Chapter 2

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

Review of the related literature is an essential element of any research work. The
review process helps the researcher to know the existing body of work on a specific
theme. The literature review gives insight and answers some of the research questions
and support to set up the foundation for the theoretical framework of the study. The
learning and familiarity with previous academic works in the process not only
improves understanding of the researcher but also contributes significantly in his/her
work throughout the research journey and triangulating the research findings
(Kumar, p.32. 2011). With enhanced understanding, the review of literature
contributes meaningfully in narrowing down the broad research ideas and spotting an
appropriate research framework and methodology.

After the formulation of the research problem, the next essential step in the research is
an extensive review of the available literature. As suggested by Kothari(2004), the
researcher has examined all the relevant and available literature to get acquainted with
the selected research problem (Kothari, p.12, 2004). The researcher has reviewed
three types of literature; (i) Theoretical Literature concerning the theory and
concept; (ii) Empirical Literature containing the research and studies already done
related to the proposed study and

(iii) Policy Documents to understand government initiatives in addressing the

identified research problem. During this process, the researcher did an extensive
literature survey and gone through the academic journals, books, newspapers,
conference proceedings, previous studies, reports of the government and international
organisations as well as policy documents to build up the understanding on the
research and research problem. The extensive literature survey helped in formulating
the hypothesis and identifying the gaps and obstacles in the present study.

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Research emphasised on the literature review as Best & Kahn, (2004) found review
of related literature useful and they highlighted the importance in following words
―since effective research-based upon past knowledge and capitalizing on the reviews
of expert researches can be worthwhile in a number of ways, the review of related
literature is a crucial aspect/ step in any research.‖

Further, Salkind, (p.40, 2012) explains the review of the related literature as ―the review
of literature is a historical account of the research and thinking that has done in the past as
well as a review of the most current developments. It is a record of what has come before,
and in the review, and expected to summarise the record.‖ So In the process of reviewing
the literature to know the prior knowledge and getting understanding on theoretical
approaches, a range of literature consisting books, academic journals, scholarly articles, e-
resources and research work of others have browsed.

Salkind(2012) presented a logical sequence of the literature review-

Idea Research Question Research Hypothesis Literature Review

From idea to the literature review, with the research hypothesis on the way (Salkind,
p.40, 2012)
Idea Literature Review

Research Question Research Hypothesis

From idea and literature review to research hypothesis (Salkind, p.40, 2012).

The researcher identified the theme of the digital divide and did the review of the
available literature. The digital divide is the central theme of the research study; therefore,
it is essential to make a sound understanding of the critical concept of the study.

2.1 Digital Divide

With the rapid expansion of new technology, the digital divide has taken centre stage
in the exclusion discourse. OECD, (2001) defined digital divide as ―the gap in

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opportunities for individuals, households, or companies of different social and

economic backgrounds and geographies in accessing1 information and communication
technologies (ICT) and activities on the Internet.‖2

Albert D. Ritzhaupt and Tina N. Hohlfeld,(p25, 2019) identify seven dividing

factors responsible for the digital divide. The factors are- socio-economic, gender,
race/ethnicity, education level, language, geography and age. They further explained
these dividing factors concerning different socioeconomic status and groups that led
to the disparity in access, usage of ICT, literacy, which form the background for the
digital divide.

Carlson & Isaacs, (2018) treated the technology as a capital. Their definition of
technological capital is the collection of four factors that occurred from their field
research. These four factors are (i) Awareness, defined as the consciousness of an
individual about particular technology and its effective and efficient utilisation. (ii)
Knowledge, which is defined by them as the extent to which an individual possesses
the necessary procedural know-how to operate a particular technology effectively.
(iii) Access, well-defined as the level to which specific technology is accessible to an
individual; and,(iv) Technological capacity of the person‘s group collective, which
has demarcated as the range to which other fellows of an individual‘s net gain from
their personal use of specific information technologies‖.

Hillier, (2018), emphasised on the learning management systems and explained

―Learning management systems (LMS) as e-learning toolsets are commonplace in
universities and are beginning to utilise in some pretertiary schools and community
education programmes. Such systems enable the integration of learning materials,
digital books, learning activities, assessment tasks and record keeping. Online
platforms for MOOCs and systems such as LMSs feature tools to facilitate a social
dimension to learning that was not available in the days of paper-based
correspondence courses‖. At the end of his study, he found that the ―use of e-learning

1
A Study of The Digital Divide Evaluation Model For ... (n.d.). Retrieved from http://
aisel.aisnet.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1143&context=amcis2009
2
https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=4719

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tools such as LMSs have already been established in most higher education
institutions in the developed world in one format or another‖.

Carlson & Isaacs, (2018) raised a valid point on varied perspectives of the digital
divide and said the ―multiple meanings and interpretations of the digital divide are
intended to demonstrate a secondary inequality (e.g. access to information, education)
based on a primary categorisation (e.g. race, gender, age, or another socio-cultural-
economic status)‖. They explained the comprehensive research on the digital divide
and technological imbalances recommends measures that give a multidimensional
understanding of the consistencies in access between individuals and groups. They
further suggest ―ideally, this measure should provide a more refined understanding of
how people find usefulness in ICTs and describe their relationships with technology‖.

Hilbert, (2015) defined the digital divide in terms of inequality. He found that
inequality exists in access to, use, and impact of digital information and
communication technology (ICT) among the social agents. He further explained
digital inequality has grown beyond a binary division between ―have‖ and ―have not,‖
becoming a question of ―more‖ versus ―less‖ that evolves with the continuous
evolution of ICT.

According to van Deursen & van Dijk, (2011), ―the term ‗digital divide‘ primarily
stated the gaps in access to a computer and initial studies on digital divide mainly
emphasised on physical access. Whereas when the internet came in existence into
society and became a primary type of computing, the term shifted to incorporate gaps
in not only computer but also internet access‖.

A. J. A. M. van Deursen & van Dijk, (2009b) classified the internet skills and
shared the analysis. They explained ―the range of internet skills by recommending, (i)
Operational internet skills which derived from concepts that indicate a set of basic
skills in using internet technology. (ii) Formal internet skills convey to the
hypermedia structure of the internet, which requires the skills of navigation and
orientation. (iii) Information internet skills derived from studies that adopt a staged
approach in clarifying the actions via which users try to fulfil their information needs.
(iv) Strategic internet skills are the capacity to use the internet as a means of

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reaching particular goals and for the general goal of improving one‘s position in
society‖. They further explained that the ―division of four internet skills provides
opportunities to investigate how these different internet skills levels distributed among
segments in the population‖.

Another group of scholars, Mossberger, Karen, Tolbert, Caroline J., Stansbury, Mary
(p.9, 2003) measures the digital divide with four variables like ―Access Divide‖ where
they measured the location of computer and internet along with the frequency of access to
each location. The second factor which they measured is the ―Skills Divide‖ in which
they created two indices of skills technical competence and information literacy. Their
third variable was the ―Economic Opportunity Divide‖, and the fourth one is ―Democratic
Divide‖ they measured attitudes and experiences regarding the various services like
voting, political information, participation in an online meeting.

Mossberger,(p.23, 2003) summarised the review of eight research studies and found
enduring gaps in internet access based on education and age, where seven studies
indicated that income play a crucial role in promoting access to technology, whereas
none of the studies found the gap in technology access based on gender.

Most of the scholars perceive the digital divide as a form of social exclusion, so the
researcher decided to explore some more literature exhibiting a close relationship
between social exclusion and the digital divide.

2.2 Digital and Social Exclusion

Digital exclusion is a replication of social exclusion or social disparity, whereas
cultivating digital inclusion can influence to reduce some gaps of inequality. Though
executing the digital inclusion would not only be an adequate solution to create an
actual change in resolving the issue of inequality. It is not possible to segregate the
digital world from the social world. In the real world, those are well placed and
privileged have more opportunity to get benefited from ICT whereas marginalised
groups will be deprived and may have lesser chance to get access and befits of the
digital services.

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Khalid & Pedersen, (2016) explained: ―digital divide and digital exclusion as multi-
layered challenges or obstructions; those not restricted to the dichotomy of the
―haves‖ and ―have-nots‖ in the perspective of higher education. They concluded that
the ―causes of digital exclusion vary significantly, at the individual level; people may
have limited experience, a lack of skills, or a lack of motivation to use ICT tools.
Socio-economic challenges disproportionately affect the most vulnerable in society;
lower education leads to lower earnings, which lead to lower affordability and use of
ICTs and result in limited ICT experience‖.

Cheang, Lim Swee, Lei. Guo,(p.150, 2015) elaborates that digital inclusion is not a
final target, but an initiative to create a socially, economically, and politically
melodious society. Therefore, ―it is important to implement digital inclusion by not
stopping at the digital space but to work beyond it to also realise the end goals of
bringing real benefits to individuals who are in disadvantageous positions in the
society. The outcome is more important than an isolated view of digital inclusion‖.

Commenting on the social aspect of the digital divide, Hilbert, (2015), said that the
―digital divide is not simply a technological, but a social challenge, and the key question
of how to tackle it hinges on the context‐dependent issue of the expected social benefit
achieved by ICT. Since the potential applications of ICT are diverse, the strategies aimed
at tackling these diverse challenges must be diverse as well‖. The issue of social
inclusion, therefore, is becoming more and more an issue of e-inclusion3.

DiMaggio & Garip (2012) said: ―digital inequalities can reinforce existing social
inequalities and even exacerbate them because they carry over preexisting differences
in human capital into online settings‖. They further encountered that the research on
the possible consequences of digital inequalities has relied on two central
perspectives, namely race and ethnicity and stratification hypothesis hold that the
process of ICT adoption and use replicates existing social inequalities, as digitally

3
Analysis Activities – A Micro Data Computer Access To ... (n.d.). Retrieved from http://works
pace.unpan.org/sites/internet/documents/B00011%20Digital%20Divide%20 From%20Computer
%20Access%20to%20Online%20Activities%20%e2%80%93%20%20Micro%20Da

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mediated networks replicate offline social network structures and because offline
human capital carries over to the online world4.

Halford & Savage,(2010) in their research article discussed ―conceptual tools which
might allow an expanded sociological analysis of the relationship between
information and communication technology on the one hand and social inequalities on
the other‖. They explored the familiar idea of the 'digital divide' to develop a focus on
digital social disparities. However, some researchers used a gender perspective to
understand the technological complexities, and it is democratic availability and use.

Helsper, (2008), concluded the complexity of the issue and found four most
important types of social disadvantages, prominent to an individual‘s helplessness to
access and use of ICT facilities

1. Economically marginalised people, especially those are excluded from accessing

resources on the Internet, mainly financial as well as government services.

2. Lack of proper education also encounters while using education and learning
resources on the web.

3. The age is also an essential factor as an elder or retired have less probability of
getting benefitted from social applications of the Internet.

4. Overall having a disability decreases the opportunity of accessing the Internet.

Bradbrook & Fisher,( 2004) classification consists ―5 Cs‖ of digital inclusion- they
are (i) Connectivity ;the accessibility and consistency of Internet (ii) Capability;
digital skills of a person or in group level (iii) Content: language & proficiency (iv)
Confidence: personal efficiency and (v) Continuity; ICT has embedded as an
integral part of day to day life.

Warschauer, (2002), in his research paper, examined the concept of the digital divide
by introducing some challenging examples of community technology projects and
evaluated models of technology access. He argued that the idea provides an
inadequate structure for either analysis or policy, and suggests another concept of
technology for social inclusion and the goal of using ICT with marginalised groups is

4
10.1080/1369118X.2015.1012532

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 Chapter 2

not overcome to a digital divide, but rather to further a process of social inclusion.
The concept of social inclusion does not ignore the role of class but recognises ―5that
a broad array of other variables help shape how class forces interact‖.

2.3 Digital Gender Divide

The literature published in the last two decades draws attention that women are less
digitally proficient than men. Women are disadvantageous regarding learning
information communication technology or use mobile services for their well-being
and empowerment. Though the digital divide affects all ages across the world of
people, it is worst in case of women and created a second-order divide of the digital
gender divide. Gender and language are the two dominant perspectives to analyse
digital divide rigorously. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) in its report,
―Gender, Technology and the Future Work 2018‖, said globally, 11 per cent of
women were at risk of losing their jobs due to advances in computer technology,
while only four per cent of the male population faced the same risk.6 However, some
recent studies indicated ICT could be better tools for their active participation for the
betterment of their situation.

GSMA, (2018) conducted a study in 23 low and middle-income countries across

Asia, Africa and Latin America on the importance of ownership of mobile phone and
their uses. The study found, mobile phone as an emerging source of internet. There
are over five billion mobile users worldwide, and nearly 3.3 billion people are using
mobile internet. Key findings of the GSMA report were not very exciting from a
gender perspective, some highlights of the study have presented below -

(i) One hundred eighty-four million fewer (10% less likely) women own mobile
phones than men in low- and middle-income countries.

(ii) Women in South Asia are 26% less likely to own a mobile than men and 70%
less likely to use mobile internet as women are less aware of the mobile internet
in comparison to men.

5
Reconceptualizing The Digital Divide | Warschauer | First ... (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// first
monday.org/article/view/967/888
6
26m Women May Lose Jobs To Technology, Imf Warns - The ... (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://thenationonlineng.net/26m-women-may-lose-jobs-to-technology-imf-warns/

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(iii) There is a significant gender gap, particularly in uses of some transformational

services

(iv) Cost is the barrier in both cases but some other concerns in case of women like
safety, security, low digital literacy and literacy.

Shashi Bala & Puja, (2018), conducted a study with 591 respondents of the six
districts of the state of Uttar Pradesh and found that ―approximately 55 per cent of
women lack basic technical skills to use the internet which makes them uncomfortable
to use new internet technologies, and advantages of the digital world will remain out
of reach for them‖. They further argued that regardless of all the efforts by the
Government of India, women still fight with the inequality in the usage of these
information technologies, which leads to the spreading the gap of the ―digital divide.‖
The researchers advocated for the ―Gender Centric Policies‖ which could provide
easy access, availability and enough time to access and use of ICT.

Rai & Sharma (2018), presented their research article in an international conference
and brought the issue of gender divide to the forefront. They argue that ―technology
should have reduced the gender gap with positive social change, but the scenario does
not look promising. Mobile companies, owners of social and internet sites, banks and
governments must join hands to equip women with digital literacy. The picture at the
ground is alarming and get noticed by the policymakers, development agencies and
other concerned groups‖. As a reduction in the gender gap, represents a substantial
development opportunity for the government and others, mobile operators could also
bring the required changes in mobile ownership and mobile internet use with a
gender-sensitive approach.

Dixon et al., (2014), presents an optimistic scenario while stating that ―technology
empowers changes in society, so technology plays a role in the production of gender
by creating new possibilities of how gender roles might be perceived‖. Computer
users were initially males, but that gender gap began to change as more women in
diverse roles started using computers and online services, and by the late 2000s, the
gap between male and female users became insignificant.

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Hilbert, (2011), in his article, found some prejudices towards women and states;
however there are some prejudices that women are relatively technophobic, and men
are more digitally skilled, whereas women willingly squeeze digital communication.
Though his article, he puts this question to an empirical test. Moreover, the result of
the test was consistent and revealing. The reason for fewer women access and use ICT
is a direct outcome of their adverse circumstances with employment, education and
income. He further defined if the employment, education and income are favourable
women turn out to be more vigorous users of digital tools than men. It can change
assumed digital gender divide into an opportunity as digital technologies are tools that
can improve living conditions, ICT represents a real and concrete chance to hold long-
lasting challenges of gender disparities in developing countries, containing access to
employment, income, education and health services.

Steyaert & Gould, (2009), also observed and identified gender as one of the fault
lines and used to relate strongly to the digital divide. They acknowledged that ―Things
have greatly improved and gender is no longer a strong indicator of access to
technology. Men and women alike have similar levels of access to new technology,
such as mobile phones and internet connections. Nevertheless, there remains a
relationship between gender and the amount of time spent on the internet.‖

Cooper, Joel, (p. 6, 2003), found an active link of women‘s participation in computer
learning and their earning in the coming years. He states ―the absence of girls and
women from computer science classrooms prevents them from participating fully in
the new economy later on in life and precludes them from earning the high salaries
that sophisticated computer skills call forth in today‘s world‖. They also find that the
benefits and problems of single-sex education, giving detailed attention to how
splitting students by gender might affect the gender divide in technology (p.9).

Huyer & Sikoska, (2003), warns the negative impact of the gender digital divide and
emphasize on, ―better understanding of all aspects and manifestations of the gender
digital divide is essential in order to be able to prevent the adverse impact of the
current trends of access and use on women worldwide, as well as to enhance the
potential of ICTs to become an effective tool for women‘s empowerment‖. In

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continuation, they explained ―empowerment means to gain power over men or as a

process that enables women to gain access to decision-making processes and
instances of power. Increasingly though, empowerment tends to be viewed7‖.

2.4 Digital Divide in Higher Education

The absorption and acceptance of digital technologies have facilitated advancements

in the quality of and inclusion in the higher education sector. Though, a significant
section of the population has either persisted or become digitally excluded in the
institutions. It was observed that students in higher education find it difficult to
participate in special classes on information literacy as they lack a few critical digital
competencies.

Albert D. Ritzhaupt and Tina N. Hohlfeld,(p20, 2019) put the responsibilities on

the formal educational institutions such as school and universities as these institutes
are supposed to rectify the social inequalities and the digital divide. They further
identify (p21), digital divide as a new ―gap‖ in the educational system, that is
potentially more dangerous to our students, teachers, parents, administrators and
society at large.

Hohlfeld,(p33, 2019) commented that digital divide remains the significant problem,
not only for the education system but it also persistent issue for many communities in
the United States, because ICT has the potential to widen the gap between the ―haves‖
and ―have not‖ on the basis of seven dividing factors. Educational opportunity is the
best solution for the social disparity; therefore, they further suggest ― we must ensure
that we are not contributing to the problem and widening the gap‖. The formal
educational system could be a solution for the digital divide and could be a part of the
digital divide too.

Zapata & Rojas, (2014) consider computer literacy as a generic competence and
argue: ―computer literacy is a generic competence in the networked economy;
universities are an ideal space for observing the process of technological
appropriation and the elements that modulate the process‖.
7
Overcoming The Gender Digital Divide: Understanding Icts ... (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.
onlinewomeninpolitics.org/beijing12/2003_gender_ict.pdf

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Ching, Basham, & Jang, (2005) investigated the level of technology used by college
students and their digital exposure. They collected data from 130 students in the
colleges of education at two midwestern universities. In the analysis, they classified
students‘ uses of technology into three understandable categories, ―entertainment,
communication, and construction‖. Each element is essential to consider, and the high
levels of use across categories indicate a broad base of technical skills. In the study,
multiple regression results indicate that male student from higher family income
levels who had access to a computer at home, before age ten show significantly higher
levels of full-spectrum technology use than other demographic group members.

2.5 Digital Information Literacy and Librarians

Some research studies browsed in a specif context of digital information literacy and
libraries/librarians.

Fortner, Kitty,Normore, Anthony H., and Brooks, Jaffrey S.,( p.5,p.3 2019),
emphasised that disadvantaged students are usually those, who do not have access to
computer technology out of their schools. This disadvantage results in a digital divide
where the minority students and the poor living in urban areas get deprived of the core
skills in an increasingly competitive market of the 21st century. The digital divide
perspectives address issues, concerning the equal opportunity, equity and access and
speak directly to the adverse effect on the development of marginalised students in the
education system.

Albert D. Ritzhaupt and Tina N. Hohlfeld,(p33,34 2019) suggest that ICT literacy
programmes and assessment should align with the ultimate goal of the creation of
―original artefacts‖ as the target empowerment for ICT with teachers and students.
They further recommend that narrowing and closing of the digital divide require the
involvement at all level in the private sector as well as in the government sector.

Panda et al., (2013) mentioned that ―challenge of libraries in the context of the digital
divide is to be pro-active in bridging the digital divide. The researchers justify the
decisive role of library and information society and suggest that when polices get

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drafted or the policy decisions made about information technology, library

professionals should also be part of the committee.

West, (pp.32-33, 2011), adds to the role of the librarian. He states- librarians is to
make some decent selection decisions and give people an overview of their options
and then, let them choose. At the same time, we must remind people that even though
something is free, that does not mean it is either a ―must-have‖ or a ―must avoid.‖

There is a significant difference to be understood between an ebook, a piece of digital

content, and an ebook reader, which is the hardware tool that use to access the ebook.
West(2011) thinks that the Librarian can play an instrumental role in understanding
these differences to their users.

Haridasan & Khan (2009) presented the fact that ―Electronic resources are a
significant part of a library collection‘. A large number of resources should get
invested in the development and management of e-resources in the libraries. This
study aims to identify the acceptance of e-resources in the National Social Science
Documentation Centre (NASSDOC) library in New Delhi, India and determine their
usage, performance, the degree of user satisfaction, and barriers faced during the
access of e-resources. The researchers also attempt to find out the users' views about
computer literacy among social scientists8.

Nyamboga, (2004) highlights the training needs of library professionals on

information literacy. The scholar explains the available training opportunities for
library and information professionals in India with some examples describing - how a
section of Indian university libraries are providing information skills and information
literacy programmes for their users! He further stated that ―the need for training
students, researchers and staff to make appropriate use of available resources is
getting recognised‘. Library and information professionals also require periodic
professional development opportunities on information resources

Johnston & Webber, (2003), believe in digital literacy as a skill. A digital

information literate person must be competent to identify the required information and
8
Impact and Use Of E‐resources By Social Scientists In ... (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.
deepdyve.com/lp/emerald-publishing/impact-and-use-of-e-resources-by-

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will have the ability to trace, assess, and use that information efficiently in his
wellbeing. Information literacy has not jumped from nil; there are mainly two
dominant areas of information science and bibliographic/library science, which
creates the necessity of information literacy.

Peter,( 2003) emphasise on the role of national libraries in the society and reiterate -
“National libraries have a responsibility to see to it that their services reflect the needs
of the full spectrum of their society, means that the content provided in the digitised
form should be available in all the official languages of the country, and should be
relevant to minorities and disadvantaged groups, including the illiterate and newly
literate‖.

Turner,(2003), had given some valuable ideas and advocates for E-metrics in
libraries to alert the librarians and administrators to bridge the digital divide. The
researcher says: ―As libraries spend a larger percentage of their budget on electronic
resources, E-metrics may help administrators in justifying the increased budget
allocation for the additional resources, staff, and information technology
infrastructure‖.

Johnston & Webber, (2003) rightly said ―as regards the library skills training area,
we will flag up that there is ample literature. It consists of most of the briefcase
studies by librarians, who have been usefully helping library users to acquire library
skills for decades, and there are also examples of more conceptually advanced work‖.
In their paper, they have discussed the incorporation of information literacy in the
higher education curriculum.

2.6 Government Initiatives in India to Bridge the Gap of Digital Divide in

Higher Education:

University Grant Commission (UGC) record of 25th Septemeber 2018, gives a figure
of total 874 functional universities in India, in which 391 are the state universities, 47
are the central universities, 125 notified as deemed to be university and 311 are

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registered as private universities.9 Currently, In India, more than 20 million students

are enrolled in the higher education segment. The census 2011 of GoI, shows that the
total population of India is 1,210,854,97710 which is equal to the joint population of
USA, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, Indonesia and Brazil. In the last decade, the
growth in higher education in India has a remarkable advancement. The given chart
reflects on the achievements-

Table 2.1: Growth in Universities and Colleges in India (2008-2018)

Institutions 200811 2018 Increase in no. Increase in %
State Universities 228 391 163 71.5%
Central Universities 25 47 22 88%
Deemed to be Universities 103 125 22 21%
Private Universities 14 311 297 2121%
Total 370 874 504 136%
42338 as on
Colleges 23206 19132 82%
31/03/201712

Data Source: UGC

Ministry of Human Resource and Development (MHRD) of the Government of India

has taken lots of initiatives( eShodh Sindhu, Shodhganga, National Knowledge
Network) to promote the digital literacy and bridge the gap of the digital divide in
India, especially in higher education. Details of a few initiatives are present in the
following section.

2.6.1 eShodhSindhu

eShodh Sindhu is an initiative of MHRD, Government of India and being executed by

INFLIBNET centre. MHRD has formed e-ShodhSindhu absorption of their previous
three consortia initiatives, namely UGC-INFONET Digital Library Consortium,
NLIST and INDEST-AICTE Consortium13. The primary objective of the e-
ShodhSindu: Consortia for Higher Education E-Resources is to provide access to

9
https://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/consolidated%20list%20of%20All%20universities.pdf
10
https://www.census2011.co.in/
11
https://www.dreducation.com/2017/06/indian-universities-colleges-latest-data-statistics-heera-
aicte-ugc.html
12
https://www.ugc.ac.in/pdfnews/9764381_Complete-AR-2016-17-English.pdf
13
https://www.inflibnet.ac.in/ess/about.php

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qualitative electronic resources including full-text, bibliographic and factual databases

to academic institutions at a lower rate of subscription.

The main objectives of the e-ShodhSindhu are to bridge the gap of the digital divide
in higher education and move towards an information-rich society along with the
creation of consortia of e-resources, monitoring and promoting these resources in
member universities and develop a National Electronic Library with electronic-
journals as well as electronic books.

2.6.2 Shodhganga

Theses and dissertations are recognised to be an independent and abundant source of

information. "Shodhganga" is the name coined to denote digital repository of Indian
Electronic Theses and Dissertations set-up by the INFLIBNET Centre. Shodhganga
provides a platform for research scholars to deposit their PhD theses and make it
available to the entire scholarly community in open access. The repository can
capture, index, store, disseminate and preserve ETDs (Electronic Theses and
Dissertations) submitted by the researchers14. At present total 406 universities has
signed MOU ((memorandum of understanding) with Shodhganga, while 355
universities are contributing with 207158 full-text thesis and 5050 synopses.

Source: shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in
Figure 2.2: Year wise growth of Shodhganga

14
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/

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2.6.3 National Mission on Education through Information and Communication

Technology

The basic principles of education policy of India are equity, access and quality and the
objective of the mission is to provide connectivity to all colleges and universities and
providing low cost and affordable access-cum-computing devices and high-quality e-
content free of cost to all the teachers and students in the country. NMEICT seeks to
―bridge the digital divide, i.e. the gap in the skills to use computing devices for the
purpose of teaching and learning among urban and rural teachers/learners in Higher
Education domain and empower those, who have hitherto remained untouched by the
digital revolution and have not been able to join the mainstream of the knowledge
economy‖15.

MHRD, (2016) The policy document(MHRD,2016) states that ―for bridging the
digital divide and empowering teachers /learners to harness information and
communication technologies for their empowerment through knowledge, the need of
the hour is to provide digital literacy16 to the teaching-learning community in Higher
Education. The aim has to be that this community should be able to operate the
computer or other devices and connect to the knowledge network‖.

2.6.4 National Knowledge Network

National Knowledge Network (NKN) venture started with an objective of building up a

stable and robust Indian system which will be fit for giving secure and reliable
accessibility. Comprehensively, boondocks research and advancement are moving towards
multidisciplinary and cooperative worldview and require generous correspondence and
computational power. In India, NKN, with its multi-gigabit ability, expects to interface all
colleges, examine establishments, libraries, research centres, human services and farming
organisations the nation over to address such a change in outlook17.

15
Technology Enabled Learning | Government Of India ... (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://mhrd.gov.in/technology-enabled-learning-0
16
Nme Ict Missiondocument - [pdf Document]. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://vdocuments.site/nme-
ict-missiondocument.html
17
http://nkn.gov.in/home

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 Chapter 2

2.6.5 Sakshat: Leverage of Powers of ICT in Higher Education

Sakshat is a repository of e-contents in higher education in India. It is an initiative of

MHRD where the list of e-content repositories is available on Sakshat portal18.

2.6.5.1 Consortium for Educational Communication (CEC)

The Consortium for Educational Communication is commonly known as CEC and set
up by the University Grants Commission (UGC) of India in 1993. At present, there
are 21 media centres in six universities working under the umbrella of CEC. These
media centres addressing the needs of higher education through the appropriate use of
Information Communication Technology.

One of the main objectives of CEC is Dissemination of Educational programmes

through broadcast as well as non-broadcast modes. CEC provides a forum to involve
scholars in the creation of appropriate contents and to promoting and experimenting
with a new technology which will enhance the efficiency of scholarly
communication. 19

2.6.5.1.1 e-PG Pathshala

e-PG Pathshala is an initiative of the MHRD under its National Mission on Education
through ICT (NME-ICT) has executed by the UGC. The content is curriculum-based
high in quality, interactive e-contents in 70 subjects covering all the disciplines. The
high quality e-contents +23000, more than 23000 videos, +500 subject experts are an
essential part of the education system in this digital era.20

2.6.5.1.2 National programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

NPTEL is a project funded by the MHRD, Government of India,21 of which the main
objective is ―Learn Free, Anyone, Anytime, Anywhere‖. This initiative has supported
by the seven Indian Institute of Technology( IITs) Delhi, Kharagpur, Chennai,
Kanpur, Mumbai, Guwahati and Roorkee in a partnership of Indian Institute of

18
http://www.sakshat.ac.in/
19
http://cec.nic.in/Pages/About-CEC.aspx
20
http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/
21
What Is Nptel And What Are The Courses Offered By Them? (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://mechanicalstudents.com/nptel/

36
 Chapter 2

Sciences (IISc) Bengaluru since 2003. Currently, 270 online courses are open for
enrolment in various disciplines, and mechanisms have been established with no
exam, open to all without any admission criteria, and free enrolment and the
certification will be done by the IITs and IISc. The statistics of NPTEL (from March
2014 up to April 2018) tells,about the completion of the course by 740 students and
enrollment has been done by 3.6 million people across courses, and 2.7 million
students have opted exam and got the registration done.22

2.6.5.1.3 Spoken Tutorial

The Spoken Tutorial project is the initiative of the ‗Talk to a Teacher‘ activity of the
National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology
(ICT), launched by the Ministry of Human Resources and Development, Government of
India. IIT Bombay is developing this project for MHRD; it is a community site, where
anyone having a relevant video or tutorial content can do the uploading. The primary
objective of this project is to promote IT literacy through Open Source Software. The
Spoken Tutorial team is attempting to translate the uploaded videos in different languages
as language appears one of the primary cause of the digital divide.23

2.6.5.1.4 Talk to a Teacher: Corridors of Learning

Talk to a Teacher provided three platforms to Indian students i) Research scope:

which is a lecture series of PhD students of IIT Bombay. The motto of Research scope
is too make students aware of the area of research accomplished at IIT Bombay.
Anyone can browse the research scholars‘ presentation at any time and from any
location. ii) Courses on View: it has comprised of recordings of courses taught by
faculty in the classrooms at IIT Bombay.

Ask a Question: It is a question and answers series, where a panel of IIT Bombay
faculty members, clarify the conceptual doubts in the field of Engineering &
Science.24

22
https://nptel.ac.in/media/pdf/nptel_2018_booklet.pdf
23
https://spoken-tutorial.org/
24
https://co-learn.in/

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 Chapter 2

2.6.6 Sugamya Pustakalaya

―Sugamaya Pustakalaya‖ is an online platform that makes accessible content available

to print-disabled people. The library houses, publications on diverse subjects and
languages and multiple accessible formats.25 It has created by the Department of
Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (Divyangjan), Ministry of Social Justice
and Empowerment in collaboration with member organisations of Daisy Forum of
India and powered by TCS Access.26

2.6.7 Swayam: A platform for Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

SWAYAM is a Government of India‘s programme designed to realise the three

fundamental values of Education Policy viz., access, equity and quality. The target of this
effort is to make available the most uncomplicated teaching-learning resources to all
and the foremost underprivileged. SWAYAM pursues to bridge the digital divide for the
students who have yet remained untouched by the digital revolution and have
not been able to be part of the thought of the digital economy. Swayam assists ―holding of
all the courses, taught in classrooms from 9th class till post-graduation to be accessed by
anyone, anywhere at any time‖27. The courses facilitated on SWAYAM are in four
dimensions – (1) video, (2) mainly prepared composed dialect can get downloaded/printed
(3) self-appraisal tests and (4) a web forum for responding the questions.

In order to ensure that most eminent quality substance is made and conveyed, 9
National Coordinators have delegated with specif responsibilities. These coordinators
are, AICTE for self-managed and universal courses, NPTEL for designing, UGC for
non-specialized post-graduation instruction, CEC for undergrad training, NCERT
and NIOS for school training, IGNOU for out of the varsity understudies, IIMB for
administration studies and NITTTR for Teacher training programme.

2.6.8 Learning Management System (LMS)

Learning Management System (LMS) is an administrative, documentation, tracking,

reporting and delivery of electronic courses (e-learning) and training programmes

25
Services | Digital India Programmeme. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.digitalindia.gov.in/rural
26
https://library.daisyindia.org/NALP/welcomeLink.action
27
https://swayam.gov.in

38
 Chapter 2

software application of Government of India. LMS is a capacity-building tool; an

efficient administration of e-learning can get done through the tool. LMS helps in
training of various government officials working at the centre and with the states/union
territories. The tool has the objective of enhancing knowledge and skills of users as per
their roles envisaged in the e-Governance Competency Framework (eGCF).28

2.6.9 National Digital Library of India ( NDL India)

Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) has initiated the National Digital
Library of India (NDL India), under the National Mission on Education through
Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT). The NDL coordinated by
the IIT Kharagpur. This pilot project was launched in May 2016 to develop a structure
of ―virtual repository of learning resources with a single-window search facility‖.
Presently NDL is hosting more than 10 million publications authored by three lakhs
authors. NDL India is intended to ―hold the content of any language and provides
interface support for leading Indian languages‖. The objective of NDL is to ―provide
support for all academic levels including researchers and life-long learners, all
disciplines, all popular form of access devices and differently-abled learners‖.29

2.7 International Organisations Initiatives

UNESCO had endorsed the IFLA(International Federation of Library Associations)

manifesto for Digital Libraries in its General Conference of 201130. ―The Manifesto
provides principles to assist libraries in undertaking sustainable and interoperable
digitisation activities to bridge the digital divide - a key factor in achieving the
Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations. Digital libraries are essential for
access to information, and for preserving national heritage‖ (Ifla & Unesco, 2010).

2.8 Digital Language Divide

The former South African national leader Nelson Mandela once said on occasion, ―If
you talk to a person in a language which he understands, that goes to his head but if
you talk him in his language that goes to his heart.‖ The web has to take a hint from
28
https://lms.negd.in
29
NDL India:retrived from https://ndl.iitkgp.ac.in/
30
Unesco Endorses The Ifla Manifesto For Digital Libraries. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.ifla.org/news/unesco-endorses-the-ifla-manifesto-for-digital-librari

39
 Chapter 2

this quote as per World Economic Forum (2018) data in the year 2017 Hindi was the
fifth most spoken language (260 million people) whereas English is the third (372
million) succeeded by top two spoken languages in the world Spanish (437 million)
and Chinese (1284 million) respectively. The language which dominates most the
internet is English with 52.9 per cent existence whereas Hindi, Arabic and other
languages except European and Chinese comes under 12.7 per cent dominance of
language over the internet.

Figure 2.3: Source: Times of India, World (15 Dec 2018)

For native English speakers, there is not much distinction between real-world and on-
line life. Since over half of the online contents are in their language, but those that
cannot speak or perceive English, a lot of the online services and resources are out of
their reach which creates a so-called digital divide that may restrict to access data and
information31.

31
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/lack-of-language-diversity-reason-for-a-digital-divide/
articleshow/67105369.cms

40
 Chapter 2

India is a country where culture, socioeconomic profile and language vary from
region to region, only in the capital city of India, four official languages are in
practice, and English works as a connector to all other languages. As per Census of
India 2011, India has mainly 122 languages, 9932 vernacular languages or non-
scheduled languages. The 8th Schedule (p.330) of Constitution of India33 includes 22
Indian languages along with English a non-scheduled as an official language. The
potential ICT users belong to the heterogeneous group of which, many are illiterate.
More than 80% of contents available online are in English, so in India, apart from
infrastructure, literacy, digital skills appearing as a barrier, language is the main
bottleneck in accessing information communication technology.

Yaman, (2015) acknowledges that English has considered as the most common
language under the frame of computers and the internet. In these days, access to the
internet is the most vital indicator for the digital divide, and the language issue
emerges more significantly on this fact. He further states, ―It can get gathered from
both types of research that English has an overwhelming rule in the realm of the
internet. Where non-speakers of English have a somewhat narrow space in the digital
world, and they are missing in a necessary condition that they learn English and only
then get access to the immeasurable aids provided by the internet‖.

Skaletsky, (2013), in her study, finds the language gap as a dominant variable in
creating a digital divide. The researcher explains, ―there is also a language divide
among those who have access to the Internet. Many Russian internet users have never
gone beyond the Russian-language sites and are limited in the information they can
obtain‖ She further explained that ―lack of knowledge of the English language is as
one of the obstacles in the use of the Internet for Russian people‖.

Burbules, Callister, & Taaffe, (2006) in their essay, discussed the alliterative
language of the ―digital divide‖. They said- language remains to lead the dialogue
of access to information and communication technologies and their significance
for educational, employment, and other life prospects.

32
http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf
33
The Constitution of India, schedules: retrived from https://www.india.gov.in/sites/upload_
files/npi/files/coi-eng-schedules_1-12.pdf

41
 Chapter 2

Brooks, Donovan, & Rumble, (2006), reflect on inadequate funding and explain that
the ―digital divide affects many nations of the developing world. The term
encompasses inadequate funding, a lack of necessary computer and Internet skills,
and a lack of English-language proficiency that hinder expansion and use of digital
information resources‖.

2.9 Recent Studies in Higher Education

During the process of literature review, the researcher has gone through the
Shodhganga portal and found there are only seven doctoral studies available in the
theme of the digital divide from varied disciplines. These studies are from disciplines
such as Political Science, Sociology, Business Administration, Economics, and
computer science. The researcher could not get a single study done in the field of
Library and Information Science across the universities in India. The details of some
of the studies done on the broader themes of the Digital Divide have mentioned
below–

2.9.1 Title: A Study on Digital Divide and Its Measures Issues Perspectives and
Models
Researcher: Nilanjana Chakrabarty
University: Assam University, 2016

The objectives of the study were to do an in-depth analysis of the digital divide with
the use of composite indicators methodology and software for quantification of the
digital divide.

Chakrabarty, (2016) concluded in the doctoral thesis that ―most of the policy
decisions in information society research conducted by various international bodies
such as World Bank, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), are based on the composite
indicators, so her study provides a meaningful platform in measuring the digital
divide in Asian countries‖.

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 Chapter 2

2.9.2 Title: Telecommunication Development, Digital Divide And Economic

Growth In India
Researcher: Kawaljeet Kaur, Economics
Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar, 2015

Kaur, (2015) measured inter-state digital divide and changes therein over the time in
her study and which was the principal objective of her study. She analysed the inter-
state socioeconomic determinants of telecommunication development in India as well
as examined the trend of FDI in telecommunication sector and their relationship with
economic growth. She also measured the ICT diffusion and digital divide in India and
analysed telecom policies of India and Government‘s initiatives e-governance to
bridge the gap of the digital divide in India.

The significant findings of her study are -

 Access to mobile telecommunications is undoubtedly not the only thing that is

required to boost economic growth
 In the case of telecom equipment manufacturing, India is still dependent on
imports.
 Telecom sector can play a crucial role in the lack of quality health care, and
education and non-availability of banking to masses have been significant
hurdles in achieving inclusive growth of the country.
 The government needs to invest in rural and economically weaker areas where
the potential for growth can get realised by providing broadband connectivity

2.9.3 Title: An Assessment Of Bridging The Digital Divide Through Akshaya

Telecentres In Kerala
Researcher: SANGEETHA P V
University: Anna University, 2015
Sangeetha, (2015) worked with following three research objectives34 – i) to assess the
impact of Akshaya telecentres on their users. ii) to analyse the dynamics of the public-

34
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/141344/9/09_chapter%201.pdf

43
 Chapter 2

private synergy of Akshaya telecentres. iii) to find the challenges faced by Akshaya
telecentres. She found in her study that ―Akshaya telecentres in Kerala are not away
from the socio-cultural, economic, institutional, gender-related and service-oriented
challenges. The services based on the needs of the community such as e-certificates
and e-tax payment facilities may get implemented for the effective use of Akshaya
telecentres in Thrissur district.‖

2.9.4 Title: Digital Divide: A Sociological Analysis

Researcher: Mohammad Swalehin
University: Aligarh Muslim University, 2010

Swalehin, (2010) objectives of his study were to focus on the differential access to
resources in general and adequately defining the digital revolution and how the
society as a whole is entering the Information age. The researcher summarised his
study that ―digital divide is, an outcome, an echo of broader, prevailing
socioeconomic disparities that can be categorized by inadequate infrastructure, high
cost of access, inappropriate or weak policy regimens, incompetence in the provision
of telecommunication networks and services, lack of locally created content, and
uneven ability to derive economic and social benefits from information-intensive
activities‖

2.9.5 Title: Internet And The Digital Divide In India: A Case Study of Dhar35
Researcher: Deepak Kumar
University: Jawaharlal Nehru University, 2004

D. Kumar, (2004) the main objective of this study was to know whom the ones are
using the technology, for what purpose are they using it, how they are using it and
where. Also who are left out and who are losing out concerning Internet usage. The
significant findings of this study explain that ―rural-urban divide is one foremost

35
Shodhganga@inflibnet: Internet And The Digital Divide In ... (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2018
from http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/jspui/handle/10603/16692

44
 Chapter 2

encounter that it needs to address, problems of caste, class, and gender divide is even
tougher to handle while gender is the second most crucial challenge against a smooth
uniform dispersion of Net technology because women were on the margins of social
life of the village‖. He also explained that the ―class dimension of the digital divide,
however, was much weaker compared to the caste and gender dimension‖.

2.10 Conclusion

During the last decades, the struggle was to focus on access to technology as a means
to bridge the digital divide, and a substantial chunk of the population got connected
with the internet. Inequities exist as over half the world population, still does not
poses internet access, and these are the deprived people living in the developing
countries, industrialised countries and in the least developing countries (LDC). In
India, in recent years, government initiatives at policy and programme levels and
through the e-Governance highlighted the significance of digital literacy. The
government of India has started a range of programmes and created various platforms
(such as Sakshat, Swayam, eShodhSindhu, ePGpathshala, National Digital Library of
India) to promote digital literacy in the higher education sector. While reviewing the
literature, it became apparent that the digital divide is a real challenge, not only in
India but across the world. The other related factors such as low literacy, lack of
infrastructure, poor language skills, lack of awareness, digital incompetence, gender
disparity do exist in other countries also. If we examine the challenges of the digital
divide in higher education, it is self-evident that the librarian can play a critical role in
bridging the gap through the extensive information literacy programme. Even the
users often do not know what resources are available in the library and how to make
best use of those resources? Most of the earlier research studies emphasised on the
crucial role of government as the government can provide free access to the resources.
Librarians can empower their users by providing them with a hassle-free platform and
efficiency to use the vast resources efficiently. While reviewing the literature,
research gets familiar with the few studies done in a broader context of the digital
divide. The researcher could not get any current study on the digital divide in higher
education from a perspective of library and information science. The present study
would be a significant contribution to the world of knowledge in general and library
science in particular.

45