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Sex Roles, Vol. 45, Nos. 3/4, August 2001 (°

C 2002)

Men and Women Supervisors’ Job Responsibility,

Job Satisfaction, and Employee Monitoring
Sean R. Valentine1
University of Wyoming

A gender-based job responsibility framework emphasizing job satisfaction

and employee monitoring is presented in this study and is tested using a na-
tional sample of 2,607 supervisors representing a variety of industries. Overall,
the path analysis indicated that male managers reported greater perceived re-
sponsibility than did female managers. Findings also indicated that perceived
responsibility was positively related to both job satisfaction and employee
monitoring. The limitations of the study are highlighted, and the managerial
implications of the results and suggestions for future research are presented.

Despite the prevalence in organizations of various forms of disparate treat-

ment, women are increasingly being given heightened managerial respon-
sibility at all corporate levels (Daily, Certo, & Dalton, 1999; Daley & Naff,
1998; Owen & Todor, 1993). According to Kent and Moss (1994), changing
stereotypical attitudes and societal acceptance of females in leadership roles
are mitigating many of the barriers that have traditionally prevented women
from being promoted. Indeed, women exhibit many of the people-oriented
and transformational characteristics that companies value (Andorka, 1998;
Marongiu & Ekehammar, 1999; Rozier & Hersh-Cochran, 1996), they per-
form well in key managerial skill areas (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995;
McShulskis, 1996; Moskal, 1997), and they emerge as effective leaders in
many situations (Kent & Moss, 1994; Marongiu & Ekehammar, 1999).
Even though the professional opportunities available to women are
greater than in the past, the experiences of men and women are still quite

1 To whom correspondence should be addressed at Department of Management and Mar-

keting, University of Wyoming, P.O. Box 3275, Laramie, Wyoming 82071-3275; e-mail:
valentin@uwyo.edu.

179
0360-0025/01/0800-0179/0 °
C 2002 Plenum Publishing Corporation
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180 Valentine

distinct. Women are frequently employed in low-level service and clerical oc-
cupations (Reid, 1998; Sullivan, 1989), and their salaries tend to be lower than
are men’s (Ackah, Heaton, & McWhinney, 1999; Pfeffer & Ross, 1990; Reid,
1998; Weinberger, 1998). Slow advancement, the glass ceiling, sexual harass-
ment, and other forms of sex discrimination continue to erode women’s
authority and position in many organizations (Booker, 1998; Cooper, 1997;
Daley & Naff, 1998; Gutek, Cohen, & Tsui, 1996; Knutson & Schmidgall,
1999; Naff, 1995; Owen & Todor, 1993; Simerly & Hunt, 1998), leading
women to have “less positive attitudes than men” (Naff, 1995, p. 536).
Women’s responses to negative employment experiences have not been
adequately addressed in the organizational sciences (Gutek et al., 1996), and
additional inquiry that focuses on their job perceptions, attitudes, and per-
formance is needed. In particular, any lower job responsibility experienced
by women compared to that experienced by men may be one source of per-
ceived inequity, and previous research confirms that women are commonly
employed in jobs that have little potential (Reskin & Padavic, 1994) and
frequently deal with skepticism from their coworkers and employees (Cann
& Siegfried, 1987; Cooper, 1997; Jeanquart-Barone & Sekaran, 1994). Even
more important to organizations is the reality that such negative experi-
ences may adversely affect women’s job attitudes and work performance.
This study consequently addresses (1) whether gender is related to men
and women supervisors’ perceptions of job responsibility and (2) whether
perceived job responsibility is related to individual job satisfaction and em-
ployee monitoring. Because gender is commonly used to contrast employees’
perceptions of the workplace and such perceptions influence many job re-
sponses, it appears that the examination of these relationships is particularly
relevant because companies might be able to enhance women’s employment
by developing programs that provide greater job enrichment and perceived
responsibility.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Gender and Perceived Job Responsibility

Despite their managerial competencies, women must unfortunately

deal with negative stereotypes that can impair their job mobility and ad-
vancement (Chang & McBride-Change, 1997; Cooper, 1997; Reskin &
Padavic, 1994). As leaders, women are sometimes characterized as quiet,
passive, overly relationship-oriented, and emotionally unstable (Heilman,
1997; McGlashan, Wright, McCormick, 1995; Owen & Todor, 1993), and
the masculine task-oriented styles of leadership that are highly favored by
management are not always utilized by female managers (Rozier, 1996;
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Supervisors’ Job Responsibility, Job Satisfaction, and Employee Monitoring 181

Rozier & Herch-Cochran, 1996). Brady (1998) using a sample of business

students recently found that negative stereotypes about women’s lack of
talent and career interest were cited as major determinants of workplace
inequalities between men and women. Sutton and Moore (1985) concluded
that nearly 60% of males sampled believed that only exceptional women
could attain noteworthy success. Furthermore, Ibarra (1992) found that
women formed professional relationships with both men and women in or-
ganizations whereas men formed multiple networks with only other men,
which could further impede women’s access to employment opportunities.
Men also appeared to be better rewarded by their individual and positional
resources and homophilous relationships than were women.
Many of the negative ideas about women in management may affect
how they are treated and accepted at work (Daley & Naff, 1998; McGlashan
et al., 1995). Despite representing almost half of the workforce, women’s
presence is much less noticeable in positions with executive responsibil-
ity (Whelan-Berry & Gordon, 2000). Even worse, women are frequently
given assignments that are excluded from social and professional networking
(Ohlott, Ruderman, McCauley, 1994; Snavely, 1993). Lyness and Thompson
(2000) concluded that women reported greater career barriers and greater
importance of performing well on the job than did men using matched sam-
ples of male and female executives.
With regard to ratings, men tend to evaluate their abilities, contributions,
and successes higher than they rate women’s characteristics (Deaux, 1979;
Deaux & Farris, 1977; Rosenthal, 1995). Some managers even believe that
women’s desires to marry and raise children make them less career-oriented
than men (Korabik & Rosin, 1995; Lewis & Park, 1989), which sometimes
prevents them from being hired and promoted (Stuart, 1992). These negative
ideas unfortunately lead some women to question their own supervisory
abilities, to evaluate themselves harshly on performance appraisals, and to
set low performance expectations (Hammick & Acker, 1998; Maccoby &
Jacklin, 1974). Talmud and Izraeli (1999) recently concluded that women’s
concerns about lacking skills might cause them to try to prove themselves
to others.
Previous research indicates that employees often treat men and women
supervisors differently. Some studies have shown that subordinates show a
preference for male leadership (Cann & Siegfried, 1987), some have con-
cluded that female subordinates trust male supervisors more than they trust
female supervisors (Jeanquart-Barone & Sekaran, 1994), and others show
that subordinates are more likely to blame female managers for negative
work outcomes (Cooper, 1997). Evidence also suggests that gender atti-
tudes may affect the evaluation of and preference for women’s leadership
(McGlashan et al., 1995).
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182 Valentine

Sex stereotypes may also afford men many employment advantages

(Chang & Chang-McBride, 1997; Falk & Lyson, 1988). White males are
disproportionately supervisors and skilled workers, and quite often are the
highest compensated demographic group in many industries (Falk & Lyson,
1988; Sullivan, 1989). Employment opportunities for women generally reside
outside of densely populated areas in what could be described as low-level
white-collar and unskilled blue-collar work in support and clerical fields
(Falk & Lyson, 1988). Men frequently receive higher salaries than women,
which perpetuates a perception of pay inequity and pay discrimination in
a variety of industries (Anderson & Tomaskovic-Devey, 1995; Pfeffer &
Ross, 1990). In academia alone, women earn less compared to men when
the effects of education, academic field, and individual contributions are
controlled (Ferber & Green, 1982). Women in academia experience a variety
of promotion challenges as well (Broder, 1993).
Disparate treatment generally results in negative job outcomes such
as pessimism, wage dissatisfaction, and turnover (Sicherman, 1996). Gutek
et al. (1996) concluded that women’s perceptions of sex discrimination were
associated with increased work conflict, lower prestige and power on the job,
and lower willingness to make the same career choice. Additionally, Ackah
et al. (1999) concluded that women experience more motivational problems
and career uncertainties compared to men, and this could be attributed to
their negative work experiences. Finally, Neumark and McLennan (1995)
using the National Longitudinal Survey of Women found that women re-
porting discrimination were likely to change employers, to have children,
and to marry.
A person’s self-concept and his or her identification to a job or orga-
nization can be weakened by these negative work conditions. The psycho-
logical gender development theories place emphasis on the development
of confidence through interpersonal contact, and “the integrity of women’s
self concept might be threatened by separation and distancing of the self
from others” (Marongiu & Ekehammar, 1999). The psychological separa-
tion women feel combined with a lower self-image could negatively affect
their perceptions of job responsibility.
Responsibility generally refers to an individual’s involvement with vari-
ous work-related events and their outcomes because the consequences have
implications for their identity (Britt, 1999). The Triangle Model, which was
developed by Schlenker, Britt, Pennington, Murphy, and Doherty (1994),
specifies that responsibility is generally composed of triadic relationships
among specific events, the rules that regulate these events, and the iden-
tity images individuals have in certain situations. According to Britt (1999,
p. 696), the “amount of responsibility an individual feels on any given occa-
sion is a direct function of the strength of the links between the elements and
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Supervisors’ Job Responsibility, Job Satisfaction, and Employee Monitoring 183

the importance of the elements to the individual.” Schlenker et al. (1994) em-
pirically assessed the Triangle Model and concluded that responsibility was
indeed higher when all three relationships in the model were strong. Using
the principles prescribed by the model, the discrimination and stereotypes
(the events), the pay inequity and biased policies (the rules and regula-
tions), and the low self-concept and performance expectations (the identity
images) could all synergistically lower women’s perceptions of their own job
responsibility. Reskin and Padavic (1994, p. 93) make similar arguments that
managers “often give women less authority than they give men with similar
qualifications,” and that women are commonly discouraged from using their
power. If women’s experiences can be attributed in part to a lack of job
authority, then their negative responses at work may also be attributed to a
lack of enrichment.

Perceived Job Responsibility, Job Satisfaction,

and Employee Monitoring

Employee participation, which increases motivation through power

sharing and increased responsibility, is generally recognized as an excep-
tional predictor of many positive responses (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Sagie &
Koslowsky, 2000). Employee participation involves giving employees and
managers at all levels the chance to make key managerial decisions that
have profound implications for other members of the organization (Sagie &
Koslowsky, 2000; Wagner & Gooding, 1987). Empirical research shows that
these opportunities can increase job satisfaction and employee performance
due to the ameliorated nature of the work itself (Cotton, Vollrath, Froggatt,
Lengnick-Hall, & Jennings, 1988; Sagie, 1994; Wagner, 1994), so encouraging
participation and leadership development though increased work responsi-
bility should therefore improve employees’ experiences.
Job enrichment programs, which involve designing jobs to be intrinsi-
cally satisfying and motivating, often increase employees’ work responsi-
bility. For example, Herzberg’s two-factor theory postulates that the use of
intrinsic work factors such as employee recognition and skills development
can increase job satisfaction, and that the encouragement of desirable social
factors such as superior supervision and strong social networks can decrease
job dissatisfaction (Sagie & Koslowsky, 2000). Increased work responsibility
may be related to many of the factors presented in the two-factor model,
especially since recognition and interpersonal relationships have profound
implications for an individual’s identity.
Many other work-related variables including those outlined in job de-
sign theory are recognized as predictors of various job responses (Hackman
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184 Valentine

& Oldham, 1976; Liden, Wayne, Sparrowe, 2000). Job design studies for in-
stance show that characteristics such as variety, autonomy, and feedback can
be used to increase job satisfaction and employee performance and to de-
crease turnover (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Glisson & Durrick, 1988; Spector &
Jex, 1991). Liden et al. (2000) in a recent field investigation involving 337 em-
ployees and their immediate supervisors found that desirable job character-
istics increased work satisfaction. Using a sample of medical technologists,
Blau (1999) concluded that increased task responsibilities are related to
overall job satisfaction. Kirkman and Rosen (1999) also found that produc-
tion and service responsibilities given to 111 teams from four organizations
enhanced team empowerment, which increased job satisfaction, organiza-
tional commitment, and customer service delivery. Supervisors who perceive
greater responsibility may therefore be more satisfied with their jobs. Reskin
and Padavic (1994, p. 95) indeed claim that “workers value authority in its
own right,” and that “having authority increases workers’ job satisfaction.”
Supervisors who perceive greater job responsibility and enrichment may
also be more likely to monitor the activities of their employees. Monitor-
ing typically involves assessing employee performance, providing employee
feedback, and implementing control mechanisms that enable employees to
succeed in their jobs. Monitoring can therefore be considered a critical aspect
of supervision because it enhances employee performance and productivity.
Although employee monitoring has not been fully explored in the organi-
zational sciences (using the present definition), Fried and Ferris (1987) and
Fried (1991) concluded that many of the job factors proposed by Hackman
and Oldham (1976) are related to employee performance. However, other
studies have presented less encouraging results (Cotton, 1993; Kelly, 1992),
and few studies have examined the enrichment-performance link using a su-
pervisory scope. Consequently, further inquiry into the supervisory process
using unique measures of performance and supervision is required.

HYPOTHESES

When one considers the negative stereotypes, discrimination, and lim-

ited job mobility that women frequently face, female managers most likely
perceive less job responsibility than do their male counterparts. Because
job enrichment and employee involvement programs generally yield pos-
itive work attitudes, it also likely that perceived job responsibility, which
can enhance employees’ work appraisals, and job satisfaction are positively
related. The job enrichment literature also recognizes that desirable job
factors positively influence employee performance, which implies that per-
ceived responsibility and employee monitoring are also related. Based on
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Supervisors’ Job Responsibility, Job Satisfaction, and Employee Monitoring 185

these observations and theoretical arguments, the following hypotheses are

presented:
Hypothesis 1: Women perceive their job responsibility to be lower than do
men supervisors.
Hypothesis 2: Supervisors’ perceptions of their responsibility positively in-
fluence job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 3: Supervisors’ perceptions of their responsibility positively in-
fluence employee monitoring.

METHOD

Sample

Data were obtained from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth

(NLSY), a database compiled by the Ohio State University and the Univer-
sity of Chicago under the supervision of the Department of Labor and the
Bureau of Labor Statistics. The NLSY contains a national sample of slightly
more than 12,000 young working adults who represent the general popula-
tion of the United States. Data collection procedures, which were composed
of both surveys and respondent interviews, began in 1979 and have con-
tinued to the present. The NLSY contains both personal and work-related
information about the participants including workplace descriptions, indi-
vidual differences, and family background. Information was extracted from
the database based on whether participants responded to specific job re-
sponsibility, job satisfaction, and performance items, and a usable sample
size of 2,607 supervisors who participated in the 1996 data collection round
was obtained.

Measures

Averaging 3 items that indicated the amount of responsibility supervi-

sors had for pay, promotion, and task management provided the perceived
responsibility measure. These three items were stated as follows:
1. How much responsibility [do/did] you have for deciding the pay of
the people you supervised? (M = 1.57, SD = .75)
2. How much responsibility [do/did] you have for deciding the promo-
tions of the people you supervised? (M = 1.75, SD = .75)
3. How much responsibility [do/did] you have for deciding the spe-
cific tasks or jobs to be done by the people you supervised? (M =
2.49, SD = .61)
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186 Valentine

Table I. Factor Solution for Perceived Responsibility Measure

Item Factor 1
Amount of responsibility for promotions .89
Amount of responsibility for pay .88
Amount of responsibility for task assignment .69
Eigenvalue 2.05
Explained variance (%) 68.16

Responses were rated on a 3-point scale composed of 1 (no responsibility),

2 (some responsibility), 3 (full responsibility). Exploratory factor analysis
yielded a one-factor solution with 68.16% of the variance being explained,
all factor loadings were above .69, and these results are presented in Table I.
Reliability analysis indicated acceptable internal consistency (α = .77), and
although examination of adjusted item-total correlations for the three items
showed that task responsibility was related only moderately with the other
two scale items (see Table II), the measure overall appears to adequately
assess global perceptions of job responsibility. Global job satisfaction was
measured with one item that indicated how respondents felt in general about
their current job, and responses were rated on a 4-point scale anchored by
1 (dislike it very much) and 4 (like it very much). Although the use of sin-
gle item measures is sometimes problematic, Wanous, Reichers, and Hudy
(1997) and Scarpello and Campbell (1983) concluded that 1-item job sat-
isfaction scales are generally acceptable. Using the correction for attenua-
tion formula, Wanous and Reichers (1996) concluded that the rejection of
single-item job satisfaction measures was indeed unwarranted. Employee
monitoring was also assessed with one item that indicated the degree to
which individuals tract their employees’ progress at work, and responses
were rated on a 3-point scale composed of 1 (not at all closely), 2 (somewhat
closely), and 3 (very closely). Finally, the respondents indicated their gender
by replying to item that specified 1 (male) or 2 (female).

Analysis

Correlation analysis was utilized to examine the bivariate relationships

among the focal variables of the study. Because the primary goal of this study

Table II. Perceived Responsibility Measure and Adjusted Item-Total Correlations

Item Item-total correlation
Amount of responsibility for promotions .71
Amount of responsibility for pay .68
Amount of responsibility for task assignment .44
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Supervisors’ Job Responsibility, Job Satisfaction, and Employee Monitoring 187

was to simultaneously examine the relationships among gender, perceived

job responsibility, job satisfaction, and employee monitoring, path analysis
using the AMOS 4.0 software was employed to test the proposed hypotheses.

RESULTS

Table III provides summary of the characteristics of the sample. Roughly

59% of the sample members were male, and their ages ranged from 31 to
39 years. Not quite 70% of the respondents were Anglo American, approx-
imately 24% were African American, and the remaining 6% represented
other minority groups. A majority of the sample members worked for
a private for profit company (73%), whereas many others worked for the
government (13%).
Table IV provides a summary of the variable descriptive statistics and
correlations. The mean score for supervisor responsibility (M = 1.94, SD =
.58) implied that supervisors perceived adequate responsibility in their jobs,
the mean score for job satisfaction (M = 3.41, SD = .69) implied that the
sample members were fairly satisfied with their jobs, and the mean score
for employee monitoring (M = 2.42, SD = .57) suggested that participants
directed their employees closely. Gender and perceived responsibility were

Table III. Characteristics of the Sample

Variable Frequency Valid percent
Age
31 112 4.3
32 351 13.5
33 371 14.2
34 363 13.9
35 371 14.2
36 311 11.9
37 278 10.7
38 308 11.8
39 142 5.4
Gender
Male 1,534 58.8
Female 1,073 41.2
Race
Anglo American 1,809 69.5
African American 619 23.8
Other minorities 176 6.8
Class of worker
Government 335 13.0
Private for profit company 1,893 73.2
Nonprofit organization 176 6.8
Self employed 151 5.8
Working in family business 30 1.2
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188 Valentine

Table IV. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Gender 1.41 .49 —
2. Managerial responsibility 1.94 .58 −.13∗∗ —
3. Job satisfaction 3.41 .69 −.03 .18∗∗ —
4. Employee monitoring 2.42 .57 .00 .24∗∗ .02 —
∗∗ p < .01.

negatively related (r = −.13, p < .01), perceived responsibility was posi-

tively related to job satisfaction (r = .18, p < .01), and perceived responsi-
bility was positively related to employee monitoring (r = .24, p < .01).
Figure 1 presents the results of the path analysis using maximum like-
lihood estimation. Because it is likely that age is related to perceived job
responsibility, the variable was included in the model even though no a pri-
ori hypotheses were specified. The insignificant chi-square statistic indicated
adequate model fit (χ 2 = 5.72, df = 6, p < .46), and analysis of the other fit
indices such as the relative chi-square statistic (χ 2 /df = .95), the goodness-
of-fit index (GFI = .99), the comparative fit index (CFI = 1), and normed
fit index (NFI = .98) verified satisfactory model parsimony. The analysis re-
vealed that age was positively related to perceived job responsibility. Women

Fig. 1. Results of path analysis. ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .001.

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Supervisors’ Job Responsibility, Job Satisfaction, and Employee Monitoring 189

were also found to perceive lower job responsibility than did men, and this
supports Hypothesis 1. Results showed that perceived job responsibility was
positively related to both job satisfaction and employee monitoring, and
these findings support Hypotheses 2 and 3.
Previous research suggests that gender may be directly related to both
job satisfaction and performance. According to Clark, Carafella, and Ingram
(1998, p. 62):

If there is one characteristic of mid-level women leaders it is their perception of their

leadership style as sensitive and responsive, especially to the people with whom they
work. They want to involve their people and use various terms to describe this: being
collaborative, consensus building, facilitative, teambuilding, and participatory.

It therefore seems likely that women monitor their employees’ work per-
formance more so than do men in an effort to increase teambuilding and
cohesion. Despite these positive tendencies, women report a variety of ca-
reer challenges that may negatively affect their job satisfaction, and this
advancement, ongoing achievement, and the development of career compe-
tencies (Whelan-Berry & Gordon, 2000). Consequently, model modification
analyses were employed to assess whether the inclusion of these constraints
could improve model fit. Examination of the modification indices suggested
that adding a path between gender and job satisfaction did not significantly
decrease the model’s chi-square statistic (MI = 0.14). The same conclusion
was also reached for the path between gender and employee monitoring
(MI = 2.58). Consequently, the hypothesized model appeared to be the most
parsimonious given the focal variables that were selected for analysis.
In an effort to ensure adequate model parsimony and to narrow the
scope of this research project, several key demographic variables such as age
and race were not included in the path model. Because previous research
suggests that employees in certain industries may have better work experi-
ences than others (Falk & Lyson, 1988; Ferber & Green, 1982; Knutson &
Schmidgall, 1999; Snavely, 1993; Withiam, 1997), a post hoc MANOVA
(shown in Table V) was employed to assess whether class of worker was re-
lated to perceived responsibility, job satisfaction, and employee monitoring.
Results of the analysis indicated multivariate relationships among the
three focal variables and class of worker (for instance, Pillai’s trace = .16,
F12, 7740 = 35.21, p < .001). Univariate results confirmed these findings, and
class of worker was highly related to perceived responsibility (F4, 2580 =
106.27, p < .001), job satisfaction (F4, 2580 = 13.54, p < .001), and employee
monitoring (F4, 2580 = 5.56, p < .001). Bonferroni-adjusted probabilities in-
dicated that perceived responsibility was the lowest in government occupa-
tions, and they were the highest in the self-employed classification. Job sat-
isfaction tended to be higher among supervisors in family-owned businesses
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190 Valentine

Table V. Post Hoc MANOVA Results

Independent variable Test name Value F
Class of worker Pillai’s trace .16 35.21∗∗∗
Wilks’ lambda .85 36.97∗∗∗
Hotelling’s trace .18 38.51∗∗∗
Univariate results
Dependent variable M SD n F
Perceived responsibility
Government 1.70 .42 335 106.27∗∗∗
Private for profit company 1.92 .56 1,893
Nonprofit organization 1.87 .51 176
Self employed 2.76 .49 151
Working in family business 2.14 .67 30
Job satisfaction
Government 3.44 .69 335 13.54∗∗∗
Private for profit company 3.37 .70 1,893
Nonprofit organization 3.45 .69 176
Self employed 3.74 .49 151
Working in family business 3.83 .38 30
Employee monitoring
Government 2.34 .56 335 5.56∗∗∗
Private for profit company 2.43 .57 1,893
Nonprofit organization 2.34 .55 176
Self employed 2.56 .61 151
Working in family business 2.60 .50 30
∗∗∗ p < .001.

than in government and private for profit organizations. Finally, employee

monitoring tended to be higher among self-employed supervisors compared
to those working in government or private not for profit organizations. It
appears from the analysis that individuals who were self-employed reported
the best work experiences, whereas those who were employed in govern-
ment and nonprofit organizations reported the worst employment incidents.
Given the large numbers of women employed in the public and nonprofit
sectors, the findings provide credible evidence that industry characteristics
may be important antecedents to gender inequity and inequality.
Because class of worker was related to the study’s focal variables, a
post hoc chi-square analysis was also employed to assess whether men or
women were better represented in particular classes (see Table VI). Fre-
quencies showed that women were the majority in the government and non-
profit organizations, whereas men were the majority in the private for profit,
self-employed, and family business classifications (χ 2 = 83.16, p < .001).
These results are not surprising considering that the glass ceiling affects
many private industries such as hospitality and entertainment (Knutson &
Schmidgall, 1999; Snavely, 1993). Research also suggests that women small
business owners and operators face many challenges such as delegation
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Supervisors’ Job Responsibility, Job Satisfaction, and Employee Monitoring 191

Table VI. Results of Post Hoc Chi-Square Analysis

Men Women
Class of worker N % N % χ2
Government 163 48.7 172 51.3 83.16∗∗∗
Private for profit company 121 61.5 76 38.5
Nonprofit organization 556 34.1 521 65.9
Self employed 53 74.8 182 25.2
Working in family business 407 73.3 634 26.7
∗∗∗ p < .001.

problems, career tension, difficulty in obtaining bank loans, and low experi-
ence (Coleman & Carsky, 1996; Neider, 1987), and this may explain why men
held the majority in the self-employed and family business classes. However,
recent research indicates that some women are leaving large organizations
to work in highly enriched situations found in small businesses (Daily et al.,
1999). According to Coleman and Carsky (1996, p. 47), “there are 7.7 million
U.S. women-owned businesses, employing 15.5 million workers and gener-
ating $1.4 trillion in sales. Employment growth in women-owned firms is
more than twice that of all firms.” Based on the MANOVA results that indi-
cate high enrichment and involvement scores for the small business classes,
women’s employment experiences may actually improve as they continue
to seek new small business opportunities. Overall, both post hoc analyses
imply that women’s inequity may originate from employment in industries
that lack opportunity. Either more opportunities need to be created in these
industries for all employees or more must be done to encourage the active
recruitment of women into fields that provide increased job enrichment.

DISCUSSION

The path analyses verified that women perceived less supervisory re-
sponsibility in their jobs than did men. This finding is not unusual considering
women’s negative work experiences. Manager’s perceptions of their own su-
pervisor responsibility also positively affected job satisfaction and employee
monitoring, which implies that empowered managers, both male and female,
tend to be more satisfied with their current employment situation and are
more likely to direct their employees’ activities.
The results have several noteworthy implications for organizational
leaders. The findings suggest that women’s perceptions of their own job re-
sponsibility need to be changed, and this may be accomplished through sev-
eral carefully designed intervention measures. Mentor programs for exam-
ple are effective professional development tools that can be used to increase
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192 Valentine

motivation, satisfaction, and organizational commitment and decrease ab-

senteeism and turnover (Fine & Pullins, 1998). Some evidence suggests that
women who have female mentors experience the most enrichment in men-
toring programs. Simonetti, Ariss, and Martinez (1999) claim that mentoring
produces “the internal power that can make a woman successful within the
‘old boys’ network, helping her break through the proverbial ‘glass ceiling’
to achieve the upper management and visionary roles held primarily by
men.” McCune (2000, p. 7) also states that women are “uniquely positioned
to offer career guidance to other women” because they share common ex-
periences that males generally do not understand. Furthermore, Fine and
Pullins (1998) using a sample of 165 salespeople working for an office prod-
ucts manufacturer concluded that women who are mentored by other women
experienced increased motivation. Other research implies that a combina-
tion of both male and female mentorship may benefit women. Many women
in the food-service industry claim “women who want a seat in the executive
suite need both male and female mentors who can guide them over career
hurdles” (Knutson & Schmidgall, 1999, p. 68).
Another strategy that may mitigate women’s lack of perceived job re-
sponsibility involves placing women in challenging jobs that possess high lev-
els of authority and responsibility. Indeed, negative stereotypes and biases
have collectively caused women to work in occupations that provide insignif-
icant challenge and enrichment, which may adversely affect their affiliation
with a job or organization. By giving women more job responsibility as well
as an enhanced opportunity to lead, they may more readily feel a link be-
tween their identity and the organization for which they work. Whelan-Berry
and Gordon (2000) recently suggested that comprehensive career develop-
ment programs based on mentoring and career counseling could mitigate
women’s career frustrations and turnover. Diversity training that educates
men and women about their differences at work may also reduce some of
the stereotypes that adversely affect working women. According to Snavely
(1993, p. 21)
Respectful treatment in training settings is better achieved when both men and
women are taught to understand and manage people whose views, experiences, edu-
cation, and goals are different from their own. An open-minded view also encourages
coeducational training in such traditionally sex-ascribed skills as listening, speaking,
group dynamics, conflict management, team building, and empowering others.

Cooper and Lewis (1995) also suggest that both gender awareness training
and assertiveness training can resolve many of the communication problems
experienced between men and women at work.
The results also suggest that supervisors’ job responsibility perceptions
are related to job attitudes, which further supports the notion that the care-
ful design of jobs can enhance individual satisfaction. Although most job
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Supervisors’ Job Responsibility, Job Satisfaction, and Employee Monitoring 193

design research has focused primarily on job factors such as autonomy and
job significance, this study makes a contribution by utilizing perceived job
responsibility as an alternative conceptualization of job enrichment. Accord-
ing to job design theory, managers can construct jobs to enrich employees’
workplace experiences, and typical factors that can be redesigned include
feedback, autonomy, variety, and job significance. Research shows that job
design strategies can indeed increase employee motivation and satisfaction
(Fried & Ferris, 1987; Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Empowerment, which is a
product of an enriched work environment, may also be used as a tool for de-
veloping greater perceived responsibility and satisfaction among managers.
According to Kirkman and Rosen (1999), encouraging leader behaviors, in-
creasing team responsibility, using team-based human resource policies, and
developing team social structures all enhance empowerment.
The results also imply that increased managerial responsibility can aug-
ment the closeness of supervision. Because monitoring is considered a desir-
able managerial behavior, organizations may consider using job enrichment
programs that are based heavily on vertical loading. Vertical loading is a
managerial process that gives employees higher-level tasks and responsi-
bilities (Sagie & Koslowsky, 2000), and these positive experiences tend to
increase productivity. Because “training can enhance employee confidence
and skills” (Parker & Wall, 1998, p. 106), organizations should also consider
providing extensive training that builds individual leadership competencies.
Such training may strengthen the positive relationship between responsi-
bility and employee performance by preparing employees for positions of
authority.
Perceived job responsibility deserves greater attention in the gender lit-
erature since the concept appears to be conceptually linked to so many other
job-related issues. Future research should address how managers’ percep-
tions of job responsibility influence other key job response variables such
as organizational commitment and job involvement. Reexamining the re-
lationships among supervisor responsibility and the consequence variables
using a multiitem measure of job satisfaction (as opposed to a single-item
measure) and objective measures of both job responsibility and employee
monitoring would enhance internal validity and would mitigate the poten-
tial for common method bias. New research needs to also address how other
gender-related factors such as sex stereotyping and gender biasing influence
women’s perceptions of managerial responsibility. Because different job per-
ceptions and attitudes were noted across different industries, it would also
be appropriate to explore further the impact of industry type on individual
job outcomes. This could be done by examining the relationships explored
in this study in more specific occupational areas such as the service of tech-
nology industries. An obvious limitation of the study was the exclusion of
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194 Valentine

other variables relevant to the examination of perceived job responsibility

such as age and race, and future research should address the role of such
factors. Valentine (2001) indeed found that race was related to individuals’
perceptions of job complexity, and it is likely that age is related to job en-
richment as well. By assessing how gender and various work characteristics
are related to key job responses, organizational leaders will be better able
to prescribe programs that benefit both men and women.

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