Japanese storyteller Sadanami Sanjin “The
Tongue-Cut Sparrow” is a Japanese folktale about
the consequences of kindness, anger, and greed. It
shows how showing great kindness to an animal
without expecting anything in return is rewarded in
due course.
Yei Theodora Ozaki (1870–1932) – was a
translator of Japanese stories and tales. She had a
Japanese and English lineage.
Types of Claims and Fallacies
Claim – is an argument in statement form.
Thesis – The central or overall claim of an
argumentative essay.
After providing the thesis in the introduction, the
author then spends the entire essay working to
prove that claim through sub-claims, reasoning, and
evidence.
Statement: "I own a cell phone."
Claim: "Every middle school student should have
their own cell phone."
Types of Claims
Claim of Fact – makes an assertion about
something that can be proved or disproved with
factual evidence.
Keep in mind the basic quality of claims, that they
have to be debatable, and offer an assertion about an
issue.
Examples:
Inappropriate: “The month of March 2017 was
1.03°C (1.9°F) above the 20th century average—
this marked the first time the monthly temperature
departure from average surpassed 1.0°C (1.8°F) in
the absence of an El Niño episode in the tropical
Pacific Ocean.” (from the U.S. Department of
Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) Appropriate claim of fact:
Decreasing carbon dioxide emissions from car
exhaust, manufacturing processes, fertilizers, and
landfills, while slowing deforestation, may help
slow the process of global warming.
Appropriate: Decreasing carbon dioxide emissions
from car exhaust, manufacturing processes,
fertilizers, and landfills, while slowing
deforestation, may help slow the process of global
warming.
Claim of Value – argues that something is good or
bad, or that one thing is better than another thing.
Asserts qualitative judgments along a good-to-bad
continuum relating to persons, events, and things in
one’s environment.
Examples:
1.The death penalty is unethical.
2. It’s better to apply good nutritional choices at
home than teach them at school, because good
nutrition then becomes ingrained in the child’s
experience.
3. Although immunotherapy has produced some
good results in fighting cancer, overall it is less
effective than chemotherapy.
Claim of Policy – argues that certain conditions
should exist, or that something should or should not
be done, in order to solve a problem.
It proposes that some specific course of action
should, but not necessarily will, be taken. The key
word in a claim of policy is the conditional verb
“should” which implies that some action ought to be
taken, but not that it must or will be taken.
Examples:
1. The United States should send a manned
expedition to Mars.
2. Students should read the assigned text material
before the instructor lectures on it.
3. The city’s board of education should institute an
honors program not only for high school students,
but for elementary and junior high school students
as well.
Counterclaim – is the argument opposing the
author's claim.
Reasons – the reasoning or logical proof provided
to prove the argument. The reasons can also be
thought of as the "why" behind a claim.
Evidence – provides factual proof for the reasons in
an argument and can consist of facts, data, statistics,
published study results, and quoted experts.
Fallacy – is an error in reasoning that invalidates an
argument.
Any argument that appears baseless or irrelevant
can be considered fallacious, and this can put
speakers or writers in an awkward and embarrassing
situation.
Types of Fallacy
Ad Hominem – the speaker or writer attacks the
other person instead of the argument to discredit the
person.
Strawman Argument – the speaker or writer
misinterprets a position or argument that was never
made by the other person and which he or she never
intended to defend.
Appeal to Ignorance – the speaker or writer uses
the argument that if a statement cannot be proven, it
must be false and vise-versa.
False Dilemma/False Dichotomy – the speaker or
writer makes it appear as though there are only two
options when there are actually more than two.
Slippery Slope – the speaker or writer says that one
event can lead to chain of events, culminating in
something significant.
Circular Argument – the speaker or writer repeats
something assumed beforehand.
Hasty Generalization – the speaker or writer
makes a general statement without enough evidence
to support it.
Red Herring – the speaker or writer uses
something to mislead or distract form what is the
relevant topic or issue at hand.
Bandwagon – the speaker or writer says that
something is true or right because other people
agree.
Post Hoc – the speaker or writer says because event
A happened before event B, then event A caused
event B.
Citation – is a way of giving credit to individuals
for their creative and intellectual works that you
utilized to support your research.
Typically, a citation can include the author's name,
date, location of the publishing company, journal
title, or DOI (Digital Object Identifier).
In-Text Citation – includes information about the
sources used within the body of the academic text.
Parenthetical In-Text Citation:
An in-text citation includes information about the
sources used within the body of the academic text
(Abella, 2022).
Narrative In-Text Citation:
As defined by Abella (2022), an in-text citation
includes information about the sources used within
the body of the academic text.
Direct Quotation:
According to Cope (2017), “Our relationships with
our Soul Friends are the containers, the sparks, and
the fuel required for psychological and spiritual
development” (p. 10).
Block Quotation:
Today, digital cameras have practically taken over
photography. As Johnson (2010) explained,
Digital cameras now make up 90% of all camera
sales at the leading electronic stores. This increase
in sales can be partially attributed to the widespread
use of email and social networking, which has
encouraged the sharing of digital photos. (p. 23)
Johnson further noted that, even more than with the
shift to digital cameras, the increasing use of phones
and iPods that have built-in cameras has replaced
the use of film cameras.
Reference List – is an alphabetical list of sources
cited in your speech or academic essay.
Example:
Abella, D. S. (2022). English for Innovative Minds
8 Textbook. DIWA Learning Systems Inc.
Citation Style – dictates the information necessary
for a citation and how the information is ordered, as
well as punctuation and other formatting.
1. APA (American Psychological Association) –
is used by Education, Psychology, and Sciences
2. MLA (Modern Language Association) Style –
is used by the Humanities
3. Chicago/Turabian Style – is generally used by
Business, History, and the Fine Arts
Reference List: Format
Books
Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work:
Capital letter also for subtitle. Publisher name. DOI
(if available)
Stoneman, R. (2008). Alexander the Great: A life in
legend. Yale University Press.
Articles:
Print Journal
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C.
(Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume
number (issue number), pages.
https://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyy
Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The
New Criterion, 15(3), 5-13.
Electronic Journal
As noted above, when citing an article in an
electronic journal, include a DOI if one is
associated with the article.
Baniya, S., & Weech, S. (2019). Data and
experience design: Negotiating community-oriented
digital research with service-learning. Purdue
Journal of Service-Learning and International
Engagement, 6(1), 11-16.
https://doi.org/10.5703/1288284316979
Magazine
Peterzell, J. (1990, April). Better late than never.
Time, 135(17), 20-21.
Newspaper
Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to
strengthen state energy policies. The Country
Today, 1A, 2A.
Other Print Sources
Institution or organization name. (Year). Title of
entry. In Title of reference work (edition, page
numbers). Publisher name.
Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. (1997). Goat. In
Merriam Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10th ed.,
499-500). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.
Electronic Sources:
Webpage or Piece of Online Content
If page names an individual author, cite their name
first:
Last name, F. M. (Year, Month Date) Title of page.
Site name. URL
Price, D. (2018, March 23). Laziness does not exist.
Medium.
https://humanparts.medium.com/laziness-does-
not-exist-3af27e312d01
If the resource was written by a group or
organization, use the name of the
group/organization as the author. Additionally, if
the author and site name are the same, omit the site
name from the citation.
Group name. (Year, Month Date). Title of page. Site
Name. URL
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals. (2019, November 21). Justice served:
Case closed for over 40 dogfighting victims.
https://www.aspca.org/news/justice-served-case-
closed-over-40-dogfighting-victims
If the page’s author is not listed, start with the title
instead. Additionally, include a retrieval date when
the page’s content is likely to change over time
(like, for instance, if you’re citing a wiki that is
publicly edited).
Title of page. (Year, Month Date). Site name.
Retrieved Month Date, Year, from URL
Tuscan white bean pasta. (2018, February 25).
Budgetbytes. Retrieved March 18, 2020, from
https://www.budgetbytes.com/tuscan-white-
bean-pasta/
If the date of publication is not listed, use the
abbreviation (n.d.):
Author or Group name. (n.d.). Title of page. Site
name (if applicable). URL
Audiovisual Materials:
YouTube Video
Person or group who uploaded video. (Date of
publication). Title of video [Video]. Website host.
URL
Tasty. (2018, March 7). 7 recipes you can make in 5
minutes [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9_5wHw6l11
o the study.
Photograph (Not Associated with a Museum)
Photographer, P. (Year of publication). Title of
photograph [Photograph]. Source. URL
Ryan, S. (2019). Sea smoke on Lake Michigan
[Photograph]. New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/world/
year-in-pictures.html
Citing sources in your academic writing or speech
provides readers a way to validate information.
Background of the Study – is where the
researchers should introduce their entire study, in
which the following should be stated and expressed:
a. justification of the study
b. why the researchers chose this particular study
c. what makes this study interesting
I. Purpose of Background of the Study
a. The general definition of the topic/problem area
b. Historical basis for the existence of the problem
c. Efforts made towards addressing similar
challenges
d. How the efforts failed to be realized hence the
need for your study
II. Contents of the Background of the Study
a. Presentation of the Problem
Describe the existence of an unsatisfactory
condition or a problem that needs a solution.
b. Historical Background of the Problem
Give the historical background of the problem, if
applicable.
c. Geographical Conditions of the Study Locale
If applicable, describe the geographical location of
d. Rationale of the Study
Give the reason(s) why the study should be
conducted.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) – is an
American essayist, poet, and philosopher.
Nature – is an excerpt about Emerson’s definition
of a nature lover.
Fact – is a verifiable statement.
Belief – is a conviction based on cultural or
personal faith, morality, and values.
Opinion – is a personal judgment based on facts
and beliefs.
Assertion – is an oversimplification or prejudice
based on insufficient or unexamined evidence, but it
is presented as if it were a fact.
It is something declared or stated positively, often
with no support or attempt at proof.
Statement of the Problem – a series of questions Scope and Delimitation
used in researching the topic.
I. Scope of a Study
General Statement of the Problem – purpose
It is the coverage of the research to be explored
statement
which includes the facts and theories about the
Specific Sub-Problems or Sub-Questions – research subject.
questions
II. Delimitation of a Study
These are the parameters set by the researcher to
Negation - refers to a denial of a particular fact or determine what to include and what to leave out of
opinion. the research study.
Examples: Limitation of a Study
 You were hardly attending any of your 1. Content
classes this term.
 Objectives
 You did not do what I asked you to.
 Data to collect
Affirmation – expressions that reinforce a  Design
particular fact or opinion.
2. Target Locale
Examples:
 Location
 You were always present in class this term.  Condition
 You clearly did everything I asked you to.
3. Respondents
 Population
Argumentation – is the process of asserting an idea  Sampling technique
through logical reasoning, valid justification, and  Criteria for sample
conclusive evidence.  Sample size
Argumentative Speech – is a type of speech that 4. Time Period
drives a point and presents evidence to support or
defend that point. It is delivered to an audience that
will deem if the arguments are worthy of
consideration.