 2     = σT
brighter.) 4

earth 4 c  h   15 
frequency
1014 Hz 1015 Hz
where σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

Radiation Example: Star Light, Star Bright

z Note that an object not only radiates energy at a rate
given by Stefan’s Law, but it also absorbs If the measured radiation emitted by a
electromagnetic radiation from the surroundings. So, if star has its maximum intensity at
an object is at a temperature T, and its surroundings are λmax=446 nm, what is the star’s (a) surface
at a temperature T0, then the net energy gained or lost temperature and (b) total power emitted
each second by the object as a result of radiation is: per unit area?
(
P = σAe T 4 − T04 ) (a).
z When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it 2898.9 ×10−6 m − K
radiates and absorbs energy at the same rate, and so its T= ≅ 6500 K
temperature remains constant. When an object is hotter 446 × 10−9 m
than its surroundings, it radiates more energy than it
absorbs, and its temperature decreases.
(b). Φ = σ T 4 = 5.67 × 10−8 Wm −2 K −4 × ( 6500 K )
4
z An ideal absorber, often called a black body, absorbs all
the energy incident upon it, and has e=1. By contrast, an
ideal reflector absorbs none of the energy incident upon ⇒ Φ ≅ 101.4 ×106 Wm −2
it, and so has e=0.

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Example: Tungsten Filament Example:

If the temperature of a tungsten filament Thermal Radiation from a Solid
in an incandescent bulb can be raised to
T=3300K, what is the (a) wavelength of
Calculate the power radiated by a 1-
the peak radiation intensity, and (b) what
cm-diameter sphere of aluminum
is the intensity radiated by the bulb
at room temperature (20oC).
(Assume it is a perfect radiator.)
(a).
2898.9 × 10−6 m − K
λmax = ≅ 878.5nm
3300 K Φ = σ SBT 4 (power radiated per area)
= (5.670 × 10-8 W m -2 K -4 )(293K) 4
= 418 W/m 2
(b). Φ = σ T 4 = 5.67 × 10−8Wm −2 K −4 × ( 3300 K )
4 Area: A = 4π r 2 = 4π (0.5 × 10-2 m) 2 = 3.14 × 10-4 m 2
Power radiated = Φ × A = (418 W/m 2 )(3.14 × 10-4 m 2 )
⇒ Φ ≅ 6.7 ×106 Wm −2 = 0.13 W

Still More Evidence for Light Quantization: Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectric Effect z Instead, Lenard found that the ejected
Incident Light electron energy depended on the Incident Light
(frequency f) frequency of the light, AND that there (frequency f)
In the late 1800’s, Heinrich Hertz, and
was a threshold frequency below which no
z

later Philipp Lenard, found that if one effect is observed. This was a real
shines light on a clean metal surface, Collector problem for the classical description! Collector
electrons will emerge (remember this in
Phys 214?). This was dubbed the A 3.5 A
photoelectric effect.
3

V V
2.5
Vstop (v)

2 h/e
electrons electrons
+ 1.5
+
1
f0 1
Metal Surface 0.5 Metal Surface
vacuum 0 vacuum
0 5 10 15

Classical Expectations: f (x1014 Hz)

z Ejected electrons acquire their kinetic energy from the incident light Key observations of photoelectric effect:
wave…classically, therefore, one would expect that more intense beam
Maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons (stopping voltage) is
of light waves (i.e., higher amplitude waves) would create more
z

INDEPENDENT of incident light intensity.

energetic electrons.
However, Lenard observed that the energies of the ejected electrons z Max. kinetic energy of electrons decreases with decreasing f
were completely independent of the incident light intensity! z Below a certain frequency fo, no electrons are emitted, even for
intense light!

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Einstein to the rescue!

z As he described in his now-famous 1905 paper, Photoelectric Effect: Example
Einstein realized that the puzzling observations 3.5

in the photoelectric effect could be understood 3 When light of wavelength λ = 400 nm shines on a piece of lithium, the
if one assumes that the incident light consists 2.5
stopping voltage of the electrons is Vstop = 0.21 V. What is the work
h/e
of quantized “packets” of energy – called
2
function of lithium?

Vstop
1.5

(v)
photons – which have an energy: 1
f0 1
0.5
0
Solution:
Ephoton = hf = hc/λ I won the Nobel
Prize in 1921 for
0 5 10 15

φ = hf -eVstop This is from page 2 of your printed notes. f = c/λ.

explaining this! f (x1014 Hz)

= hc/λ - eVstop If V is in Volts, eV is in Joules. e is the charge of

the electron, e = 1.60×10-19 Coulomb = 1.60×10-19 J/V.
z In this picture, a light quantum delivers all its energy to the electron = 4.63×10-19 J
in the metal. The electrons will lose a certain amount of energy
traveling through the material to reach the surface. Furthermore, = 2.9 eV The definition is: 1 eV ≡ 1.60×10-19 J.
all the electrons must perform a certain amount of work, Φ, to
overcome the potential energy barrier at the surface of the metal.
What is the maximum wavelength that can cause the photoelectric
The resulting simple relationship between the incident light effect in lithium?
frequency f and the electron kinetic energy KE is consequently:
h (slope) is Planck’s constant; λmax = hc/φ To find the maximum wavelength, set Vstop = 0.
K .E.max = e ⋅ Vstop = hf − Φ Φ is the “work function” = 429 nm

Example: Estimating Planck’s Constant Compton Scattering:

z In a photoelectric effect measurement
of lead (Pb), you observe that two
3.5 Still more light as particles
ultraviolet beams having wavelengths of
3
Pf, Ef
λ1=280nm and λ2=490 nm induce Between 1919 and 1923, A.H.
2.5
Vstop (v)

h/e z
photoelectrons with maximum energies
2
Compton also showed that x- Pi, Ei
8.57 eV and 6.67 eV, respectively.
1.5
ray photons collide elastically θ
Obtain an estimate of Planck’s constant
1
f0 1 with electrons, in the same way
from this simple observation.
0.5

0 that two particles would

K1 = hf1 − Φ = hc / λ1 elastically collide!
0 5 10 15

f (x1014 Hz) Pe, Ee

K 2 = hf 2 − Φ = hc / λ2
z Experimentally, it is observed that x-rays and gamma rays scattering
Taking the difference between these expressions: from electrons in a metal exhibit a shift of wavelength given by

K 2 − K 2 = hc ( λ2 − λ1 ) / ( λ1λ2 ) K − K 2 λ1λ2
h= 1 λf – λi = λC(1 – cosθ)
c λ2 − λ1
where λC = h/mec is the “Compton” wavelength of the electron
h=
( 8.57 − 6.67eV ) ×1.6 ×10−19 J / eV ( 280 ×10 m )( 490 ×10 m )
−9 −9

This relationship can be explained by invoking energy conservation

3 × 10 m / s
8
490 × 10 m − 280 × 10−9 m
−9 z

AND conservation of momentum:

h ≅ 6.62 × 10−34 Js Quite accurate! pi = pf + pe

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Compton Scattering: Examples of Compton Scattering:

z What does this tell us? Glass bead ‘floating’ on a laser beam!

Light “particles” (i.e., photons) carry momentum!

p = Ephoton/c E is the photon energy;

p = Ephoton/c
or, using our earlier result that
c is the speed of light
E is the photon energy;
c is the speed of light
(AT&T Bell Labs)
Ephoton = hf = hc/λ

p = h/λ h is Planck’s constant; Compton scattering of particles by light contributes to comet’s tail:
λ is the wavelength of light

light (radiation)
‘pressure’ from sun

Exercise: Optical “Levitation” Bremsstrahlung: More light as particles

z What laser power is required to suspend a glass bead weighing z If a metal target is bombarded with electrons accelerated through a
0.01 gram? potential, one observes bremsstrahlung, or “deceleration radiation”
of x-rays due to the deceleration of electrons hitting the target.

Glass bead ‘floating’ Kinit hf

on a laser beam! electron

(AT&T Bell Labs) target

Kfinal
nucleus
Assume that the
bead absorbs all z Classical radiation theory predicts that there should be a continuous x-
Laser the incident light. ray radiation spectrum, and indeed such a continuous spectrum is
observed, as shown below for several different values of the incident
P = ∆E/∆t = ? electron energy. However, classical radiation theory cannot account for
∆p the observation of a minimum wavelength, λmin, below which no radiation
F = mg = = (momentum for each absorbed photon) × (# photons/sec) is observed.
∆t
F mg
∴ #photons/s = =
p h/λ
hc mg
Power = (energy/photon) × (# photons/sec)= = mg c
λ h/λ
= (10 kg )( 9.8m / s )( 3 × 10 m / s ) = 30kW
−5 2 8

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 Physics 486
Lecture 1

Bremsstrahlung: More light as particles

z On the other hand, an explanation for this minimum wavelength comes
readily in the quantum interpretation of radiation. In this picture, x-
rays are composed of photons, and the energy of the photon is equal to
the difference in the initial and final kinetic energies of the electron:

hf = K init − K final
z The corresponding photon wavelength is therefore given by:
hc
= K init − K final
λ
z The smallest possible wavelength x-ray photon that can be observed is
emitted when an electron loses ALL of its kinetic energy in the
deceleration process (Kfinal = 0): hc
= K init = eVo
λmin
z Where eVo is the energy acquired by the electron when accelerated
through a potential difference Vo. So, the minimum wavelength is:
λmin = hc eV
o

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