actuators
Article
Mechanical Design and Performance Analyses of a
Rubber-Based Peristaltic Micro-Dosing Pump
Thomas Zehetbauer 1, *, Andreas Plöckinger 1 , Carina Emminger 2






Citation: Zehetbauer, T.; Plöckinger,
A.; Emminger, C.; Çakmak, U.D.
Mechanical Design and Performance
Analyses of a Rubber-Based
Peristaltic Micro-Dosing Pump.
Actuators 2021, 10, 198. https://
doi.org/10.3390/act10080198
Academic Editor: Andrea Vacca
Received: 20 July 2021
Accepted: 17 August 2021
Published: 19 August 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Actuators 2021, 10, 198. https://doi.org/10.3390/act10080198
and Umut D. Çakmak 2, *
1 Linz Center of Mechatronics GmbH (LCM), Altenbergerstrasse 69, 4040 Linz, Austria;
andreas.ploeckinger@lcm.at
2 Institute of Polymer Product Engineering, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstrasse 69,
4040 Linz, Austria; carina.emminger@jku.at
* Correspondence: thomas.zehetbauer@lcm.at (T.Z.); umut.cakmak@jku.at (U.D.Ç.)
Abstract: Low pressure fluid transport (1) applications often require low and precise volumetric
flow rates (2) including low leakage to reduce additional costly and complex sensors. A peristaltic
pump design (3) was realized, with the fluid’s flexible transport channel formed by a solid cavity
and a wobbling plate comprising a rigid and a soft layer (4). In operation, the wobbling plate is
driven externally by an electric motor, hence, the soft layer is contracted and unloaded (5) during
pump-cycles transporting fluid from low to high pressure sides. A thorough characterization of the
pump system is required to design and dimension the components of the peristaltic pump. To capture
all these parameters and their dependencies on various operation-states, often complex and long-
lasting dynamic 3D FE-simulations are required. We present, here, a holistic design methodology
(6) including analytical as well as numerical calculations, and experimental validations for a peristaltic
pump with certain specifications of flow-rate range, maximum pressures, and temperatures. An
experimental material selection process is established and material data of candidate materials
(7) (liquid silicone rubber, acrylonitrile rubber, thermoplastic-elastomer) are directly applied to
predict the required drive torque. For the prediction, a semi-physical, analytical model was derived
and validated by characterizing the pump prototype.
Keywords: hydraulic pump; micro-dosing; peristaltic; hyper-elasticity; viscoelasticity; holistic design
methodology; elastomer compound
1. Introduction
Pumps have a broad field of application and can be considered as energy transducers,
converting primary kinetic energy (e.g., linear, or rotational motion of a rigid body) to
hydrodynamic energy [1]. A simplified view on the technical side of a pump reduces it
into three main components which describe the operation principle [hydraulic pump very
abstracted]: housing with fluid in- and outlet port, moving component(s) and transmission
gear to drive the moved part via the primary energy source. Based on the operation
principle hydraulic pumps, beside some exceptions like “the hydraulic ram” [2] which
uses the water hammer effect [3] as primary energy source, can be categorized into two
main groups, namely centrifugal pumps [4] and (positive) displacement pumps. Schmitz
and Murrenhoff [5] gives a good overview of hydraulics in general. Centrifugal pumps
have an open fluid connection from in- to outlet port, the impeller accelerates the fluid
due to its rotational movement which causes centripetal forces (actio); in other words: the
fluid is moved due to its centrifugal force caused by the impeller (reactio). In contrast to
that, the in- and outlet ports of displacement pumps are disconnected by a sealing which is
considered as “leak-free” flow, so the fluid volume “the displacement” is encapsulated and
transported by the motion per turn. Some pumps of this kind have multi-sectioned and
even parallel, and phase shifted displacement to smooth the flow rate and, consequently,
reduce pulsations. The most common types of displacement pumps are gear pumps, screw
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 and even parallel, and phase shifted displacement to smooth the flow rate and, c
quently, reduce pulsations. The most common types of displacement pumps are
Actuators 2021, 10, 198
pumps, screw pumps, rotary vane pumps, as well as piston pumps, which 2 of 28
can furth
divided into axial and radial piston pumps [6,7] and, finally, peristaltic pumps [8]. E
for peristaltic pumps, these displacement pumps have several features in common
dynamic
pumps, rotary vanesealings,
pumps, as which
well as enclose
pistonthe displacement,
pumps, which canare usually
further not intended
be divided into to be
of softpiston
axial and radial materials
pumps and,[6,7]therefore,
and, finally, consist of long
peristaltic pumpsand [8].
tight sealing
Except for gaps. Consequent
peristaltic
pumps, these displacement
acceptable amount pumps have several
of leakage occurs. features
Lowerinleakage
common. The dynamic
requires sealings,
more precise manufact
which enclose
and the displacement,
is expensive. Theare usually
fact that suchnot intended
pumps mainlyto be made of soft
consist materials
of rigid and,
components wit
therefore, nificantly
consist of higher
long and tight sealing gaps. Consequently, an acceptable
strength than soft materials, higher maximum pressures (p > 21 MP amount of
leakage occurs. Lower leakage
be withstood compared requires more precise
to peristaltic manufacturing and is expensive. The
pumps.
fact that such pumps mainly consist of rigid components
Other research activities pursue the application with significantly
of smarthigher strength
(soft) electroactive
than soft materials, higher maximum pressures (p > 21 MPa) can be withstood compared
rials [9,10] in peristaltic pumps. Furthermore, the combination of (micro)pumps with
to peristaltic pumps.
sensors is shown by Jenke et al. [11] and others to ensure closed loop controlled m
Other research activities pursue the application of smart (soft) electroactive mate-
dosing. However, the degree of complexity is increasing by the implementation
rials [9,10] in peristaltic pumps. Furthermore, the combination of (micro)pumps with
flow sensorsadditional
is shown sensors.
by Jenke et al. [11] and others to ensure closed loop controlled
micro-dosing. However,was
Our aim to build
the degree of acomplexity
cost-effective and backflow-free
is increasing (safety valveoffunction)
by the implementation
transport
the additional sensors.system which can handle pressure ranges from nearly 0 MPa to 1 MPa
accurate
Our aim was tobut variable
build flow rates.
a cost-effective andFurthermore,
backflow-free it (safety
must withstand the dry
valve function) operation
fluid
transport and
systemalsowhich
negative pressures
can handle (relative
pressure to atmospheric
ranges from nearly pressure).
0 MPa to 1For MPathese
withspecifica
accurate butthevariable
most appropriate
flow rates. system
Furthermore,is the it
peristaltic pump. the
must withstand However, some unfavourable
dry operation mode
and also negative
like lowpressures
durability (relative to atmospheric
or pulsation pressure).[8]
are well-known Forand
these specifications,
must be addressed the in the d
most appropriate
opmentsystem is the peristaltic
of peristaltic micro-dosing pump.pumps.
However, some unfavourable issues like
low durability or pulsation
Figure are well-known
1 shows [8] and must
the main principle be addressed
components in the development
of a peristaltic pump with thre
of peristaltic micro-dosing pumps.
ers including a cross-section of it. The main problems include pulsations caused b
Figure 1 shows of
continuity thedisplacement
main principle percomponents
turn as well of a peristaltic
as durability pump with
limitations andthree
dynamic th
rollers including a cross-section of it. The main problems include pulsations caused by
mechanical behaviour of the wobbling plate’s soft material [12–14], among others. S
discontinuity of displacement per turn as well as durability limitations and dynamic ther-
problems can be related to the pump concept itself and the undesirable behaviou
momechanical behaviour of the wobbling plate’s soft material [12–14], among others. So,
(strength, aging, creep, relaxation, etc.) of the soft material. On the one hand the ben
the problems can be related to the pump concept itself and the undesirable behaviour [15]
(strength, the hyper-elastic
aging, behaviour
creep, relaxation, etc.) ofisthe
thesoft
conformity,
material. On flexibility, and the
the one hand the benefit
tight dynamic
of se
capability [16]. On the other hand, this soft (elastomeric)
the hyper-elastic behaviour is the conformity, flexibility, and the tight dynamic sealing capa- material will be adiaba
bility [16].heated by thehand,
On the other pump thismotion and accelerate
soft (elastomeric) thewill
material material’s aging. Standard
be adiabatically heated bytubes of
the pump monmotion peristaltic pumps
and accelerate theare pushedaging.
material’s by one or moretubes
Standard rotating rollersperistaltic
of common to encapsulate th
pumps are pushed by one or more rotating rollers to encapsulate the displacement on
placement (fluid) into one or more segments (Figure 1). Depending the design
(fluid)
into one orsqueezing leads to
more segments high 1).
(Figure deformations
Depending and on theunbalanced
design, such contact-pressures.
squeezing leads to Due to zo
high deformations
high inner and unbalanced
stresses, contact-pressures.
especially on kinks (i.e.,Due to zones
highly of high
deformed inner stresses,
contact regions), the ma
especially will
on kinks (i.e., highly
embrittle over timedeformed contact regions),
and, ultimately, leading thetomaterial will embrittle
total failure of the pump.over To over
time and, ultimately, leading to total failure of the pump. To overcome these,
these, in this article the main objective was to present a new mechanical design app in this article
the main objective was to present
of a rubber-based fluid apump new mechanical design approach
including prototyping of a rubber-based
and validation.
fluid pump including prototyping and validation.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. FlexibleFigure
tube based peristaltic
1. Flexible pump
tube based principle
peristaltic withprinciple
pump 3 rollers;with
(a) 3cross-section of the pump
rollers; (a) cross-section in frontal-view;
of the pump (b
cross-section of the pump in side-view.
in frontal-view; (b) cross-section of the pump in side-view.
 2. Design Concept and Challenges
Figure 2 shows the workflow of the design methodology. The methodology com-
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 prises the mechanical design of the peristaltic micro-dosing pump, the material selection 3 of 28
approach of the wobbling plate’s soft layer and the optimization of the whole pump sys-
tem. It is an interwoven approach including analytical as well as numerical calculations
and2. experimental
Design Concept and Challenges
validations.
Figure
With our2methodology,
shows the workflow of the design
long-lasting methodology.
FE-calculations The methodology
to compute comprises
a functioning pump
the mechanical design of the peristaltic micro-dosing pump, the material selection
geometry at the maximum drive conditions (torque) are avoided to analyse leak-free approach
fluid
of the wobbling
transport plate’s
at pressure softfrom
levels layer0 and
MPatheto optimization of the whole
1 MPa. Furthermore, pump operation
it enables system. It at
is an interwoven
variable approachtoincluding
flow rates (µL/min mL/min) analytical
as well as as well as numerical calculations
service-temperatures (0 °C–60 °C).and
experimental validations.

Figure 2. V-model of the peristaltic micro-dosing pump.

Figure 2. V-model
With of the peristaltic
our methodology, micro-dosing
long-lasting pump.
FE-calculations to compute a functioning pump
geometry at the maximum drive conditions (torque) are avoided to analyse leak-free fluid
2.1.transport
Mechanical Design levels from 0 MPa to 1 MPa. Furthermore, it enables operation at
at pressure
variable ◦ C).
Figureflow rates the
3 shows (µL/min to mL/min)
mechanical designasand
wella as service-temperatures
prototype (0–60micro-dosing
of the peristaltic
pump system. The pump concept has a mostly constant displacement, enclosed by the
2.1. Mechanical Design
pump cavity and the moving dynamic wobbling plate, which transports the fluid through
Figure 3channel.
the provided shows theThemechanical
flow ratedesign
can beand a prototype
varied of the
by setting theperistaltic
wobble turnmicro-dosing
speed ap-
pump system. The pump concept has a mostly constant displacement, enclosed
propriately. As primary pump systems drive, we chose a slightly oversized electronic by the
pump cavity and the moving dynamic wobbling plate, which transports the fluid through
commutated brushless direct current motor [17] due to the off-the-shelf availability and
the provided channel. The flow rate can be varied by setting the wobble turn speed
the good controllability.
appropriately. As primary pump systems drive, we chose a slightly oversized electronic
The design of the pump system was a result of an easy way to adjust the dynamic
commutated brushless direct current motor [17] due to the off-the-shelf availability and
sealing pressure
the good by altering the distance of the two subassemblies, namely the pump and
controllability.
drive part.
The design of the pump system was a result of an easy way to adjust the dynamic
sealing pressure by altering the distance of the two subassemblies, namely the pump and
drive part.
For the mechanical design of the peristaltic pumps’ primary drive, the estimation
of the drive’s torque in relation to the established sealing pressure within the cavity is of
particular importance. Here, the wobbling plate is made of a rigid and a soft layer (rubber)
and, hence, the sealing pressure is mainly determined by the material behaviour of the
soft layer.
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 29
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 4 of 28

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Design
Design of
ofthe
themicro-dosing
micro-dosing pump,
pump, pump
pump itself
itself (1),
(1), primary
primary drive
drive with
with transmission
transmission gear
gear (2)
(2) and
and the
the non-rotating
non-rotating
wobble plate (3) with the soft material layer on top which forms the cavity together with the housing; (a) Cross-section
wobble plate (3) with the soft material layer on top which forms the cavity together with the housing; (a) Cross-section view
view of the schematic illustration; (b) detailed cross-section of the rubber (4) and cavity; (c) picture of the prototype.
of the schematic illustration; (b) detailed cross-section of the rubber (4) and cavity; (c) picture of the prototype.

2.1.1.For the mechanical

FE-Calculations anddesign
Designof the peristaltic pumps’ primary drive, the estimation of
Hypothesis
the drive’s torque in relation to the established sealing pressure within the cavity is of
For the geometric design, Abaqus [18] was used to calculate material stresses and
particular importance. Here, the wobbling plate is made of a rigid and a soft layer (rubber)
deformations. The main observed operating points are those in extreme conditions, which
and, hence, the sealing pressure is mainly determined by the material behaviour of the
must be tolerated by the materials. The general pump design was simulated as a 2D
soft layer.
axis-symmetric model. The steps were primarily set as dynamic-implicit (quasi-static)
without fluid dynamics but with pressures on the sealing boundary zones. In the first step,
2.1.1. FE-Calculations and Design Hypothesis
the mounting process was simulated. Therefore, the basic pump housing was fixed, and
For the
the other partsgeometric design, Abaqus
(y-axisymmetric) [18] was used
were moveable to calculate
in y-direction and material
fixed instresses and
x-direction.
deformations. The main observed operating points are those in
The prestress-rings were now brought into its final positions. In the further Steps the extreme conditions, which
must be tolerated
boundary conditionsby thewere materials.
applied The general
(rising with pump
step time)design
from waszero simulated as a 2D
to its nominal axis-
values.
symmetric
On each step, model.oneThe steps
of the were primarily
boundary conditionsset as dynamic-implicit
was changed. Its limits (quasi-static)
were maximumwithout
fluid dynamics pressures
and minimum but with pressures
(minimumon0 MPa, the sealing
nominal boundary
1 MPa in zones.
operatingIn thecondition,
first step, andthe
mounting
maximumprocesspressurewas of 3simulated. Therefore, the
MPa in none-operating basicstate
pump pump forhousing was fixed,
safety reasons) andandwobblethe
other parts (y-axisymmetric) were moveable in y-direction
angles (which results in a maximum of 0.5 mm and minimum of 0 mm in y-deformation of and fixed in x-direction. The
prestress-rings
the rubber) were now brought into its final positions. In the further Steps the boundary
conditions
The softwere applied
material was (rising with step
modelled withtime)
isotropicfromand zero to its nominal
hyper-elastic viavalues. On each
Mooney–Rivlin
step, one of the
constitutive boundary
behaviour conditions
at certain was changed.
temperatures Its limits were
and frequencies. maximum
For faster and moreand stable
mini-
mum pressures
simulation (minimum
results 0 MPa, were
the step-types nominal set 1asMPa in operating
dynamic, implicit condition, and maximum
with adiabatic heating
pressure
effects. Dueof 3 toMPa in deformation
large none-operating pump
of the statethe
rubber, for nonlinear
safety reasons)geometric and wobble
functionangles
is en-
(which results in
abled. Several a maximum
mesh sizes andofelements
0.5 mm and wereminimum
tested in of 0 mm
order to infindy-deformation
a stable model. of theIn
particular, the rubber element is the crucial component and therefore needs a more specific
rubber)
consideration. The seeds
The soft material wasvery applied
modelled evenly
with spaced
isotropic around
and the circumference
hyper-elastic of the 2D
via Mooney–Rivlin
axisymmetric
constitutive rubber element.
behaviour at certainWhereas the minimum
temperatures occurring For
and frequencies. cross-section
faster andofmore the rubber
stable
has a size of 5 × 2themm 2 the approximate global size was set to 0.12 mm and curvature
simulation results step-types were set as dynamic, implicit with adiabatic heating ef-
control
fects. Due was used deformation
to large for applying of thetheglobal
rubber,seeds. The maximum
the nonlinear geometric deviation
function factor was set
is enabled.
to 0.1 as set by default in ABAQUS CAE. In mesh controls the element
Several mesh sizes and elements were tested in order to find a stable model. In particular, shape was set to be
“Quad” only. Also “Free” technique with “Advanced front” algorithm
the rubber element is the crucial component and therefore needs a more specific consid- included “mapped
meshingThe
eration. where
seeds appropriate”
very appliedwas chosen.
evenly spacedFurthermore,
around thethe mesh element
circumference type2D
of the was set as
axisym-
“CAX8RH”
metric rubber (An 8-nodeWhereas
element. biquadratic axisymmetric
the minimum quadrilateral,
occurring cross-section hybrid, linear
of the pressure,
rubber has a
reduced
size of 5 ×integration). Now the rubber
2 mm2 the approximate part
global canwas
size be set
meshed
to 0.12automatically,
mm and curvature and as control
seen in
Figure
was used 4b for
theapplying
mesh sizethe and structure
global seeds.areThe
evenly
maximumdistributed, and the
deviation factorshape
wasofset the
torubber
0.1 as
element is sufficiently accurate.
set by default in ABAQUS CAE. In mesh controls the element shape was set to be “Quad”
only. There contacttechnique
Also “Free” formulations withbetween
“Advanced the parts
front” was separated
algorithm into three
included segments.
“mapped mesh-All
ing where appropriate” was chosen. Furthermore, the mesh element type was set for
part interactions were set to “all with itself” with cohesive contact (“Hard” contact as
normal behaviour and default cohesive behaviour) excluding
“CAX8RH” (An 8-node biquadratic axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure, those surfaces which are
not permanently
reduced integration). attached
Now the to each
rubber other.
partThecan surface
be meshed contacts between the
automatically, andrubber
as seenand in
the pump head, and between pump head and prestress ring (in Figure 4 Position 2 and 1,
 part interactions were set to “all with itself” with cohesive contact (“Hard” contact for
normal behaviour and default cohesive behaviour) excluding those surfaces which are not
permanently attached to each other. The surface contacts between the rubber and the
Actuators 2021, 10, 198
pump head, and between pump head and prestress ring (in Figure 4 Position 2 and 1,
5 of 28
Position 1 and 3) were chosen to be of type surface-to-surface interaction. The rubber sur-
face and the prestress ring surface were set to be the slave-surfaces and the pump head
wasPosition
set as 1master
and 3) surface.
were chosen
The to be of type
contact surface-to-surface
behaviour interaction.
was formulated The rubber
as slip-friction. There-
surface
fore, and the prestress
the tangential ringwas
behaviour surface
set eswere set tofriction
penalty be the slave-surfaces
formulation withand the pump
a coefficient of
head was set as master surface. The contact behaviour was formulated as slip-friction.
0.15 and isotropic directionality. Additionally, the normal contact behaviour was set as
Therefore, the tangential behaviour was set es penalty friction formulation with a coefficient
“Hard” contact for pressure-overclosure with default constraint enforcement method.
of 0.15 and isotropic directionality. Additionally, the normal contact behaviour was set
Separation
as “Hard”after contact
contact was allowed to simulate
for pressure-overclosure other constraint
with default situationsenforcement
in further “Steps”.
method.After
theSeparation
first “Step” was
after created,
contact wasthe initialtoboundary
allowed conditions
simulate other were
situations applied.
in further Further
“Steps”. “Steps”
After
were
theimplemented
first “Step” waswith the the
created, appropriate changeconditions
initial boundary of boundary
were conditions and loads.
applied. Further “Steps”
were implemented with the appropriate change of boundary conditions and loads.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. First
Figure results
4. First of 2D
results of axisymmetric
2D axisymmetric FE-Calculation:
FE-Calculation:(a)(a)
resulting
resultingcontact
contact pressure of the
pressure of thestatic
staticsealing
sealinglips
lipsafter
after as-
sembling; (b) resulting
assembling; stresses
(b) resulting of the
stresses rubber
of the due
rubber duetotothe
theprestress. Due totoreasons
prestress. Due reasonsof of presentability
presentability the geometry
the geometry was was
flipped in contrast
flipped to detail
in contrast A of
to detail Figure
A of Figure3.3.

The The basicdesign

basic designparameters
parameters of ofthethecavity
cavitygeometry
geometry were
werechosen
chosendue due
to desired flow flow
to desired
rate (50 mL/min), which is the product of displacement (33
rate (50 mL/min), which is the product of displacement (33 µL + 20% over-dimensionedµL + 20% over-dimensioned
for geometry tolerances) and motor speed (1500 rpm). From this point on, the 2D-FE-
for geometry tolerances) and motor speed (1500 rpm). From this point on, the 2D-FE-cal-
calculation procedure was iterated to find a basic pump design concept working for the
culation procedure
given boundary was iterated
conditions to find
to fulfil a basicconditions
all desired pump design concept working
like displacement for the given
and maximum
boundary
pressures without violating the maximum allowable stresses. The maximum contact pres-
conditions to fulfil all desired conditions like displacement and maximum
sures without
pressures forviolating
“Step 1” on thethemaximum
sealing lips allowable stresses.
(see Figure 4) are The
above maximum
the desired contact
maximumpressures
forstatic
“Steppressure.
1” on the sealing
It can lips (see Figure
be concluded that there4) are
willabove the desired
be no external maximum
leakage static pres-
on the sealing
lips,
sure. It also
can betheconcluded
maximum that allowed
there stresses
will bewere not exceeded.
no external leakage Allonsteps results fulfilled
the sealing lips, also the
the desired conditions without violating the maximum
maximum allowed stresses were not exceeded. All steps results fulfilled allowed material conditions
the desiredlike con-
maximum
ditions without deformation
violatingand themaximum
maximumtensile allowedand material
compressive stresses. like maximum defor-
conditions
The 2D calculation led to the final design parameters like rubber thickness, maximum
mation and maximum tensile and compressive stresses.
deformation for prestressing the sealing lips and maximum compression at maximum
The 2D calculation led to the final design parameters like rubber thickness, maximum
wobble angle which separates high-pressure and low-pressure area. After the basic design
deformation
was finalized, for aprestressing
3D-FE-analysis thewassealing lips and
conducted maximum
for one compression
single pump revolution atatmaximum
one
wobble
specificangle whichpoint
operating separates high-pressure
specified and low-pressure
as room temperature area. After
and quasi-static the basic
movement. This design
was finalized,
special a 3D-FE-analysis
situation represented very was conducted
slow for oneand,
pump motions single pumplow
therefore, revolution
flow rates.at one
Of spe-
course,
cific such apoint
operating simulation is very
specified as time-consuming
room temperature (several
andweeks of run-time).
quasi-static As a result,
movement. This spe-
cialwesituation
received the verificationvery
represented of the functionality
slow of the basic
pump motions and,concept (closedlow
therefore, displacement
flow rates. Of
in every
course, such rotary angle) and
a simulation is avery
first time-consuming
scale of the necessary torque
(several to move
weeks the wobbleAs
of run-time). plate
a result,
properly. The necessary drive torque is mainly influenced by the rubber conditions like
we received the verification of the functionality of the basic concept (closed displacement
deformation frequency and temperature, but also by the required hydraulic power which
in every rotary angle) and a first scale of the necessary torque to move the wobble plate
can later be superimposed easily. To have a whole dynamic Abaqus 3D-design calculation,
properly.
it wouldThe necessarytodrive
be necessary torque
simulate is mainly
several operatinginfluenced
points likebymaximum
the rubber conditions
frequency at like
deformation frequency and
minimum temperature with temperature,
the same pre-set but also by the required
assembling conditions, hydraulic
which has power
beenwhich
omitted due to long simulation times.
 can later be superimposed easily. To have a whole dynamic Abaqus 3D-de
tion, it would be necessary to simulate several operating points like maximu
at minimum temperature with the same pre-set assembling conditions, wh
omitted due to long simulation times.
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 6 of 28
2.1.2. Analytical Model for the Estimation for the Drive Torque
An analytical
2.1.2. Analytical Model model for
for the Estimation estimating the necessary drive torque for sever
the Drive Torque
points
An analytical (different
model speeds
estimating and temperatures)
the necessary drive torqueisfor
derived
severalto avoid expensive
operating points dyn
analyses
(different speeds by using the
and temperatures) is results
derived of the viscoelastic
to avoid characterization
expensive dynamic of the wobbl
3D-FE-analyses
layer by dynamic thermal mechanical analyses (DMTA). For
by using the results of the viscoelastic characterization of the wobble plate’s soft layer the model,
by som
dynamic thermalstraction is needed
mechanical to describe
analyses (DMTA). theFor function
the model,assome
realistic
levelas
of possible without
abstraction is too
needed to describe
ations.theSo,function
the firstasstep
realistic as possible
is finding without too
a simplified manyof
scheme deviations.
the pump So,system i
the first step primary
is findingdrive
a simplified
and power scheme of the pump
transmission system
which includingthe
represents therubber
primary(soft layer
drive and power transmission which represents the rubber (soft layer) dominated
required torque (idle mode) in a sufficiently accurate manner as seen in Figu required
torque (idle mode) in a sufficiently accurate manner as seen in Figure 5a,b.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Simplified
Figure abstracted
5. Simplifiedmodel of themodel
abstracted pump of system:
the pump(a)system:
wobble (a)plate on plate
wobble top connected with the
on top connected rubber rin
with
and maximumthe deflection;
rubber ring in zero and maximum deflection; (b) illustration of the transmission from rotary bearin
(b) illustration of the transmission from rotary drive to wobbling plate (the roller
a rotation between
drive wobble plateplate
to wobbling and(the
drive shaft,
roller the wobble
bearing allows aplate itself
rotation is blocked
between wobbledue to the
plate andattached and fixed
drive shaft,
the wobble plate itself is blocked due to the attached and fixed rubber).
The mechanics of the wobbling plate according to Figure 6 can be form
The mechanics of the wobbling plate according to Figure 6 can be formulated with the
the equation of motion for angular problems with 2*degrees of freedom

T 𝑞⃑ = (
equation of motion for angular problems with 2 degrees of freedom q = α β and
looks like:
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW looks like: 8 of 29
* * *
𝐽 ∙ T𝑞⃑ ,+ 𝐷 ∙ 𝑞⃑ + 𝐶 ∙ 𝑞⃑ = 𝑇⃑,
.. . *
J · q + D· q + C· q = (1)

Considering a harmonic movement of the plate, where θ changes w

which leads to a harmonic wobbling, the state vector can be written as follow
𝛼 𝜃 ∙ sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑞⃑ = 𝛽 = ,
𝜃 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
The first and second derivations lead to:
𝛼 𝜃 ∙ 𝜔 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
𝑞⃑ = = ,
𝛽 −𝜃 ∙ 𝜔 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
and
𝛼 −𝜃 ∙ 𝜔 ∙ sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑞⃑ = = ,
𝛽 −𝜃 ∙ 𝜔 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
Furthermore, the needed power for each rotation is constant, therefore,
to observe the resulting values at a certain quasi-static position (e.g., 𝜑 = 𝜔𝑡
Figure 6. Wobbling plate with labelled kinematic parameters and torques.
ℕ),plate
Figure 6. Wobbling with
so the labelled
state vectorkinematic
and its parameters and torques.
first and second derivations simplify to:
Considering a harmonic movement of the plate, where θ changes with ϕ = ωt which
0
2.1.3. Dynamic
leads Fluid Gap
to a harmonic wobbling, the state vector can be written𝑞⃑ as
= follows:
,
𝜃
Due to the nonlinear dynamicrubber  behaviour,
 the
 displacement of the maximum
* α θ · sin(ωt)
q =
pump pressure will be temperature and = , (2)
β frequencyθ ·cosdependent.
(ωt) Once the rubber’s dynamic
thermomechanical behaviour is characterized, only operation temperature and pump
speed are necessary to estimate the actual flow rate. The requirement for the pump system
was a constant displacement independent of speed, temperature and pressure. However,
the dynamic fluid gap, which is formed between the squeezed rubber and the rigid pump
cavity, has a huge impact on the pump’s displacement. For further investigations, the
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 7 of 28

The first and second derivations lead to:

* . !  
. α θ ·ω ·cos(ωt)
q = . = , (3)
β −θ ·ω ·sin(ωt)

and .. !
*
−θ ·ω 2 · sin(ωt)
 
.. α
q = .. = , (4)
β −θ ·ω 2 ·cos(ωt)
Furthermore, the needed power for each rotation is constant, therefore, it is possible to
observe the resulting values at a certain quasi-static position (e.g., ϕ = ωt = 2πk ∀k ∈ N),
so the state vector and its first and second derivations simplify to:
 
* 0
q = , (5)
θ

* . !  
. α θ ·ω
q = . = , (6)
β 0

* .. !  
.. α 0
q = .. = , (7)
β −θ ·ω 2
The ideal power transmission from the rotary drive to the wobbling as illustrated in
Figure 5b results in following formulation:
. .
Tmotor ·ω = Tα ·α + Tβ · β (8)

Considering the simplifications of the states in Equations (5)–(7) due to quasi-static

and position-based observation, Equation (8) further simplifies to:

Tmotor = Tα ·θ (9)

These results substituted by the original terms of equation of motion (1) lead to the
following time invariant algebraic equation:

Tmotor = dθ ·θ 2 ·ω (10)

The damping and stiffness coefficients for this problem “rubber ring with tilting load”
according to Figure 5a can be written as followed [19]:
  2 
b
E0 ( T, ω )·πd2m · hb 1 + dm 2
b 
cθ (T,ω ) = + 2 , (11)

8 1 − ν2 3h


and
tan(δ)
dθ (T,ω ) = cθ (T,ω )
, (12)
ω
Merging Equations (10)–(12) the required torque for idle mode can be estimated by
the following equation:
  2 
b
E0 ( T, ω )·πd2m · hb 1 + dm 2
b 
Tmotor = + 2 ·θ 2 · tan(δ), (13)

8 1 − ν2 3h


With these considerations, an algebraic equation of the very abstracted model of the
pump system was found to estimate the required torque which is influenced by temperature
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 8 of 28

and frequency-depending material behaviour (modulus E0 and loss factor tan (δ)) and the
geometry parameters. The experimental set up for the validation can be seen in a following
sub-chapter called evaluation process. If these torque values are also useable for scalable
Figure 6. Wobbling plate with labelled kinematic parameters and torques.
designs without the need of further investigations will be proven in the results.

2.1.3. Dynamic2.1.3.
FluidDynamic
Gap Fluid Gap
Due to the
Due to the nonlinear nonlinear
dynamic dynamic
rubber rubber
behaviour, thebehaviour, the displacement
displacement of the maximum of the maxi
pump pressure pump pressure
will be will beand
temperature temperature
frequencyand frequency
dependent. dependent.
Once Oncedynamic
the rubber’s the rubber’s dyn
thermomechanical behaviour is characterized, only operation temperature and pump and p
thermomechanical behaviour is characterized, only operation temperature
speed are
speed are necessary necessary
to estimate thetoactual
estimate
flowthe actual
rate. Theflow rate. Thefor
requirement requirement
the pump for the pump sy
system
was a constant displacement independent of speed, temperature
was a constant displacement independent of speed, temperature and pressure. However, and pressure. How
the dynamic fluid gap, which is formed between the squeezed
the dynamic fluid gap, which is formed between the squeezed rubber and the rigid pump rubber and the rigid p
cavity,impact
cavity, has a huge has a on
hugetheimpact
pump’sondisplacement.
the pump’s displacement. For further investigations
For further investigations, the
wobble plate wobble plate is
is considered asconsidered
a cubic piece as of
a cubic
rubber piece
withofarubber with
rigid top a rigid
which top which is frequ
is frequently
excitedagainst
excited and pressed and pressed
the pumpagainst the The
cavity. pump levelcavity. The levelisofshown
of abstraction abstraction is shown
in Figure 7. in F
7. The distance varies from maximum lift (hmax) to the
The distance varies from maximum lift (hmax) to the nominal compression to reach the nominal compression to reac
target contact pressure at
target contact pressure at minimum lift (hmin).minimum lift (hmin).

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Analogous
Figure 7.model of themodel
Analogous complex pump
of the system
complex regarding
pump systemthe dynamic
regarding film
the on thefilm
dynamic contact area:
on the (a) illustration
contact
of the simplified
area:wobble situation;
(a) illustration of (b)
theprincipal
simplifiedabstracted scheme. (b) principal abstracted scheme.
wobble situation;

This dynamicThis
fluiddynamic
gap is influenced
fluid gap by the stiffness
is influenced byofthe
thestiffness
rubber, of
thethe
occurring fluid
rubber, the occurring
pressure and pressure
the wobbling speed
and the of the pump
wobbling speed itself.
of the A phenomenological
pump mechanical mecha
itself. A phenomenological
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 29
model based on this system
model is illustrated
based on this systemin Figure 8. The rubber
is illustrated in Figurewas8.described
The rubberby the
waswell-
described b
known Kelvin–Voigt modelKelvin–Voigt
well-known [20] (parallel model
connection
[20] of elastic spring
(parallel and viscous
connection damper).
of elastic spring and vis
damper).

Figure 8. The simplified mechanical model of the emerging fluid gap caused by the rubber on the
Figure 8. The simplified mechanical model of the emerging fluid gap caused by the rubber on the
wobble plate.
wobble plate.

The Reynolds equation [21,22], which is a certain form of the Navier–Stokes equa-
tions [23] (no density or viscosity changes) for a fluid gap with such a short distance lead-
ing to dominating viscosity effects, can be written as below:
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 9 of 28

The Reynolds equation [21,22], which is a certain form of the Navier–Stokes equa-
tions [23] (no density or viscosity changes) for a fluid gap with such a short distance leading
to dominating viscosity effects, can be written as below:

h3 ∂p h3 ∂p .
   
∂ ∂ ∂h ∂h
+ =6 (U12 + U21 ) + 6 (U12 + U21 ) + 12h, (14)
∂x η ∂x ∂y η ∂y ∂x ∂y

Furthermore, y-axis-depending terms and horizontal velocity-based terms (wob-

bling plate does not have a relative movement to the cavity in horizontal direction) can
be eliminated:
∂ h3 ∂p .
 
= 12h, (15)
∂x η ∂x
By integrating this differential equation 2 times, and setting the boundary conditions
to p(0) = p0 and p(L) = p1 the damping pressure below the rubber can be calculated:
. . !
h2(t)· x2 h2(t) p0 p1
p( x ) = −6η + p0 + x · 6ηL + + , (16)
h2(t)3 h2(t)3 L L

The resulting force of the fluid cushion which hinders the rubber to get into contact
with the cavity can be evaluated by integration over dx from 0 to the length L and dy from
0 to the width b of the strip.
Z bZ L  . 
Ff luid = p( x )dydx → f h2(t), h2(t), p1, p2 (17)
0 0

At an operation point the rubber can be simplified to a frequency and temperature

dependent spring and damper system with very low mass. With ∆h(t) = h1(t) − hrub −
h2(t) − h0 the equation of motion can be written as follows
.. .  . 
m·h(t) + d( T, ω )∆·h(t) + c( T, ω )·∆h(t) = Ff luid h2(t), h2(t), p1, p2 , (18)

Damping effects of the rubber cause an internal heating and a lag of deformation,
which in this case means, that zero damping would lead to a worst-case scenario for the
developing fluid gap.
The mass of the elastomer also has low influence on the results, with m = d = 0. The
Equation (18) can be reduced as follows:
 . 
c( T, ω )·(h1(t) − hrub − h2(t) − h0) = Ff luid h2(t), h2(t), p1, p2 , (19)

By setting the boundary conditions p1 and p2 to zero to represent the idle mode the
fluid the equation further simplifies to:

L3 bη d
c( T, ω )·(h1(t) − hrub − h2(t) − h0) = 3
· h2(t), (20)
(h2(t) + h0) dt

To obtain the desired result h2(t), this nonlinear differential equation needs to be
solved numerically.
In Figure 9a,b the emerging fluid gap due to different excitation frequencies is shown.
The typical rubber behaviour leads to a higher stiffness with rising frequency and falling
temperature. Presuming the stiffness rises to infinite values, the fluid gap would only be
defined by two rigid plates which lead to zero contact, but infinite high contact forces. On
the other side, if the rubber stiffness is very low, the fluid gap will be dominated by the
velocity term namely the motor speed respective frequency. In conclusion, depending on
the chosen rubber material rising frequency will lead to higher gaps, due to higher fluid
forces, but also to an increasing stiffness of the rubber which will partly compensate the
 where dm is the cavity’s mean diameter, A(φ) the φ-depending (radial) cross-section which
is a about the product of the φ-depending height h2(φ) multiplied by two thirds of the
cavity width b (area of circle segment). The integral of the cross-section A(φ) results in the
mean of maximum and minimum cross-section. The frequency dependent term reduces
the nominal displacement to:
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 10 of 28
( )
𝑉(𝑓) ≈ 𝑉 − 𝑑 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ ∙ 𝑏 ∙ , (23)

emerging gap. The

The actual graphs
system in Figure
is much more 10 give andue
complex, ideatoof how
the the displacement
hyper-elastic changes
as well as viscoe-
due tomaterial
lastic frequency effects. The
behaviour and nominal flow rate
the interaction Q is
of the dependent
more complexon motor
pump speed n Most
geometry. and
likely it is notVpossible
displacement which is
tofurther
find anaanalytical
function of n. to describe the thermal, dynamic rubber
model
fluid interaction of the 3D design.
Q = V (n)·n, (21)

(a)

(b)

Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 29

Figure 9. First
Figure simulation
9. First results
simulation ofof
results thethedynamic
dynamicfluid
fluidgap:
gap:(a):
(a):the
theforced
forced fluid gap
gap between
betweenwobble
wobbleplate
plateand
andcavity
cavity h1(t);
h1(t);
(b):(b):
emerging
emerging fluid gap
fluid h2(t)
gap due
h2(t) duetotodifferent
differentmotor
motorfrequencies and load
frequencies and loadpressures.
pressures.

Figure
Figure10.
10.Calculated
Calculateddisplacement
displacementcurve
curve based V0 == 40
based on V0 40 µL
µLfor
foridle
idlemode
modeand
and nominal
nominal load
load
pressure over desired motor speed.
pressure over desired motor speed. .

The nominal
Figure displacement
11 shows the pressure(quasis-static
distribution →from
f = 0 Hz) is calculated
the left to: boundary in the
to the right
dynamic fluid gap. The pressureIinflation
2π
in the dynamic gap at the exact time when the
2 h2max
gap has its minimum (sealing
V0 = rpoint)
m must
A ( ϕ ) be
dϕ ≈ dm ·πthan
higher · ·b· the boundary
, pressures in(22)
order
0 3 2
to prevent backflow, since the flow rate follows the negative pressure gradient. Therefore,
Figure 11a,b shows that internal leakage is prevented if the boundary pressure is below
the maximum pressure at low frequencies. This is valid, if the rubber prestress is high
enough, which is guaranteed by the required static sealing contact pressure. From Figure
11c it is obvious that the boundary pressure of 1.5 MPa exceeds its target sealing limit
causing internal leakage.
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 11 of 28

where dm is the cavity’s mean diameter, A(ϕ) the ϕ-depending (radial) cross-section which
is a about the product of the ϕ-depending height h2(ϕ) multiplied by two thirds of the
cavity width b (area of circle segment). The integral of the cross-section A(ϕ) results in the
mean of maximum and minimum cross-section. The frequency dependent term reduces
the nominal displacement to:

2 h2min( f )
V ( f ) ≈ V0 − dm ·π · ·b· , (23)
3 2
The actual system
Figure is much more
10. Calculated complex,curve
displacement due to the on
based hyper-elastic
V0 = 40 µLas forwell
idleasmode
viscoelas-
and nominal l
pressure over desired motor speed. .
tic material behaviour and the interaction of the more complex pump geometry. Most likely
it is not possible to find an analytical model to describe the thermal, dynamic rubber fluid
interaction of theFigure 11 shows the pressure distribution from the left to the right boundary in
3D design.
Figure dynamic
11 showsfluid gap. Thedistribution
the pressure pressure inflation
from thein the
left dynamic
to the rightgapboundary
at the exact time when
in the
dynamic fluid gapgap.
has its
Theminimum
pressure (sealing
inflationpoint)
in themust be higher
dynamic gap atthanthe the
exactboundary
time when pressures
the in or
to prevent(sealing
gap has its minimum backflow, sincemust
point) the flow rate follows
be higher than the the negativepressures
boundary pressure gradient.
in order Therefo
Figure 11a,b
to prevent backflow, sinceshows thatrate
the flow internal
followsleakage is prevented
the negative pressure if the boundary
gradient. pressure is bel
Therefore,
the maximum pressure at low frequencies. This is valid,
Figure 11a,b shows that internal leakage is prevented if the boundary pressure is below if the rubber prestress
the is h
enough,at
maximum pressure which is guaranteed
low frequencies. byisthe
This required
valid, if the static
rubber sealing contact
prestress pressure.
is high enough,From Fig
11c it is obvious
which is guaranteed that the boundary
by the required pressure
static sealing contact of pressure.
1.5 MPa exceeds
From Figureits target
11c itsealing li
causing
is obvious that internal leakage.
the boundary pressure of 1.5 MPa exceeds its target sealing limit causing
internal leakage.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 11. Inflated pressure distribution p(x) along the dynamic fluid gap at certain time min(h1(t)):
(a) boundary conditions p0 = p1 = 0 MPa; (b) boundary conditions p0 = 0 MPa; p1 = 0.5 MPa
(nominal operating point); (c) boundary conditions p0 = 0 MPa; p1 = 1.5 MPa (pressure limit
exceeded → backflow from right to left side).

2.1.4. Wobble Plate Design

The design of the rubber-based wobble plate has surrounding static sealing lips in
a kidney shaped arrangement, which are tight at maximum pressure. Depending on the
pivot angle of the wobble plate, the rubber is pressed at the inner side against the pump’s
housing cavity. The geometry must be designed in order to maintain the contact pressure
line just above the desired feed pressure. Otherwise, leak tightness is not preserved. Since
 The design of the rubber-based wobble plate has surrounding static sealing lips in a
kidney shaped arrangement, which are tight at maximum pressure. Depending on the
pivot angle of the wobble plate, the rubber is pressed at the inner side against the pump’s
housing cavity. The geometry must be designed in order to maintain the contact pressure
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 12 of 28
line just above the desired feed pressure. Otherwise, leak tightness is not preserved. Since
the pump-element also undergoes tensile stresses, the connection between the rigid and
the soft layer is crucial and must resist these severe loadings. However, soft materials, like
the pump-element also undergoes tensile stresses, the connection between the rigid and
rubbers,
the exhibit
soft layer inherent
is crucial andviscoelastic
must resistbehaviour leading
these severe to stress/strain
loadings. However, relieving (relaxa-
soft materials,
tion/retardation)
like rubbers, exhibitmechanisms due to the molecular
inherent viscoelastic behaviourmotion
leadingunder external loading.
to stress/strain relievingThis
effect must be considered in the mechanical design with the aim to reduce
(relaxation/retardation) mechanisms due to the molecular motion under external loading. it; if not, the
displacement of the peristaltic pump will drop and reduce the flow rate permanently.
This effect must be considered in the mechanical design with the aim to reduce it; if not,
To overcomeofthe
the displacement thedrop in displacement,
peristaltic the boundaries
pump will drop and reduce of thethe
flow rubber must be con-
rate permanently.
finedToinovercome
a way that over time evolving creep along the maximum stress
the drop in displacement, the boundaries of the rubber must be path is confined
inhibited
[24].
in Therefore,
a way that overthree
timejoining concepts
evolving creepfor the soft
along and the rigid
the maximum layers
stress pathwere considered
is inhibited in
[24].
this study and included Figure 12a adhesive bonding with cyanoacrylate
Therefore, three joining concepts for the soft and the rigid layers were considered in Figure 12b vul-
canization
this (cross-linking)
study and of the rubber
included Figure on the bonding
12a adhesive metallic surface by applying aFigure
with cyanoacrylate primer12b for
enhanced adhesion between the dissimilar materials, and Figure 12c form
vulcanization (cross-linking) of the rubber on the metallic surface by applying a primer fit and vulcan-
ization
for for superior
enhanced adhesioninterface properties.
between the dissimilar materials, and Figure 12c form fit and
vulcanization for superior interface properties.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure12.
Figure 12.Different
Differentways
waysofofbonding
bondingrubber
rubber
toto a “rigid”
a “rigid” body
body like
like metal
metal or or plastic:
plastic: (a)(a) cyanoacrylate
cyanoacrylate as film;
as film; (b) (b) vulcaniz-
vulcanizing
ing makes
makes a tighta connection;
tight connection; (c)closure
(c) form form closure and vulcanizing
and vulcanizing is way
is the best the best way torubber
to connect connect rubber
with with rigid(including
rigid structures structures
(including special surface treatments).
special surface treatments).

There isis aaspecific

There specificdynamic
dynamic behaviour
behaviour ofof the
thepump
pumpduedueto tothe
thenonlinearity
nonlinearityof ofthe
the
rubber.Besides
rubber. Besidesthethedesired
desiredpressure,
pressure,the
theminimal
minimalrequired
requiredtorque
torqueisismainly
mainlyinfluenced
influencedby by
thiscertain
this certainelastomeric
elastomericbehaviour.
behaviour. Therefore,
Therefore, at
atlow
lowfrequencies
frequenciesandandhigh
hightemperatures,
temperatures,
the
thetorque
torqueisismainly
mainlygiven
givenbybythe
thehydraulic
hydraulicpower
power(output
(outputpower
powerof ofthe
thepump)
pump)and andthethe
main
mainprestress.
prestress.Very
Verylow
lowtemperatures
temperatures and high
and frequencies
high leadlead
frequencies to ato
stiffening effect
a stiffening of the
effect of
rubber. These operating conditions influence the maximum pressure and
the rubber. These operating conditions influence the maximum pressure and the con- the consistency
of the flow
sistency of rate.
the flow rate.

2.2.
2.2. Material
MaterialSelection
Selectionfor
forthe
theSoft
SoftLayer
Layerofofthe
theWobbling
WobblingPlate
Plate
In
In the peristaltic pump design, the wobbling plate squeezes
the peristaltic pump design, the wobbling plate squeezes the thefluid
fluidthrough
throughthethe
cavity
cavity to the outlet port. The soft layer enables the squeezing (i.e., the contractionof
to the outlet port. The soft layer enables the squeezing (i.e., the contraction ofthe
the
soft
softlayer
layerleading
leadingto toaapressure
pressureininflow
flowdirection)
direction)and
andmust
mustbe beflexible,
flexible,resilient
resilientand
andexhibit
exhibit
low
lowhysteresis
hysteresisunder
underdynamic
dynamicloading.
loading.These
Thesedesign
designrequirements
requirements areare
crucial forfor
crucial a reliable
a relia-
operation of theofpump
ble operation and have
the pump and to be translated
have to material
to be translated properties.
to material The state-of-the-art
properties. The state-of-
candidate materials for peristaltic pumps are elastomeric materials (rubbers), crosslinked
the-art candidate materials for peristaltic pumps are elastomeric materials (rubbers),
incompressible polymers, for the general purpose of the functionality to enable squeezing
of the fluid. However, this class of materials exhibits non-linear (hyperelastic) material
behaviour and has an inherent viscoelasticity (loading rate and temperature dependency).
Above the glass-transition temperature, the predominant deformation mechanism of rub-
bers is governed by changes of entropy. Under deformation the macromolecules are
oriented, decreasing the entropy and, thus, leading to adiabatic heating. This mechanism is
directly linked to the efficiency of the pump, as the external electrical drive of the pump
has to supply higher torques to maintain constant flow rate and pressure. To provide the
functionality of the wobbling plate within the above-mentioned constraints and require-
ments, the objective is to select a material with following properties within the loading
frequency and temperature ranges:
 mechanism of rubbers is governed by changes of entropy. Under deformation the macro-
molecules are oriented, decreasing the entropy and, thus, leading to adiabatic heating.
This mechanism is directly linked to the efficiency of the pump, as the external electrical
drive of the pump has to supply higher torques to maintain constant flow rate and pres-
sure. To provide the functionality of the wobbling plate within the above-mentioned con-
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 13 of 28
straints and requirements, the objective is to select a material with following properties
within the loading frequency and temperature ranges:
•• constantstorage
constant storagemodulus
modulusEE’0 for
forlow
lowand
andbalanced
balancedsealing
sealingpressures,
pressures,
•• low loss modulus E” for low drive torques,
low loss modulus E” for low drive torques,
•• lowPoisson’s
low ratioν𝜈(rubber
Poisson’sratio (rubberisisincompressible, hence,ν𝜈==0.5),
incompressible,hence, 0.5),
•• lowviscoelasticity
low viscoelasticityand
andelastic
elasticdeformability
deformabilityup
uptoto25%
25%strain
strain
Figure13
Figure 13illustrates
illustratesthetheapplication-relevant
application-relevantfrequency
frequencyand
andtemperature
temperatureranges
rangesfor
for
thestorage
the storageand
andthetheloss
lossmoduli.
moduli.Including
Includingthethereversible
reversibledeformability
deformabilityofofup
uptoto25%,
25%,these
these
arethe
are themost
mostimportant
importantselection
selectioncriteria
criteriafor
forthe
thematerial.
material.Focusing
Focusingononthese
theserequirements,
requirements,
the goal is to select (tailor) a material which is sufficiently within the ideal behaviour
the goal is to select (tailor) a material which is sufficiently within the ideal behaviour range range
ofFigure
of Figure13.
13.

Figure13.
Figure 13.Illustration
Illustrationofofthe
therealistic
realisticmaterial
materialbehaviour
behaviour and
and the
the idealistic
idealistic material
material behaviour
behaviour forfor
the
the soft layer of the wobbling
soft layer of the wobbling plate. plate.

Basedon
Based onthese
theseconsiderations,
considerations,an anexperimental
experimentaltesting
testingprocedure
procedurefor forthe
thematerial
material
selection is described in the following. As the candidate materials are limited
selection is described in the following. As the candidate materials are limited to elastomers to elastomers
(rubber-likematerials)
(rubber-like materials) along
along withwith thermoplastic
thermoplastic elastomers,
elastomers, the shear
the shear modulusmodulus is de-
is described
scribed
by by thetheory
the kinetic kineticoftheory
rubber of elasticity
rubber elasticity
and givesanda gives a proportionality
proportionality of the macro-
of the macroscopic
scopic modulus
modulus to the molecular
to the molecular mass asmass wellasaswell as temperature.
temperature. The foundation
The foundation for thefor the ma-
material
terial selection
selection procedure
procedure is the ischaracterization
the characterization of theofhyper-
the hyper-
and and viscoelasticity
viscoelasticity includ-
including
ing material
material parameter
parameter determination
determination for numerical
for numerical simulations
simulations to calculate
to calculate the stress-
the stress-strain
strain
state stateapplication
under under application
relevantrelevant
loadings.loadings.
AAnumber
number of of hyper-elastic material
material models
modelsareareestablished
establishedwithwiththeir
theirspecific
specificlimita-
lim-
itations
tions ofof deformation,
deformation, accuracy
accuracy andand applicability
applicability to some
to some reinforced
reinforced elastomers.
elastomers. The
The well-
well-known Mooney–Rivlin
known Mooney–Rivlin modelmodel is a hyper-elastic
is a hyper-elastic modelmodel
withwith
two two material
material parameters
parameters (C01
(C01
and and
C10).C10).
This This constitutive
constitutive model model is implemented
is implemented in most
in most commercially
commercially available
available finite
finite element (FE) solvers and describes the material behaviour up to moderate deforma-
tions (<30%) and, hence, is applied in our study.
Additionally, the material aging is of particular importance and its effects on the
dynamic thermomechanical behaviour of the elastomers have to be examined. For the
assessment of the long-term stability of the wobbling plate, the environmental (temperature
and humidity) impact on the bonding of the soft layer to the rigid body (cf. Figure 12)
as well as the temperature induced aging conditions are crucial. These conditions are
addressed experimentally by the cataplasm aging test of the bonding and by thermal aging
of the rubbers.
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 14 of 28

Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER2.2.1.

REVIEW Candidate Materials (Rubbers) 14 of 29
From Figure 13 and from previously performed and published works (e.g., [25]), the
candidate materials can be narrowed down to rubbers with Shore A hardness of 60 to 80.
Specifically,
elementformulations of rubber
(FE) solvers and families
describes of acrylonitrile
the material behaviour(NBR,
up HNBR), fluoro-rubber
to moderate deformations
(FKM), ethylene-propylene-diene (EPDM),
(<30%) and, hence, is applied in our study. thermoplastic polyurethane and silicone rub-
bers are perfectly suitable
Additionally, theas soft layer
material for is
aging wobbling plates
of particular in peristaltic
importance andpumps. They
its effects on can
the dy-
accommodate
namic thermomechanical behaviour of 0the elastomers have to be examined. ForThe
strains of several 100% with low resilience under dynamic loading. the as-
dynamic (thermo-)
sessment of themechanical properties
long-term stability E and
of the E” areplate,
wobbling adjustable and the viscoelasticity
the environmental (temperature
(frequency and temperature
and humidity) impact ondependency)
the bondingcan be tailored
of the soft layerfor
tothe
theapplication.
rigid body (cf. Figure 12) as
In the subsequent chapters we present the experimental data of a liquid silicon rubber
well as the temperature induced aging conditions are crucial. These conditions are ad-
(LSR, R401/70), a NBR formulation (Shore A 70) and a TPU formulation (Shore A 90). The
dressed experimentally by the cataplasm aging test of the bonding and by thermal aging
LSR and NBR materials were formulated and processed by Erwin Mach Gummitechnik
of the rubbers.
(Hirm, Austria). All three materials can be injection moulded in arbitrary geometries and,
therefore,
2.2.1. have an economical
Candidate Materialsadvantage
(Rubbers) when high volume mass-production is required.
From Figure 13 and from previously performed and published works (e.g., [25]), the
2.2.2. Experimental
candidate materials materials
The three candidate can be narrowed
(TPU, LSR down to rubbers
and NBR) were with Shore
moulded toA hardness
300 mm × 200 of 60
mmto 80.
Specifically, formulations of rubber families of acrylonitrile (NBR, HNBR),
sheets with 2 mm thickness. From these sheets the specimens for the hyper- and viscoelastic fluoro-rubber
(FKM), ethylene-propylene-diene
characterizations were stamped. Figure (EPDM),
14 shows thermoplastic
the specimen polyurethane and silicone
geometries including therub-
dimensions. On the surface, speckle patterns were coated and during the experiments can
bers are perfectly suitable as soft layer for wobbling plates in peristaltic pumps. They
accommodate
pictures strains ofwere
of the specimens several 100% with
recorded low resilience
to derive under dynamic
strain optically loading.
by 2D-digital The dy-
image
namic (thermo-) mechanical
correlation (2D-DIC; Aramis 4M). properties E’ and E′′ are adjustable and the viscoelasticity
(frequency
The uni- and and temperature
biaxial tensiondependency) can 15)
tests (see Figure be tailored for the application.
were performed with an electrome-
In the subsequent chapters we present the experimental
chanical testing system (TA Instruments, ElectoForce Systems Group) data of a liquid
under silicon rub-
isothermal
ber (LSR,
conditions R401/70),
at room a NBR formulation
temperature and at three (Shore
loadingA 70) and(uniaxial:
rates a TPU formulation
0.1 mm/s,(Shore
1 mm/s, A 90).
The LSR and NBR materials were formulated and processed by
and 10 mm/s; biaxial: 0.1 mm/s, 0.5 mm/s, and 1 mm/s). Strains were derived by 2D-DIC, Erwin Mach Gum-
and forces were measured with a 440 N load cell (WMC-100lbf; Interface Inc., Atlanta, GA, ge-
mitechnik (Hirm, Austria). All three materials can be injection moulded in arbitrary
USA).ometries
Prior toand, therefore,
testing, have an economical
the specimens were fixed advantage
and a dwell when
timehigh
of 5 volume
min wasmass-produc-
given to
tion is required.
reach the thermal equilibrium force (relaxed state of the material).
The material parameter determination was performed by assuming incompressibility
2.2.2. Experimental
and measuring the uni- and biaxial characteristics (compare in Figure 16a range of mea-
The three candidate materials
sured versus application-relevant loading (TPU, LSRof
in terms and NBR)
first and were
secondmoulded to 300 mmAll
strain invariant). × 200
mm sheets
experimental with
data 2 mm
were thickness.
fitted From
iteratively tothese sheets
identify thethe specimens
parameters forand
C01 the hyper-
C10 forand
the vis-
coelastic characterizations
Mooney–Rivlin model (see Figure were stamped.
16b). Figure 14 shows
The temperature the specimen
dependency geometries
is not captured by in-
cludingexplicitly.
this model the dimensions. On the
Therefore, surface,
dynamic speckle patterns
(thermo-) were
mechanical coated and
analyses during
(DTMA) the ex-
were
periments
performed pictures
to gain of the
insights ofspecimens were recorded
the temperature to derivedependencies,
and frequency strain opticallyonbythe
2D-digital
one
hand,image
and, correlation
on the other(2D-DIC;
hand, the Aramis
storage 4M).
and loss moduli (loss factor tanδ).

(a) (b)
Figure 14. Specimens for hyper-
Figure 14.and viscoelastic
Specimens forcharacterizations (a) ISO-5A
hyper- and viscoelastic tensile specimen;
characterizations (a)(b) cruciform
ISO-5A specimen
tensile for
specimen;
in-plane biaxial tension(b)
tests. Both specimens were coated with speckle patterns for full field strain analyses.
cruciform specimen for in-plane biaxial tension tests. Both specimens were coated with speckle
patterns for full field strain analyses.
The uni- and biaxial tension tests (see Figure 15) were performed with an electrome-
chanical testing system (TA Instruments, ElectoForce Systems Group) under isothermal
conditions at room temperature and at three loading rates (uniaxial: 0.1 mm/s, 1 mm/s,
and 10 mm/s; biaxial: 0.1 mm/s, 0.5 mm/s, and 1 mm/s). Strains were derived by 2D-DIC,
 Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 29

and forces were measured with a 440 N load cell (WMC-100lbf; Interface Inc., Atlanta,
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 GA, U.S.). Prior to testing, the specimens were fixed and a dwell time of 5 min was15given
of 28
to reach the thermal equilibrium force (relaxed state of the material).

(a) (b)
Figure 15. Experimental test-setups for: (a) uniaxial testing and (b) biaxial testing.

The material parameter determination was performed by assuming incompressibil-

ity and measuring the uni- and biaxial characteristics (compare in Figure 16a range of
measured versus application-relevant loading in terms of first and second strain invari-
ant). All experimental data were fitted iteratively to identify the parameters C01 and C10
for the Mooney–Rivlin model (see Figure 16b). The temperature dependency is not cap-
tured(a)by this model explicitly. Therefore, dynamic (b) (thermo-) mechanical analyses
(DTMA) were performed to gain insights of the temperature and frequency dependencies,
Figure15.
Figure 15. Experimental
onExperimental
the one hand,test-setups for:(a)
and, onfor:
test-setups the (a) uniaxial
other hand,
uniaxial testing and(b)
(b)biaxial
the storage
testing and biaxial
and losstesting.
moduli (loss factor tanδ).
testing.

The material parameter determination was performed by assuming incompressibil-

ity and measuring the uni- and biaxial characteristics (compare in Figure 16a range of
measured versus application-relevant loading in terms of first and second strain invari-
ant). All experimental data were fitted iteratively to identify the parameters C01 and C10
for the Mooney–Rivlin model (see Figure 16b). The temperature dependency is not cap-
tured by this model explicitly. Therefore, dynamic (thermo-) mechanical analyses
(DTMA) were performed to gain insights of the temperature and frequency dependencies,
on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the storage and loss moduli (loss factor tanδ).

(a) (b)
Figure16.
Figure 16.Results
Resultsofofthe
theexemplary
exemplarytests:
tests:(a)(a) measured
measured strain
strain states
states (b)(b) Mooney-plot
Mooney-plot andand estimated
estimated material
material parameters
parameters for
for the Mooney–Rivlin constitutive
the Mooney–Rivlin constitutive model. model.

Thedynamic
The dynamicthermomechanical
thermomechanicalbehaviour
behaviourof ofthe
thecandidate
candidateelastomers
elastomerswaswasanalyzed
analyzed
under
under uniaxial loading at temperature from −50 °C◦to +80 °C ◦
and loading
loading at temperature from −50 C to +80 C and loading frequenciesfrequencies from
from 0.5 Hz to 50 Hz. A sine wave excitation was applied with a mean strain leveland
0.5 Hz to 50 Hz. A sine wave excitation was applied with a mean strain level of 20% of
20% and a dynamic (p-p) amplitude of 2%. DTMA was performed with an Eplexor 500 N
(NETZSCH-Gerätebau GmbH, Graz, Austria) and started at the lowest temperatures with
(a) (b)
an incremental increase of 5 K. The frequency sweep was performed in a logarithmic scale
Figure 16. Results of the exemplary
with fivetests: (a) measured
frequencies per strain states
decade. The(b)obtained
Mooney-plot data (E0 material
and estimated
material and E”)parameters
were further
for the Mooney–Rivlin constitutive
analyzed model.
regarding the thermorheological behaviour and, finally, the master-curves were
constructed by shifting and applying time-temperature superposition principle. Figure 17a
showsThe thedynamic thermomechanical
temperature behaviour of
dependent experimental the of
data candidate
E0 and E”elastomers was analyzed
at three excitation fre-
under uniaxial loading at temperature from −50 °C to +80 °C and0 loading
quencies (0.5 Hz, 5 Hz, and 50 Hz). The frequency dependent E master-curve constructedfrequencies from
0.5 the
for Hz reference
to 50 Hz. temperature
A sine wave excitation
Tref of 25 ◦was
C isapplied withinaFigure
illustrated mean strain level
17b. For theofconstruc-
20% and
tion of the master-curve only a horizontal shift was applied. It is important to select an
appropriate temperature increment in order to assure an overlap between the isothermal E0
curves. Figure 17b shows also the experimental window with the isothermal curves (low
to high temperature data are illustrated from top to bottom). Low temperature data are
 17a shows the temperature dependent experimental data of E′ and E″ at three excitation
frequencies (0.5 Hz, 5 Hz, and 50 Hz). The frequency dependent E’ master-curve con-
structed for the reference temperature Tref of 25 °C is illustrated in Figure 17b. For the
construction of the master-curve only a horizontal shift was applied. It is important to
select an appropriate temperature increment in order to assure an overlap between the
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 16 of 28
isothermal E’ curves. Figure 17b shows also the experimental window with the isothermal
curves (low to high temperature data are illustrated from top to bottom). Low temperature
data are equivalent
equivalent to high frequency
to high frequency data
data (shift to (shift
right) andtovice
right) andAs
versa. vice
theversa. As the ther-
thermorheological
morheological
material material
behaviour was behaviour
simple, thewas simple, the
shift-factors wereshift-factors
modelled by were
the modelled byand
well-known the
well-known and established Williams–Landel–Ferry
established Williams–Landel–Ferry equation (WLF). equation (WLF).

(a) (b)

Figure 17. DTMA

Figure DTMA analyses
analysesfor
forLSR
LSRShore
ShoreAA7070(tempered
(temperedatat150 °C◦ C
150 forfor
2 h)2 ;h);
(a) (a)
loading frequency
loading andand
frequency temperature de-
temperature
pendent storage
dependent and
storage loss
and modulus
loss modulus 0 and
(E′(Eand E′′); (b)(b)
E”); calculated master
calculated curve
master curveforfor
a certain nom.
a certain nom.temperature.
temperature.

Material aging
aging alters
altersthe
theproperties
propertiesofofthe the rubbers
rubbers and,
and, thus,
thus, thethe evolution
evolution of the
of the dy-
dynamic thermomechanical properties (E 0 and E”) must be characterized. With these
namic thermomechanical properties (E′ and E′′) must be characterized. With these in-
insights,
sights, thethelong-term
long-termbehaviour
behaviourofofthe theperistaltic
peristalticpump
pumpcan canbe be assessed,
assessed, and maintenance
maintenance
intervals defined. To achieve this, the specimens were exposed to 120 ◦ C for seven
120 °C seven days
days
and DTMAs were performed. A precondition was that no surface failures, such as cracks,
colour
colour alterations
alterations andand tackiness
tackiness [14,26]
[14,26] (sticky
(sticky touch
touch due
due to
to migration
migration of of oligomers
oligomers from
from
the bulk to the surface), were observable.
the bulk to the surface), were observable.
Another
Another critical
critical aspect
aspectto toensure
ensurethe thelong-term
long-termstability
stability ofof
the pump
the pump is the bonding
is the bondingof
the wobbling plate’s two layers. It is reported [13] that cyanoacrylate
of the wobbling plate’s two layers. It is reported [13] that cyanoacrylate is suitable for is suitable for bonding
rubber
bonding to other
rubber (dissimilar)
to other materials.
(dissimilar) The chosen super
materials. The adhesive
chosen super(Zwaluw Sekundenkleber
adhesive (Zwaluw
universal) is a liquid cyanoacrylate-based glue which cures
Sekundenkleber universal) is a liquid cyanoacrylate-based glue which cures through moisture respective
through
humidity ◦
moisture respective humidity within seconds. The processing temperature should Cbeand
within seconds. The processing temperature should be between 15 be-
40 ◦ C to
tween 15 reach
°C and its40final adhesion
°C to reach itsafter
finalhalf a minute.
adhesion after According
half a to the
minute. datasheet,
According to the
the
cured bondthe
datasheet, withstands
cured bond a temperature
withstandsrange of −60 ◦ Crange
a temperature to 80 ◦ofC and
−60 °Cmaximum
to 80 °Cmechanical
and maxi-
stresses up to 10 MPa (rubber to rubber). Preliminary
mum mechanical stresses up to 10 MPa (rubber to rubber). Preliminary experiments at room temperature
experiments at
confirmed this, however,
room temperature the realistic
confirmed loading conditions
this, however, the realisticof loading
the soft layer are multiaxial
conditions at
of the soft
high temperatures and humidity. So, the cataplasm-test [27] was conducted to simulate
layer are multiaxial at high temperatures and humidity. So, the cataplasm-test [27] was
these severe environmental conditions. Specimens were prepared by cleaning, roughening,
conducted to simulate these severe environmental conditions. Specimens were prepared
and bonding of two rectangular sheets (see Figure 18a) of metal and the candidate materials.
by cleaning, roughening, and bonding of two rectangular sheets (see Figure 18a) of metal
After 24 h curing, the specimens were wrapped with water-soaked cotton wool as shown
in Figure 18b. In addition, this package was wrapped with aluminium foil, then packed
airtight and vacuumed in a PE-bag (hermetic sealed). After 14 days thermal exposure at
70 ◦ C (see Figure 18a), the bonding quality was examined. Bondings passing the cataplasm
test without delamination are eligible for the application.

2.3. Evaluation Procedure of the Pump Prototype

In the following sections, the procedures for displacement determination, design of
the test rig including the control parameters for the performance tests and the evaluation
procedure are outlined.

Actuators 2021, 10, 198
and the candidate materials. After 24 h curing, the specimens were wrapped with water-
soaked cotton wool as shown in Figure 18b. In addition, this package was wrapped with
aluminium foil, then packed airtight and vacuumed in a PE-bag (hermetic sealed). After
14 days thermal exposure at 70 °C (see Figure 18a), the bonding quality was examined.
17 of 28
Bondings passing the cataplasm test without delamination are eligible for the application.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 18.18. Preparation
Preparation of of specimen:
specimen: (a)(a) specimen
specimen bond
bond of of cyanoacrylate
cyanoacrylate between
between rubber
rubber and
and sheet
sheet metal;
metal; (b)(b) specimen
specimen in in
wet
wet cotton
cotton andand aluminium
aluminium foil;
foil; (c)(c) vacuum
vacuum packed
packed specimen
specimen in in climatic
climatic chamber).
chamber).

2.3.The
Evaluation Procedure
main emphasis is of
tothe Pump the
validate Prototype
derived algebraic model of the torque estimation
(designInhypothesis) stated a the previous
the following sections, the procedures sub-chapter. With risingdetermination,
for displacement frequencies anddesignlowerof
temperatures, the affordable drive torque is higher than at slow speeds
the test rig including the control parameters for the performance tests and the evaluation and warmer condi-
tions. The relation
procedure between necessary torque and stiffness (storage modulus), respectively
are outlined.
losses The
(lossmain
modulus),
emphasisis depending
is to validateon the
the selected rubber and
derived algebraic should
model be reproducible
of the torque estima-
for
tion (design hypothesis) stated a the previous sub-chapter. With rising frequencies of
reliable operation of the pump. When the model is sufficient, new generations and
such
lowerpumps can be designed
temperatures, in one drive
the affordable step (simultaneous
torque is higher procedures
than at slow like material
speeds andchoice,
warmer
geometry
conditions. calculations,
The relationmotor design)
between withouttorque
necessary building and further prototypes
stiffness (storage which savesre-
modulus),
time
spectively losses (loss modulus), is depending on the selected rubber and should betore-
and money. Additionally, the hydrodynamic fluid gap model (Section 2.1.3) allows
estimate the displacement and flow rate which can also be validated.
producible for reliable operation of the pump. When the model is sufficient, new genera-
The experimental set-up comprised a hydraulic circle with the pump as the main
tions of such pumps can be designed in one step (simultaneous procedures like material
component and included high-, low-pressure lines, a pressure relief valve, a flow meter,
choice, geometry calculations, motor design) without building further prototypes which
pressure as well as temperature sensors, and an on/off valve in the high-pressure line to
saves time and money. Additionally, the hydrodynamic fluid gap model (Section 2.1.3)
control the pressure difference. The test rig fits perfectly into a common climatic chamber
allows to estimate the displacement and flow rate which can also be validated.
(450 mm × 450 mm × 450 mm), while the measurement system and the electrical control
The experimental set-up comprised a hydraulic circle with the pump as the main
unit (ECU) controlling the motor were kept outside.
component and included high-, low-pressure lines, a pressure relief valve, a flow meter,
pressure
2.3.1. as well
Electrical as temperature
Drive and Performance sensors, and an on/off valve in the high-pressure line to
Determination
control the pressure difference. The test rig fits perfectly into a common climatic chamber
The electric commutated brushless direct current motor (EC-BLDC-motor) is con-
(450 mm × 450 mm × 450 mm), while the measurement system and the electrical control
trolled by LCMs semi open-source software X2C [28] and powered by the microcontroller
unit (ECU) controlling the motor were kept outside.
unit LCM-ECU-10HB-10A [29] including ten half bridges and some IOs (i.e., analog and
digital in- and outputs). The Hall-sensor signals allow a determination of the rotor po-
2.3.1. Electrical Drive and Performance Determination
sition, so a state-of-the-art speed controlled, field-oriented control [17] of the BLDC is
The electric
implemented commutated
(see Figure 19). The brushless direct current
q-vector-current motor (EC-BLDC-motor)
iq is proportional to the torque.isThe con-
trolled
motor wasbyembedded
LCMs semiinto open-source
an existingsoftware
test bench X2C [28]load
with and andpowered
torque bymeasurement.
the microcontroller
unitStarting
LCM-ECU-10HB-10A [29] including
from zero, the operating pointsten halfmeasured
were bridges and andsome IOs (i.e., increased
continuously analog and
digital in- and outputs). The Hall-sensor signals allow a determination
up to 2000 rpm and 35 Watt and the value iq was evaluated in the motor control unit. of the rotorThe
posi-
tion, so a state-of-the-art speed controlled, field-oriented control
top graph of Figure 20a shows the linear proportionality between torque and iq . The middle [17] of the BLDC is im-
plemented
graph Figure(see 20bFigure
shows19).theThe q-vector-current
relation between power, iq is proportional
iq and measured to thespeed,
torque.while
The motor
the
was embedded
efficiency over speedintoand
an existing test bench
iq is illustrated with
in the load and
bottom torqueFigure
diagram measurement.
20c. Those values
Starting fromaszero,
were implemented the operating
look-up tables intopoints were measured
the automatic and continuously
post-processed evaluation increased
script
upallow
and to 2000 rpm and
a power and35torque
Watt and the value iby
determination q was evaluated
measuring in the
iq and themotor
motorcontrol
speed.unit. The
So, for
top graph
further motor ofmeasurements
Figure 20Error! toReference source notof
test the functionality found.a
the pump, shows the linear
neither proportion-
the applied test
bench
ality nor other torque
between additional
andsensors
iq. Thetomiddle
estimate operation
graph Figurepoints of electric
20Error! power,
Reference speed
source not
and torqueshows
found.b is required.
the relation between power, iq and measured speed, while the efficiency
over speed and iq is illustrated in the bottom diagram Figure 20Error! Reference source
2.3.2. Test Rig
The electro-hydraulic scheme is illustrated in Figure 21. The ECU controls the pump
speed, and the 2-2-way seat type valve allows digital pressure control (DPC will be ex-
plained in the following lines). The climatic chamber heats or cools the test rig to gain
insights of required torques for certain speeds, temperatures and loading pressures.
 processed evaluation script and allow a power and torque determination by measuring iq
and the motor speed. So, for further motor measurements to test the functionality of the
not found.c. Those values were implemented as look-up tables into the automatic post-
pump, neitherevaluation
processed the applied testand
script bench nora other
allow poweradditional
and torquesensors to estimate
determination operationiq
by measuring
points of electric power, speed and torque is required.
and the motor speed. So, for further motor measurements to test the functionality of the
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 18 of 28
pump, neither the applied test bench nor other additional sensors to estimate operation
points of electric power, speed and torque is required.

Figure 19. Scheme of the speed and field-oriented BLDC motor control.

Figure19.
Figure 19.Scheme
Schemeof
ofthe
thespeed
speed and
and field-oriented
field-oriented BLDC
BLDC motor
motor control.
control.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)

(c)
(c)

Figure 20.
Figure 20. BLDC motor performance BLDC motor
determination: (a)performance
effects of motordetermination: (a) effects
speed and q-current of motor
variation speed torque;
on motor and q-current
(b)
power consumption
Figure 20. BLDCofmotor variation onat
the BLDC-motor
performance motor torque;
certain speeds
determination: (b) power
(a)and consumption
loads;
effects of speedofand
(c) calculated
motor theq-current
BLDC-motor
efficiency graph atthe
of
variationcertain speeds
BLDC-motor.
on motor and (b)
torque; loads;
power consumption of the(c) BLDC-motor
calculated efficiency graph
at certain speeds of and
the BLDC-motor.
loads; (c) calculated efficiency graph of the BLDC-motor.

To control a loading pressure on the high-pressure line of the pump, the digital
pressure control [30–32] has some benefits in comparison to an ordinary control with a
proportional valve. The applied normally closed 2-2-way seat type valve can close the
pump outlet without fluid flow (leakage) in order to test the pump in the worst-case
operation situation. To keep the pressure at a certain value, the valve will be excited with
a duty cycle signal according to pulse width modulation (see Figure 22). A higher duty
cycle reduces the mean resistance of the orifice at a certain flow rate; hence, the loading
pressure sinks, and vice versa. In combination with an ordinary PI-controller with flow
rate depending feed forward, this leads to a smooth pressure loading setting [33].
 2.3.2. Test Rig
The electro-hydraulic scheme is illustrated in Figure 21. The ECU controls the pump
speed, and the 2-2-way seat type valve allows digital pressure control (DPC will be ex-
plained in the following lines). The climatic chamber heats or cools the test rig to gain
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 19 of 28
insights of required torques for certain speeds, temperatures and loading pressures.

Figure 21.Scheme
Figure 21. Schemeofofthe
thetest
testrig
rig(hydraulic and
(hydraulic electrical
and circuit).
electrical circuit).
2.3.3. Definition of the Test Cycle
To control a loading pressure on the high-pressure line of the pump, the digital pres-
For the performance tests, an automation script [34] was written to carry out the
sure controlprocedure
measuring [30–32] has [35].some
Thebenefits
objectiveinwas
comparison
to estimate to the
an ordinary control with
pump behaviour withina pro-
portional valve. The applied normally closed 2-2-way seat type
ambient test conditions. The climate chamber temperature range was chosen betweenvalve can close the pump
0outlet without
◦ C and fluid
up to 40 ◦ C. flow (leakage)
The loading in order
pressure wastoset
test the pump
between in the
0 MPa and worst-case
0.5 MPa, and operation
the
situation.
motor speedToramped
keep theup pressure
to 1500 rpm.at aFigure
certain
23value,
shows the valve
a test cyclewill
at 20beC.excited
◦ withare
The results a duty
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
cycle signal according to the
pulse width modulation (see Figure 22). A higher 20 of 29
post-processed to estimate displacement and its long-term behaviour as well duty
as thecycle
reduces the
required mean
torque resistancethe
to maintain of pump’s
the orifice at a certainatflow
displacement rate;conditions.
various hence, the loading pressure
sinks, and vice versa. In combination with an ordinary PI-controller with flow rate de-
pending feed forward, this leads to a smooth pressure loading setting [33].

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 22.22.
TheThe DPC
DPC canbebeused
can usedwhenever
wheneverthere
thereisisaasort
sortofofcapacity
capacityon
onthe
thepressure
pressureside.
side. (a)
(a) power signal of a boosted
boosted 2-
2-way seat valve; (b) graph of a pressure control including target and actual pressure.
2-2-way seat valve; (b) graph of a pressure control including target and actual pressure.

2.3.3. Definition of the Test Cycle

For the performance tests, an automation script [34] was written to carry out the
measuring procedure [35]. The objective was to estimate the pump behaviour within am-
bient test conditions. The climate chamber temperature range was chosen between 0 °C
 measuring procedure [35]. The objective was to estimate the pump behaviour within am-
bient test conditions. The climate chamber temperature range was chosen between 0 °C
and up to 40 °C. The loading pressure was set between 0 MPa and 0.5 MPa, and the motor
speed ramped up to 1500 rpm. Figure 23 shows a test cycle at 20 °C. The results are post-
Actuators 2021, 10, 198
processed to estimate the displacement and its long-term behaviour as well as20the of 28
re-
quired torque to maintain the pump’s displacement at various conditions.

Figure
Figure23.23.Test
Testcycle:
cycle:motor
motorspeed
speed and
and pressure over
over time;
time;One
Onev-shaped
v-shapedramp
rampdown
down and
and upup
forfor
each load
each load pressure.
pressure.

3. 3. Resultsand
Results andDiscussion
Discussion
3.1. Material Selection of Wobble Plate’s Soft Layer
3.1. Material Selection of Wobble Plate’s Soft Layer
The first criterial to be characterized was the loss modulus E” and its temperature as
wellThe first criterial
as frequency to be characterized
dependencies. In Figurewas theE”loss
24 the modulus
(T, f) E′′ andofits
characteristics thetemperature
three candi-as
well as frequency dependencies. In Figure 24 the E″ (T, f) characteristics
date materials (TPU, NBR and LSR) are presented. LSR fits the best to the requirements of the three of
can-
didate
low E”materials
within the(TPU, NBR and
temperature LSR)ofare
range ◦
0 presented. ◦
C and 60 C.LSR Alsofits
thethe best to the
sensitivity requirements
to temperature
and loading frequency changes is lower compared to the other materials. Another material
property requirement for the soft layer of the wobble plate is to be flexible and reveal low,
resilient modulus. Figure 25a shows the Mooney-Plot of the candidate materials. The
lowest values are measured for LSR and NBR. Taking into account the E” (T, f) character-
istics, the material of choice is LSR with Shore A hardness of 70. Furthermore, the rate
dependency of the LSR’s hyperelastic material behavior is low confirming the DMA data
of Figure 24. The loading rate dependent equi-biaxial characteristics of LSR are analyzed in
the Mooney-Plot of Figure 25b. Only a small parallel shifting is observable and, therefore,
this formulation is perfectly suitable for the designated application. From these Mooney-
Plots the hyperelastic material parameter for the well-known Mooney–Rivlin constitutive
model can be easily derived by linear fitting of the reduced stresses and inverted stretches
(of higher order for equi-biaxial data). These material parameters are needed for the FE
analyses of the soft layer by calculating the contact pressure as well as the resulting stresses
(strains) under loading. With these results the design of the soft layer’s geometry can be
optimized iteratively.

3.2. Bonding between the Wobble Plate’s Soft and Rigid Layers
As Figure 26a,b reveal, the cataplasm test has shown that the bonding with cyanoacry-
late could not resist those extreme conditions. All 3 specimens fall apart during unpacking
even without additional mechanical forces. It can be said that cyanoacrylate respective
adhesive bonding is no opportunity for this application. Therefore, an injection moulded
and vulcanized connection between soft layer with the wobble plate (even with form
closure) as mentioned in Section 2.1.4 and shown in Figure 17 should be considered for
the prototype.
 theseMooney-Plots
these Mooney-Plotsthe thehyperelastic
hyperelasticmaterial
materialparameter
parameterforforthe
thewell-known
well-knownMooney–Ri-
Mooney–Ri-
vlin constitutive model can be easily derived by linear fitting of the reduced
vlin constitutive model can be easily derived by linear fitting of the reduced stresses stressesand
and
inverted stretches (of higher order for equi-biaxial data). These material parameters
inverted stretches (of higher order for equi-biaxial data). These material parameters are are
neededfor
needed forthe
theFEFEanalyses
analysesofofthe
thesoft
softlayer
layerby
bycalculating
calculatingthethecontact
contactpressure
pressureasaswell
wellasas
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 theresulting
the resultingstresses
stresses(strains)
(strains)under
underloading.
loading.With
Withthese
theseresults
resultsthe
thedesign
designofofthe
the soft
21 of 28
soft
layer’sgeometry
layer’s geometrycan canbe
beoptimized
optimizediteratively.
iteratively.

Figure24.
Figure
Figure 24.Temperature
24. Temperatureand
Temperature andfrequency
frequencydependent
dependentloss
lossmodulus
modulusE”
E”ofofthe
thecandidate
candidatematerials
materialsTPU,
TPU,
NBR and
TPU, NBR
NBRLSR.and LSR.
and LSR.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 25. Hyperelastic characteristics evaluated in Mooney Plots under (a) uniaxial loading for all candidate materials
(TPU, NBR and LSR); (b) equi-biaxial loading of the selected material liquid silicone rubber (LSR) with a hardness of
Shore A 70.

3.3. Determination of the Static Displacement

After assembling the first measurement was the displacement of the pump at room
temperature and atmospheric conditions. Tubes (inner diameter ‘d’ = 4 mm) were con-
nected to the in- and outlet ports of the pump. The system was filled with distilled water
and the pump was slowly turned manually n times, which is easily performed since the
primary BLDC-drive consists of an external rotor. To produce an accurately measurable
amount of pumped water, the pump was turned n times, cumulating n times the pump
displacement of several µL.
 anoacrylate could not resist those extreme conditions. All 3 specimens fall apart during
unpacking even without additional mechanical forces. It can be said that cyanoacrylate
respective adhesive bonding is no opportunity for this application. Therefore, an injection
moulded and vulcanized connection between soft layer with the wobble plate (even with
Actuators 2021, 10, 198
form closure) as mentioned in Section 2.1.4 and shown in Figure 17 should be considered 22 of 28
for the prototype.

(a) (b)
Figure 26. Evaluation
Figure of the cataplasm-test:
26. Evaluation (a) opening
of the cataplasm-test: the vacuum-packed
(a) opening specimen;
the vacuum-packed (b) compar-
specimen; (b) compari-
ison of the 3 specimens.
son of the 3 specimens.

3.3. Determination of the Static

The position ∆l between start and end of motion was measured to calculate
Displacement
difference
quasi-static
After assemblingdisplacement as followed: was the displacement of the pump at room
the first measurement
temperature and atmospheric conditions. Tubes (inner diameter ‘d’ = 4 mm) were con-
nected to the in- and outlet ports of the pump. The ∆lsystem
·d2 ·π was filled with distilled water
V0 = , (24)
and the pump was slowly turned manually n times,4·which n is easily performed since the
primary BLDC-drive
For better consists of an
correlation ofexternal rotor. To
the calculated andproduce an accurately
the measured measurable the
fluid displacement,
amount of pumped
geometric water, from
deviation the pump wasCAD
the ideal turned n times,
shape cumulating
is crucial. Figuren27times
shows thethe
pump
sealing lip
displacement of several µL.
deviation of the CAD contour in comparison to the manufactured component measured
The position
with difference
a 3D surface ∆l between
scanner (Keyencestart
3Dand end of motion
Profilometer was measured
VR-5000). A deviationto in
calculate
displacement
quasi-static
withindisplacement as followed:
±25% is predictable and acceptable. The designed volume was calculated to be
about 40 µL. The actual displacement for
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW ∆ ∙ a quasistatic
∙ turn of the pump was measured 23 of to
29
34 µL. In this case, the actual maximum 𝑉 = deviation , is about 20%. In order to reach(24)
the same
∙
flow rate as desired, the motor speed must be increased properly.
For better correlation of the calculated and the measured fluid displacement, the ge-
ometric deviation from the ideal CAD shape is crucial. Figure 27 shows the sealing lip
deviation of the CAD contour in comparison to the manufactured component measured
with a 3D surface scanner (Keyence 3D Profilometer VR-5000). A deviation in displace-
ment within ±25% is predictable and acceptable. The designed volume was calculated to
be about 40 µL. The actual displacement for a quasistatic turn of the pump was measured
to 34 µL. In this case, the actual maximum deviation is about 20%. In order to reach the
same flow rate as desired, the motor speed must be increased properly.

Figure 27. Investigation of the manufactured sealing lip; contour comparison of CAD (edge of the
Figure 27. Investigation of the manufactured sealing lip; contour comparison of CAD (edge of the
pink area) and manufactured rubber (bold black line) measured via white light scanning.
pink area) and manufactured rubber (bold black line) measured via white light scanning.
3.4. Pump Testing
3.4. Pump Testing
Besides the controlled parameters and filtered measured values (motor speed, feed
Besides
pressure andthe
flowcontrolled
rate), theparameters andoffiltered
results consist measured values
the post-processed, (motorvalues,
calculated speed, such
feed
pressure and flow
as drive torque andrate),
powerthe generated
results consist
fromofthe
thefiltered
post-processed, calculated
measurements. Figurevalues, such
28 shows
as
thedrive
wholetorque and results
test cycle power forgenerated
a certainfrom the chamber
climatic filtered measurements.
temperature (20 ◦ C). Figure
Figure 28 shows
28a
the wholethe
contains test cycleasresults
target well asfor a certain
measured climatic
speed and chamber temperature
load pressures. In Figure (2028b
°C).the
Figure
most28a
im-
contains the target
portant results wereasillustrated,
well as measured speed and
namely torque and load
flow pressures. In Figure
rate. The third graph28b the most
(Figure 28c)
shows the evaluated
important results were powers. As expected,
illustrated, namelyhigher
torquepressures
and flowlead
rate.toThe
higher
thirdnecessary drive
graph (Figure
torques
28c) andthe
shows theevaluated
flow ratepowers.
is nearlyAsproportional to thepressures
expected, higher motor speedleadFigure
to higher29 shows the
necessary
drive torques and the flow rate is nearly proportional to the motor speed Figure 29 shows
the same procedure as Figure 28 but for two different climatic chamber conditions 0 °C
(a–c) and 40 °C (d–f).
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 29
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 23 of 28

same procedure as Figure 28 but for two different climatic chamber conditions 0 ◦ C (a–c)
and 40 ◦ C (d–f).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 28. Results of the test cycle at room temperature (20 ◦ C); (a) target test cycle motor speed n and load pressure p;
Figure 28. Results
(b) measured of the
torque test
and cycle
flow at(c)
rate; room temperature
electrical, (20 °C);
mechanical and(a) target test
hydraulic cycle motor speed n and load pressure p; (b)
power.
measured torque and flow rate; (c) electrical, mechanical and hydraulic power.
Figure 30a shows the measured drive torque characteristic and its temperature as well
as motor speed dependency. Here, we can observe that the highest torque is necessary
at the coldest temperature, the highest pressure, and the highest motor speed. Losses
due to the rubber’s entropy elasticity lead to an inner (adiabatic) heating reducing the
storage modulus and, thus, the overall loss factor. These losses are not implemented in
the theoretical consideration. At elevated temperatures, in this case 40 ◦ C, the required
torques reveal low frequency, respectively motor speed, dependency. Figure 30b illustrates
the theoretically estimated drive torques for the pump, which can be directly compared
to the measured results in Figure 30a. At low motor speeds, the torque estimation is
sufficiently accurate, however the absolute value of the torque at low temperatures and
high frequencies is rising but significantly lower as estimated. The maximum measured
torque of 50 mNm in Figure 29b (at 0 ◦ C and 1500 rpm) exceeds the calculated result
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 24 of 28

of approximately 40 mNm by 25%. The post-processed results exhibit the maximum

at 45 mNm, which were evaluated by averaging the results for both speed ramps (up
and down) at same conditions, hence, the inner (adiabatic) heating reduces the mean
torque. The edge operation point (maximum motor speed and lowest temperature) is the
critical state to dimension for the primary drive. So, the predicted (calculated) values at
elevated temperatures are not crucial for the operation in terms of torque requirement. The
observed difference of 25% between the prediction and the measurement is within
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW the
25 of 29
deviations of the experimental determination of the material data (storage as well as loss
moduli). Deviations in the pump’s testing and evaluations are superimposed to those of
the material characterizations.

(a) (d)

(b) (e)

(c) (f)
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 29
Figure 29. Results are structured as in Figure 28 but for different temperatures; (a–c) results of the test cycle at 0◦ ; (d–f) results
of the test ◦
Figure 29.cycle at 40
Results are C.
structured as in Figure 28 but for different temperatures; (a–c) results of the test cycle at 0°; (d–f)
results of the test cycle at 40 °C.

Figure 30a shows the measured drive torque characteristic and its temperature as
well as motor speed dependency. Here, we can observe that the highest torque is neces-
sary at the coldest temperature, the highest pressure, and the highest motor speed. Losses
due to the rubber’s entropy elasticity lead to an inner (adiabatic) heating reducing the
storage modulus and, thus, the overall loss factor. These losses are not implemented in
the theoretical consideration. At elevated temperatures, in this case 40 °C, the required
torques reveal low frequency, respectively motor speed, dependency. Figure 30b illus-
trates the theoretically estimated drive torques for the pump, which can be directly com-
pared to the measured results in Figure 30a. At low motor speeds, the torque estimation
is sufficiently accurate, however the absolute value of the torque at low temperatures and
high frequencies is rising but significantly lower as estimated. The maximum measured
torque of 50 mNm in Figure 29b (at 0 °C and 1500 rpm) exceeds the calculated result of
approximately 40 mNm by 25%. The post-processed results exhibit the maximum at 45
mNm,
(a) which were evaluated by averaging the results(b) for both speed ramps (up and
down) at same conditions, hence, the inner (adiabatic) heating reduces the mean torque.
Figure30.
30.Torque
Torquevalidation:
validation:(a)(a)Illustration
Illustration
of of
thethe approached
approached torque
torque curve
curve depending
depending on speedallatmeasured
on speed all measured condi-
Figure The edge operation point (maximum motor speed and lowestattemperature) conditions
is the critical
tions regarding temperature
regarding temperature andstate and
load to load pressure;
pressure; (b) results
(b) results of torque estimation as stated at Equation (13) for material and
geometry data of prototype. dimension for theofprimary
torque estimation
drive. So, as
thestated at Equation
predicted (13) forvalues
(calculated) material and
at elevated
geometry data of prototype.temperatures are not crucial for the operation in terms of torque requirement. The ob-
served Thedifference of 25% and
pump testing between the prediction
evaluation procedure andrevealed
the measurement is within equations
that the algebraic the devi-
ations of the experimental determination of the material data (storage
based on empirical material data and geometric parameters are sufficiently reliable to as well as loss mod-
pre-
uli).
dict Deviations in theinpump’s
the drive torque testing
the crucial and evaluations
operation points of theare pump.
superimposed
The standardto those of the
deviation
material
of 25% of characterizations.
the pump’s displacement is observed in the worst-case operation point and is
within the scatter of the conducted experiments and includes the error propagation (noise,
 Actuators 2021, 10, 198 25 of 28

The pump testing and evaluation procedure revealed that the algebraic equations
based on empirical material data and geometric parameters are sufficiently reliable to
predict the drive torque in the crucial operation points of the pump. The standard deviation
of 25% of the pump’s displacement is observed in the worst-case operation point and is
within the scatter of the conducted experiments and includes the error propagation (noise,
environmental as well as signal fluctuations, among others). Therefore, a conservative
safety factor of 50% is suggested for the prediction of the target torque and, hence, the
selection of the peristaltic pump’s primary drive.
The displacement evaluations depending on operation temperature, motor speed
(frequency), and loading pressure was calculated as:

Qmeasure
V ( f , T, p) = , (25)
n_measure
The comparison of the model-based prediction of the pump’s displacement to the
measured displacement shows (see Figure 31) that a similar decline of the displacement
with increasing motor speed is observed at both loading pressures (0 MPa and 0.5 MPa).
However, the measured displacement characteristics have a steeper decline. At 1500 rpm
the pump’s displacement decreases about 10%; the calculated drop by the proposed
model is only 2%. The reason for such a deviation in displacement from estimation to
measurement is due to the insufficiency of the abstracted model. A parallel plate movement
was considered in the model as a simplification, however the (wobbling) plate is rather
tilted than parallel. Further dynamic effects such as damping of the rubber, inertia of the
wobble plate and inflation of the enclosed fluid volume were not considered and may
have more influence on the pump’s displacement than assumed. Furthermore, the stiffness
of the wobbling plate was set to be linear in contrast to the more complex hyper-elastic
rubber behaviour, which was used for the 2D-axissymmetric FE-simulation. Finding the
exact displacement was not the aim of this investigation, rather it was to gain insights into
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
its characteristics and, more importantly, ensure steady-state displacement at a specific
27 of 29
operation point. So, leakage is prevented meaning that there is no backflow from the high
to low pressure side.

Figure 31. Displacement

Figure 31. Displacementcharacteristics at at
characteristics 2020 °C;◦ C;
idle
idleand
andnom.
nom.load
load(5(5bar)
bar) and
and varying frequency;
varying frequency;
measurement
measurement vs. vs.
simple algebraic
simple model
algebraic model (the graph
(the graphwaswascorrected
correctedwith
with aa constant factor
factor to
toreach
reach
the measured initial displacement at 0 rpm to equalize the causes due to manufacturing
the measured initial displacement at 0 rpm to equalize the causes due to manufacturing tolerances tolerances
and and
assembling).
assembling).

4. Conclusions and Outlook

The peristaltic pump’s primary drive torque has a functional relation to boundary
conditions, geometry as well as material parameters. This simple model can sufficiently
predict the needed torque for new proportional scaled designs by using geometry param-
eters, safety factor and rubber material data. Therefore, the whole pump including the
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 26 of 28

4. Conclusions and Outlook

The peristaltic pump’s primary drive torque has a functional relation to boundary
conditions, geometry as well as material parameters. This simple model can sufficiently
predict the needed torque for new proportional scaled designs by using geometry param-
eters, safety factor and rubber material data. Therefore, the whole pump including the
drive can be designed, manufactured, and verified at once. Our proposed model and
Actuators 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
design methodology are an alternative to complex and long-lasting costly dynamic 28 of3D
29
FE-simulations. Figure 32 shows a graph to illustrate the designing process.

Figure
Figure 32.
32. V-model
V-model of
of the
the evaluated
evaluated design
design methodology.
methodology.

The
Withperistaltic
the determined pump’sspecific
displacement
values ofhas pronouncedfrequency
temperature, nonlinearand motor speed
loading (fre-
depen-
dent drive
quency) andtorque, the applicability
temperature dependencies of the proposed
mainly causedmethodology to design
the interaction of theawell-known
sufficiently
algebraic
rubber and(quasistatic)
the dynamicphysical
fluid gap model for thefluid
(respective torque which depends
cushioning). on the rubber
To get valuable ma-
predicted
terial’s
flow behaviour
rate (empirical
results, further data) as well
investigations asfluid
of the boundary and operating
gap model conditions
and the interaction canthe
with be
verified.
rubber areDetermination
necessary. Also, of the empirical
slight changesdata must
in the be performed
concept design can with precaution
reduce as the
those devia-
rubberScheidl
tions. behaviouret al.is[36]
inherently
addressed hyper-
this and viscoelastic.
cushioning A high
groove sensitivity
problem to environmental
and presents a solution
(temperature
by reducing the and humidity)
section changes
of contact can lead to significant alterations of the dynamic
to a minimum.
thermomechanical
After finding an properties.
appropriate Additionally,
pump design stress/strain softening
and estimating theeffects
requiredandtorque,
hysteretic
the
(adiabatic) heating must
primary drive can be optimized. be characterized for reliable operation of the peristaltic micro-
dosing pump. Therefore, it is of particular importance to formulate (tailor) the rubber’s
materialContributions:
Author behaviour toConceptualization,
exhibit low loss properties (E” methodology,
A.P. and T.Z.; and tan(δ)) along
A.P.,with highU.D.Ç.;
T.Z. and durability
soft-
(mechanical
ware, as well as
T.Z.; validation, thermal
A.P., induced
T.Z., U.D.Ç. andaging).
C.E.; formal analysis, T.Z. and U.D.Ç.; investigation,
A.P., T.Z., U.D.Ç. and C.E.;
The peristaltic pump’sresources, A.P., T.Z.,has
displacement U.D.Ç. and C.E.; data
pronounced curation,
nonlinear A.P., T.Z.,
motor speedU.D.Ç.
(fre-
and C.E.; and
quency) writing—original
temperaturedraft preparation,
dependencies T.Z. and
mainly U.D.Ç.;
caused thewriting—review
interaction of the andwell-known
editing, T.Z.
and U.D.Ç.;
rubber andvisualization,
the dynamicA.P., fluidT.Z.,
gapU.D.Ç. and C.E.;
(respective supervision,
fluid A.P.; To
cushioning). project administration,
get valuable A.P.
predicted
and U.D.Ç.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
flow rate results, further investigations of the fluid gap model and the interaction with manuscript.
the rubber
Funding: Thisare necessary.
research receivedAlso, slight changes
no external funding. in the concept design can reduce those
deviations. Scheidl et al. [36] addressed this cushioning groove problem and presents a
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
solution by reducing the section of contact to a minimum.
Informed
AfterConsent
findingStatement: Not applicable.
an appropriate pump design and estimating the required torque, the
primary drive can be optimized.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Open Access Funding was received by the University of Linz. The presented
research work has partly been supported by the Johannes Kepler University, Institute for Polymer
Product Engineering (Zoltán Major), the companies Erwin Mach Gummitechnik GmbH, Helmut
Hechinger GmbH & CO KG and the Linz Center of Mechatronics GmbH (LCM), which is part of
the COMET/K2 program of the Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology and the
Federal Ministry of Economics and Labor of Austria. The authors would like to thank the Austrian
and Upper Austrian Government for their support.
Actuators 2021, 10, 198 27 of 28

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.P. and T.Z.; methodology, A.P., T.Z. and U.D.Ç.; soft-
ware, T.Z.; validation, A.P., T.Z., U.D.Ç. and C.E.; formal analysis, T.Z. and U.D.Ç.; investigation, A.P.,
T.Z., U.D.Ç. and C.E.; resources, A.P., T.Z., U.D.Ç. and C.E.; data curation, A.P., T.Z., U.D.Ç. and C.E.;
writing—original draft preparation, T.Z. and U.D.Ç.; writing—review and editing, T.Z. and U.D.Ç.;
visualization, A.P., T.Z., U.D.Ç. and C.E.; supervision, A.P.; project administration, A.P. and U.D.Ç.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Open Access Funding was received by the University of Linz. The presented
research work has partly been supported by the Johannes Kepler University, Institute for Polymer
Product Engineering (Zoltán Major), the companies Erwin Mach Gummitechnik GmbH, Helmut
Hechinger GmbH & CO KG and the Linz Center of Mechatronics GmbH (LCM), which is part of
the COMET/K2 program of the Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology and the
Federal Ministry of Economics and Labor of Austria. The authors would like to thank the Austrian
and Upper Austrian Government for their support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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