Cardiovascular/Nerve/Respiratory System

Wound Healing/Scars
Stage 1
Hemostasis – Hemo/Blood, Stasis – Stoppage – Blood Stoppage

When Wound is present, Chemichals in Endothelium – Outer lining of Blood Vessel and Lymphs start Clumping
together to Stop Wound, Body sends protein Fibrin to lock together onto Wound to make it more better at sealing.

Vimentin – Stuff That makes Endothelium

Step 2 – Inflammatory
6 Hours - 3 Days

Goal: Finding And Destroying Microbes that got through cut

Vasodilation – Expansion of Blood Vessels

Vascular Permability – More Open Pores that let the Good Stuff In

Neutrophil – White Blood Cells that kill Bacteria

Macrophage – Immunocell that kills bacteria

Cytokines – Chemichal Messages that tell body that it needs some Backup

Step 3 – Repair Phase

Fibroblasts, Keratinocytes - Epithelial Cells – Skin Cells

Step 4 – Remodeling
After Inflammation The Body Repairs the skin With Collagen but Messy, so when you move your skin you move the
Collagen and it rearanges to make itself stronger

Formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis).

 Cardiorespiratory System

Cardio – Cardion (Heart)

Vascular – Vasculum (Small Vessel)

Heart Has 4 Stations, SA Node Starts The Neurological Spark, AV node, Bundle of HIS and Purjinke Fibers – Spread
Electrical Charge to make Heart Contract

Endocardium – Most inter part of the Heart

Myocardium – Muscle

Epicardium – Lining of the outer surface of Heart

Pericardium – Fiber that Surronds the Heart

Atriomegaly – irregular Enlargment

Ventricular Dysrythmia

Pulmonary and Aortic Valves

Right Ventricular Orifice/Tricuspid Valve

Left Ventricular Orifice/Mitral Valve

Valvuloplasty – Surgical Repair of Valves

Mitralatresia – Closing, narrowing of Mitral orifice/hole

Tricuspid Murmur – Damage to the Tricuspid orifice

Pulmonary Stenosis

Aortic Insufficiency – Incomplete Closingof Aortic Valve/ Permiting backflow of blood

Coronary Artery Disease - Reducing Blood to Heart Bc of Narrowing of the coronary arteries

Diastole – Relaxation of Heart and Heart Chambers fill with Blood

Systole – Contraction

Valve Insuficiency – Diastolic Thrill/Vibration and Systolic Honk

Vasculogenesis – Proccess Of Development of Blood Vessels

Angitis – Inflamation Of Blood Vessel

Arteriorrhexis – Rupture of Artery

Phlebo – Vein

Erythrocyte – Red Blood Cells

Leukocyte – White Blood Cells

Leukemia – Cancer Of W.B.C.

Thrombocyte – Clotting Of Blood

Thromboasthenia – Poor Blood Clotting

Hemophilia – Poor Blood Clotting

Anemia – Reduced Number of Red Blood Cells

Sclero – Loss Of elasticity and Hardening

 Arteriosclerosis - Loss Of elasticity and Hardening

Atherosclerosis – Fatty deposits and hardening

Aneurysm – Swelling of artery or heart chaimber

Embolism – Clot that travels the blood stream and passes through body until it clots

Ischemia – Reduced Blood Flow

Hemorrage – Bleed From Ruptured Blood Vessel

Angina Pectoris – Inssuficient oxygen supply to Heart

Angere – Choking

Cardiograph/Cardiography/Cardiogram

Angioplasty – Surgical reopening of Vessels

Coronary Artery Bypass Graft – Reconnecting Artery to the Aorta past the Blockage point using a piece of another
vessel

Nerve System

Plexus – Place of Many Nerves

Nerves That Come out of the Spine 2 Parts: Anterior: Motor, and Posterior, Sensal

Neuron – Nerve
Neurocytolisis – Destruction Of Nerve Cells
Glial Cells Glial cells are a type of cell that provides physical and chemical support to neurons and maintain their
environment.
Schwann Cells And Astrocytes
Glio suffix
Glioma – Tumor of Glial Cells
Encephalo – Brain
Encephalodysplasia – Bad forming of The Brain
Cerberospinal – Brain as a Whole
Cortico/Cortex – Neurological Pathways
Corticopontine – Cerebral Cortex to Pons

Thalamotomy – Removal/Cutting Of Thalamus

Cerebelloolivary – Cerebellum to inferior Olive - In vertebrates, the ION is known to coordinate signals from the
spinal cord to the cerebellum to regulate motor coordination and learning.
Meningo – Membrane that enveloping the Brain
Meningitis- Inflammation
Myelo – Spinal Cord or Bone Marrow
Myelography
Radiculo – Roots of Spinal Nerve
Polyradiculitis – Inflammation of Spinal Nerve Roots
Ganglio – Ganglia – Relay Station For Nerve Signals
 Gangliosympathetcomy – Removal of Ganglia
Afferent Fibers – Motor signals To CNS
Efferent – Away From CNS
Aphasia – Innability to speak
Spasmophemia – Stuttering/Phemia Speech
Lexia – Read/Dislexia
Lepsy – Seziures/Narcolepsy – Sleep
Phrenia – Mind
Bradyphlenia – Slow Midnness
Plegia – Paralysis
Hemiparesis – Paralysis
Dynia, Algya – Pain
Dentalgia - Tooth
Gastrodynia – Stomach
Aphasia, Dysphasia – Language disorder
Expresive Dysphasia – Trying to tell something but can't produce words
Receptive Aphasia – Words don't make sense
Asteriognosis – Lesion in Pariental Lobe / Can't make sense of objects in hand
Ataxia – Uncoordinated and Uncontroable movement/Cerebellum
Diplopia- Double Vision
Dysarthria – Patient Knows what to say but are slurring
Dysphagia – Can't Swallow
Dystonia – Uncontroable Movement – Agonist and Antagonist Muscles can't coordinate between themselves
Hypotonia – Nerve Fibers are Damaged – Low Muscle Tone
Hypertonia – Problem WIth Inhibition – Inability to stop Excessive activity – High Muscle Tone
Paresthesia – Abnormal Sensation/Pins and Needles

Glial cells are a type of cell that provides physical and chemical support to neurons and maintain their environment.
Located in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system, glial cells are sometimes called the "glue" of
the nervous system, as well as neuroglia or just glia.

This article will go over what glial cells do in the brain and nerves in the body. You'll also learn about conditions that
are related to glial cells.

Types of Glial Cells

Glial cells' main job is to support another type of brain cell called neurons. Glial cells are like a secretarial pool for
your nervous system and its janitorial and maintenance staff.

Glial cells may not do the "big jobs," in the brain, but without them, those big jobs would never get done.

There are different types of glial cells and each one has a specific role in helping your central nervous system (CNS)
—which is made up of your brain and the nerves of your spinal column—work right.

There are five types of glial cells in your CNS:

 Astrocytes
 Oligodendrocytes
 Microglia
 Ependymal cells
1
 Radial glia

You also have glial cells in your peripheral nervous system (PNS), which is made up of all the nerves in your body
that are away from your spine (like your arms and legs).
 The two types of glial cells in the PNS are:

 Schwann cells
 Satellite cells1

Astrocytes

The most common type of glial cell in the CNS is the astrocyte or astroglia. The "astro" part of the name is because
the cells have projections that make them look star-shaped.

There are different kinds of astrocytes. For example, protoplasmic astrocytes have thick projections with lots of
branches. Fibrous astrocytes have long, slender arms with few branches.

Protoplasmic astrocytes are generally found among neurons in the gray matter of the brain while the fibrous ones
are typically found in white matter.

While they're found in different places, they do similar jobs, including:

 Forming the blood-brain barrier (BBB): The BBB is like a strict security system for the brain. It only lets in
substances that are supposed to be in your brain while keeping out things that could be harmful. This filtering
system is essential for keeping your brain healthy.
 Regulating neurotransmitters: Neurons communicate using chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters.1 Once the message is delivered, neurotransmitters hang around until an astrocyte recycles
them. This reuptake process is the target of many medications, including antidepressants.
 Cleaning up: Astrocytes also clean up what's left behind when a neuron dies, as well as excess potassium ions
(chemicals that play an important role in nerve function).2
 Regulating blood flow to the brain: For your brain to process information properly, it needs a certain amount of
blood going to all of its different regions. An active region gets more blood than an inactive one.
 Synchronizing the activity of axons: Axons are long, thread-like parts of neurons and nerve cells that conduct
electricity to send messages between cells.
 Brain energy metabolism and homeostasis: One of the most important roles of astrocytes is to regulate
metabolism in the brain by storing sugar (glucose) from the blood and providing it as fuel for neurons.

What Happens If Astrocytes Don't Work?

Astrocyte dysfunction has been linked to neurodegenerative diseases, including:

 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease)

 Huntington's chorea
 Parkinson's disease

Animal models of astrocyte-related diseases are helping researchers learn more about them with the hope of
discovering new treatment possibilities for them in humans.3

How the Blood-Brain Barrier Works

Oligodendrocytes

Oligodendrocytes come from neural stem cells. The word is made up of a few Greek terms that mean "cells with
several branches."

The main purpose of oligodendrocytes is to help information move faster along axons in the brain.

Oligodendrocytes look like spikey balls. On the tips of their spikes are white, shiny membranes that wrap around the
axons of nerve cells and form a protective layer, like the plastic insulation on electrical wires. This protective layer is
called the myelin sheath.1

The sheath is not continuous, though. There's a gap between each membrane that's called the "node of Ranvier."
This node helps electrical signals spread efficiently along nerve cells.

The signal actually hops from one node to the next and increases the velocity of the nerve conduction while also
reducing how much energy it takes to transmit it.

Signals along myelinated nerves can travel as fast as 200 miles per second.

At birth, you only have a few myelinated axons, but the number keeps growing until you're about 25 to 30 years
old. Myelination is believed to play an important role in intelligence.4

Oligodendrocytes also provide stability and carry energy from blood cells to the axons.

The term "myelin sheath" is often used when talking about multiple sclerosis (MS) because this part gets damaged
in the disease.
 In people with MS, it's thought that the body's immune system attacks the myelin sheaths, which leads to
dysfunction of the neurons and impaired brain function. Spinal cord injuries can also damage myelin sheaths.

Other diseases associated with oligodendrocyte dysfunction include:

Leukodystrophies5

 Tumors called oligodendrogliomas6
 Schizophrenia
7
8
 Bipolar disorder

Glutamate Damage

Oligodendrocytes can be damaged by the neurotransmitter glutamate. Its job is to stimulate areas of your brain so
you can focus and learn new information.

However, glutamate is considered an "excitotoxin" at high levels, which means that it can overstimulate cells until
they die.

The Role of the Myelin Sheath

Microglia

Microglia are tiny glial cells ("micro" means small). They act as the brain's own dedicated immune system. The brain
needs its own immune system because the blood-brain barrier isolates the brain from the rest of your body. 1

Microglia are alert to signs of injury and disease. When they detect a problem, they charge in and take care of it—
whether it means clearing away dead cells or getting rid of a toxin or pathogen.

When microglia respond to an injury, it causes inflammation as part of the healing process.

Sometimes, the response causes problems. For example, in Alzheimer's disease, microglia are hyperactivated and
cause too much inflammation.9 The response may lead to amyloid plaques and other brain changes related to
Alzheimer's.

Along with Alzheimer's, other conditions linked to microglial dysfunction include:

Fibromyalgia

 Chronic neuropathic pain
 Autism spectrum disorders
 Schizophrenia

Microglia are believed to have many jobs, including playing a "housekeeping" role in learning-associated brain
plasticity and guiding the development of the brain.

Our brains create a lot of connections between neurons that allow them to pass information back and forth. In fact,
the brain creates a lot more of them than we need, which is not very efficient.

Microglia detect unnecessary synapses and "prune" them, just as a gardener prunes a rose bush to keep it healthy.

What Does Alzheimer's Do to the Brain?

Ependymal Cells

Ependymal cells make up the thin membrane lining the central canal of the spinal cord and the passageways
(ventricles) of the brain (ependyma). They also make cerebrospinal fluid and have an important role in the blood-
brain barrier.1

Ependymal cells are very small and line up tightly to form the membrane. Inside the ventricles, they have little
hairlike projections (cilia) that wave back and forth to keep the cerebrospinal fluid circulating.

Cerebrospinal fluid delivers nutrients to and eliminates waste products from the brain and spinal column. It also
serves as a cushion and shock absorber between your brain and skull.

The fluid is also necessary to maintain homeostasis of your brain, which means regulating its temperature and other
features that keep it operating as well as possible.

What Does Cerebrospinal Fluid Do?

Radial Glia

Radial glia is believed to be a type of stem cell. This type of cell can create other cells. In the developing brain, stem
cells are the "parents" of neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes.1

When you were an embryo, these cells also provided the "scaffolding" for developing neurons. They provide the
long fibers that guide young brain cells into place as your brain forms.
Since they have an important role as stem cells, especially as creators of neurons, researchers have looked at radial
glia to learn more about how to repair brain damage from illness or injury.

Later in life, these cells contribute to your brain's ability to change and adapt (neuroplasticity).

Where Do Stem Cells Come From?

Schwann Cells

Schwann cells are named for Theodor Schwann, the physiologist who discovered them.

They function a lot like oligodendrocytes by providing myelin sheaths for axons. However, Schwann cells are found
in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) rather than the CNS.1

Instead of being a central cell with membrane-tipped arms, Schwann cells form spirals directly around the axon. The
nodes of Ranvier sit between them, just as they do with oligodendrocytes, and assist in nerve transmission in the
same way.

Schwann cells are also part of the PNS's immune system. When a nerve cell is damaged, it can "eat" the nerve's
axons and provide a protected path for a new axon to form.

There are a few diseases that involve the Schwann cells, such as:

 Guillain-Barre' syndrome
 Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease
 Schwannomatosis
 Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy
 Leprosy

Schwann cells might also be involved in some forms of chronic pain. The activation of the cells after nerve damage
might contribute to dysfunction in a type of nerve fibers called nociceptors, which sense environmental factors such
as heat and cold.

There has been exciting research on transplanting Schwann cells for spinal cord injury and other types of peripheral
nerve damage.10

Nociceptors and Pain

Satellite Cells

Satellite cells get their name from the way they surround certain neurons, with several "satellites" forming a sheath
around the cellular surface.1

We're just beginning to learn about satellite cells but many researchers believe they're similar to astrocytes.
However, they're found in the PNS, not the CNS.

Satellite cells' main purpose appears to be regulating the environment around the neurons, keeping chemicals in
balance.

The neurons with satellite cells make up clusters of nerve cells in the autonomic nervous system and the sensory
system called ganglia.

The autonomic nervous system regulates your internal organs, while your sensory system is what allows you to
see, hear, smell, touch, feel, and taste.

Satellite cells deliver nutrition to the neuron and absorb heavy metal toxins, such as mercury and lead, to keep them
from damaging the neurons.

Like microglia, satellite cells detect and respond to injury and inflammation, but their role in repairing cell damage is
not yet understood.

It's also thought that satellite cells help transport several neurotransmitters and other substances, including:

 Glutamate
 GABA
 Norepinephrine
 Adenosine triphosphate
 Substance P
 Capsaicin
 Acetylcholine

Satellite cells are linked to chronic pain involving peripheral tissue injury, nerve damage, and a
systemic heightening of pain (hyperalgesia) that can result from chemotherapy.

Can Pain Medication Cause Pain?

Summary
 There are several kinds of glial cells in your brain and the nerves throughout your body. Each type has a special—
and important—job in keeping your brain working at its best.

If these cells get damaged or are affected by a disease, it can cause problems in your nervous system.

We have a sense of what glial cells do in the body, but still have a lot left to learn.

Cerebrospinal fluid, also known as CSF, is a clear, colorless fluid that flows through the brain and spinal cord,
surrounding and cushioning it from injury. CSF has the same consistency as water and delivers nutrients to your
central nervous system (CNS). In addition, the choroid plexus produces cerebral spinal fluid in your
brain's ventricles (hollow spaces). CSF is completely replaced every few hours and carries away waste material.

SCIEPRO / Getty Images

Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis
Examination of the cerebrospinal fluid helps to diagnose diseases, including infectious diseases of the central
nervous system, causes of brain hemorrhages, immunological disorders, and cancer. Fluid is obtained by
performing a lumbar puncture, also known as a spinal tap.
Lumbar Puncture
During a lumbar puncture, a long, thin, hollow needle is inserted between spaces in your spinal cord to obtain a fluid
sample. You may feel pressure and a bit of soreness as the needle enters your body. After the fluid is removed, you
will be asked to lie flat for an hour or more after the test. This is to prevent a headache. If you develop a headache, it
may last up to a couple of days after the test.

The CSF is analyzed for its pressure, appearance, protein, glucose, cell count, and identification of cells. 1

It is stained for microscopic examination and cultured to look for bacteria and other infectious organisms. Other
chemistry tests include looking for tumor markers, amyloid beta 42 and tau protein in Alzheimer's disease, myelin
essential protein in multiple sclerosis, and various other assays.
When to Call a Healthcare Provider

You should contact your healthcare provider if your headache lasts for more than a week. 2

If you develop a high fever, severe headache, sensitivity to light, vomiting, or tingling or numbness in your legs, you
should contact your healthcare provider.

Purpose of CSF Analysis

Infectious diseases such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites can infect the central nervous system. 3 The most
common infections of the CNS include:

Meningitis

 Encephalitis
 Tuberculosis
 West Nile Virus
 Fungal infections

Cerebrospinal fluid analysis can identify hemorrhagic diseases such as intracranial bleeding due to stroke, 4 high
blood pressure, and aneurysms.

Immunological disorders can disrupt the central nervous system with inflammation, producing antibodies and
destroying the myelin sheathing around the nerves. Common immunological diseases include:

 Guillain-Barré
 Sarcoidosis
 Neurosyphilis
 Multiple sclerosis

Primary brain or spine tumors can be detected by analyzing the cerebrospinal fluid. 5 It can also detect cancer that
has metastasized to other areas of the central nervous system. A lumbar puncture is significant for people who may
have brain lymphoma because the lymphoma cells often spread into the cerebrospinal fluid. CSF analysis can be
used to determine the type and grade of cancer.

Injections Into the CSF for Treatment of Brain or Spinal Cord Cancer
A lumbar puncture may be used to deliver chemotherapy medication to treat brain or spinal cord cancer. 6 This
process is known as intrathecal chemotherapy. It is used in the treatment of some types of leukemia or lymphoma.

The procedure, which typically takes 20 minutes, includes numbing an area of skin over your spine. A needle will be
gently inserted, and the chemotherapy will be injected through the needle into the CSF. A benefit of this process is
that there are very few post-chemotherapy side effects. Some side effects may include a headache.

Summary
Cerebrospinal fluid plays an essential role in supporting the nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. A
lumbar puncture is a procedure that can access the CSF for a fluid sample for disease diagnosis.

Cerebrum – Biggest Part Of Brain split into 4 Lobes

Frontal – Reasoning and Thought
Pariental – Sensory Information
Temporal – Auditory Information
Occipital – Information from Eyes
Cerebellum – Muscle Coordination, Posture, Balance, Muscle Tone
Diencephalon (Thalamus And Hypothalamus) – Thalamus Sends impulses to Cerebellum, Hypothalamus controls
Temperature, apetite, sleep, vessel constriction and dialation and controls Emotion
Mid Brain – Eye and Auditory Reflexes
Pons – Reflexes – Chewing, Tasting, Saliva production
Medula Oblongata – Cardiovascular function, Respiration, Digestation, Swallowing, Coughing, Sneezing, Blood
Pressure