Mrs . R . D .

Wakankar Group Tuition

The Circulatory System

Need for transport inside the body:
• To transport the absorbed nutrients in the digestive system to all the cells of the body.
• To transport oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body and to collect the formed
carbon dioxide from different parts to the lungs.
• To remove all the nitrogenous waste matter from different parts of the body through the
excretory system via blood.
• To transport hormones and enzymes to all the different parts wherever required.

Fluids in the body

Circulating fluids: Blood and lymph.
Non-circulating fluids: Tissue fluid, synovial fluid, vitreous humour,
aqueous humour

The blood
• Never stationary, always in motion from the heart → 𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 → 𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 →
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 → 𝑣𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑠 → ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡.
• Blood is a thick fluid, bright red when in artery and dark red when in vein. An adult has 5
– 6 litres of blood by volume in body.
• Taste – saltish with a pH of 7.3 – 7.45. Slightly alkaline.

• Functions of blood
• 1) Transport 2) Protection
Transport: Transports digested food like glucose, amino acids, vitamins, mineral salts.
Transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues through the RBC’s by forming an
unstable compound oxyhaemoglobin which on reaching the tissues breaks up to deliver
oxygen.
Hb + O2 → Hb . O2
Transports CO2 from tissues to lungs.
Hb + CO2 → Hb . CO2 (Carbaminohaemoglobin)
Transports excretory material from the liver, kidney, skin for elimination.
Distributes hormones secreted by the endocrine glands to the respective target cells.
Regulates body temperature by distributing heat.

Protection: Blood forms a clot wherever there is a cut in the blood vessel, to prevent
loss of blood and to prevent the entry of germs.
WBC’s protect the body from disease causing germs by engulfing them- Phagocytosis. It
produces antibodies and antitoxins to neutralise the toxins secreted by the germs.

Composition of blood
Blood consists of 1) Plasma - Fluid part – water, dissolved proteins, NaCI , Na2CO3 ,
glucose, fibrinogen, hormones, urea.
Plasma without fibrinogen is called serum.
2) Cellular part – RBC, WBC, and Platelets.
RBC – (Erythrocytes) – Oxygen carriers.
These are minute biconcave disc like structures flat in the centre and thick and rounded
at the periphery. Small size makes it efficient to travel in to very fine capillaries and the
shape provides a large surface area to absorb oxygen efficiently.
Produced in the marrow of long bones. Life span 120 days. Destroyed in the spleen, liver
and the bone marrow. It lacks mitochondria, nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum.
An abnormal increase in the number of RBC’s------Polycythaemia.
An abnormal decrease in the number of RBC’s ----- Erythropenia

WBC—(Leukocytes).
They have a distinct nucleus. Lack haemoglobin. WBC’s have amoeboid shape and can
squeeze through the walls of the capillaries --- (diapedesis ).
WBC

Granular cytoplasm Non- granular cytoplasm

( Granulocytes ) ( Agranulocytes )

Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes

Name Appearance Features Functions Origin

Neutrophils Nucleus with 3 – 4 Phagocytosis Bone
lobes. Stain with marrow.
neutral dye.

Eosinophils Nucleus with 2 Phagocytosis, Bone

lobes. Stain with secrete marrow.
Eosin ( acid dye) antitoxins.

Basophils Nucleus large Release Bone

indistinctly lobed. histamine for marrow.
Stain with inflammation
methylene blue. which dilate
( basic dye ) blood vessels.
Lymphocytes Smallest WBC, single Produce Bone
large nucleus. antibodies. marrow,
Lymph
glands ,
(spleen,
tonsils)
Monocytes Nucleus large kidney Ingest germs. Bone
shaped. marrow.
 Average life of WBC is about two weeks.
Abnormal increase in the number of WBC ---- Leukemia
Abnormal decrease in the number of WBC --- Leucopenia.

Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)

These are minute oval or rounded structures, non- nucleated floating in blood. They are
derived from the megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow. Life span 3 – 5 days and are
mainly destroyed in the spleen. Important in clotting of blood.

Clotting (coagulation) of blood:

The injured tissue cells and platelets release a substance thrombokinase which acts as
an enzyme and with the help of calcium ions present in the plasma, converts
prothrombin ( inactive ) into thrombin ( active ). Thrombin in the presence of calcium
ions reacts with the soluble fibrinogen of the plasma to convert it into insoluble fibrin.
Fibrin is solid substance that forms threads. These threads of fibrin are sticky and forms a
network at the wound. Blood cells get trapped in the network and then shrink. This solid
mass left behind is called clot.

Blood groups and blood transfusion :

Karl Landsteiner discovered the system of blood grouping. RBC’s of human beings have
specific proteins on their surface. These proteins are called as antigens. The plasma of
the blood has complementary antibodies. In humans there are two types of antigens .
1)Antigen A and 2) Antigen B. Depending on the presence or absence of these antigens
there are four types of blood groups.

Blood group Antigens on RBC Antibodies on plasma

A Antigen A Antibody b
B Antigen B Antibody a
AB Antigen A and B No antibody
O No antigen Antibody a and b

Blood group O ----- Universal donor

Blood group AB ----- Universal reciepient

The Heart
Location --- The heart is in the centre between the two lungs and above the diaphragm.
Function --- To pump blood to all different parts of the body.
Heart is covered by a double walled membranous covering called the pericardium. It
contains lubricating pericardial fluid which reduces friction during heart beat and
protects the heart from mechanical injuries.
The heart consists of four chambers upper two auricles and lower two ventricles.
• The walls of atria are thin because their major function is to receive blood and pump it in
to the next ventricles.

Blood vessels entering the heart

Anterior vena cava brings blood from the upper regions ( chest, head, upper arms ) to the
right auricle and posterior vena cava brings blood from lower region (legs, abdomen etc)
to the right auricle.
The pulmonary veins recieves the oxygenated blood from each lung to the left ventricle.
Blood vessels leaving the heart
Pulmonary artery arising from the right auricle brings deoxygenated blood to the lungs
for oxygenation.
The aorta arising from the left ventricle supplies blood to all parts of the body.
Coronary artery supplies blood to the heart muscles.
Deadening of the area of heart muscles due to blockage in the coronary artery leads to
heart attack (Myocardial infarction ).
Chest pain due to insufficient supply of blood to the heart muscle ---- Angina pectoris.

Valves of the heart

Function – to regulate the flow of blood in one direction.

Location
Right atrio - ventricular At the aperture between the
valve (tricuspid valve) right auricle and right ventricle.
Left atrio - ventricular At the opening between left
valve (bicuspid valve) auricle and left ventricle.
Chordae tendinae Arising from the muscular
projections of the ventricular
wall --- (Papillary muscles )
Pulmonary semilunar At the opening of right
valves (pocket shaped) ventricle into pulmonary
artery.
Aortic semilunar valve At the point of origin of aorta
(pocket shaped ) from the left ventricle
Function
Allows blood to flow from
right auricle to right
ventricle.
Allows the blood to flow
from left auricle to left
ventricle.
Hold the flaps of the valve
in position and prevents
their over turning in to the
atria.
Allows the blood to flow to
the lungs.
Allows the blood to flow
from the left ventricle to
all parts of the body.

Circulation of blood in the heart

Deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body reach the heart through the inferior vena
cava and superior vena cava. This blood fills up the right atrium. At the same time the
oxygenated blood from the lungs proceeds through 4 pulmonary veins to fill the left
atrium. As the two atria contract (systole) the blood enters the right ventricle through
the tricuspid valve and the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve. During ventricular
systole the blood from the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery through the
semilunar valves and is taken to the lungs for oxygenation. The blood from the left
ventricle passes through the semilunar valves at the base of aorta and is taken to all the
cells of the body. Thus the blood comes to the heart twice before circulation, hence
called as double circulation. This is a complete cardiac cycle.

Atrial systole
Atrial muscles contract. Openings of vena cava and pulmonary vein close. Blood enters
ventricles through the two cuspid valves. Semilunar valves at the root of pulmonary
artery and aorta are closed producing a “DUP “sound to prevent flow of blood back into
ventricles.
Ventricular systole
Ventricular muscles contract. Both the cuspid valves close producing a “LUBB “sound.
Blood passes into aorta and pulmonary artery through the semilunar valves. Atria draw in
blood through the openings of vena cava and pulmonary vein. Chordae tendinae hold the
valves in position preventing their upturning due to pressure exerted by the contracting
ventricles.
At the end of ventricular systole the ventricles start relaxing (ventricular diastole) also
the atria relax for a short period (atrial diastole). The full heart beat of human heart lasts
for 0.85 sec.

Blood vessels

Artery Vein
A vessel which carries oxygenated blood A vessel which carries deoxygenated blood
away from the heart except pulmonary towards the heart except pulmonary vein.
artery.
Thich muscular walls. Thin muscular walls
Has a narrow lumen Has a wider lumen
Blood in it flows in spurts under Blood in it flows uniformly
pressure.
Do not possess valves. Contains thin pocket valves to prevent the back
flow of blood.

Capillaries
Is a very narrow tube consisting of single layer of squamous epithelial cells and has no
muscles.
Functions
To allow outward diffusion of oxygen into intercellular fluid and from there into the
tissue cells. To allow inward diffusion of CO2 from the intercellular fluid. To allow inward
and outward diffusion of substances---- glucose, amino acids, urea, hormones. To allow
WBC’s to squeeze out through the capillary walls. Capillaries have the power of
vasodilation and vasoconstriction.

Portal vein
A vein which starts with capillaries and ends with capillaries is called a portal vein.
Hepatic portal vein
The capillaries of the stomach and the intestines re-join to form hepatic portal vein which
enters the liver and again breaks into capillaries.
Pulse --- is the alternate expansion and elastic recoil of the wall of the artery during
ventricular systole.
Blood pressure --- is the pressure which the blood flowing through the arteries exerts on
their walls. The normal blood pressure for an adult is 120/80 (systolic / diastolic).
 Applicative questions:

1 Erythrocytes are biconcave discs and lack mitochondria.

A Erythrocytes are biconcave discs, as these increase the surface area for diffusion of gas
molecules across the plasma membrane. Lack of mitochondria make them transport
whole oxygen absorbed to tissues, as mitochondria are sites of cellular respiration.

2 It is necessary to maintain a normal osmotic concentration of the blood.

A This helps in preventing dehydration or swelling of tissues in our body.

3 Erythrocytes lose nucleus at maturity.

A Loss of nucleus makes the RBC biconcave, thus increasing their surface area volume ratio
for absorbing more oxygen.

4 RBC’s lack endoplasmic reticulum.

A No endoplasmic reticulum means increased flexibility of RBCs for their movement
through narrow capillaries.

5 People living at great heights have an increase in their RBC count.

A At high altitude the air is rare, hence the oxygen content in it is less as a result to fulfil the
need of oxygen percentage required by the body, RBC count increases.

6 Walls of atria are thin.

A The major function of the atria is to receive blood from the body and pump it into the
very next ventricles.

7 The ventricles have thick muscular walls.

A Ventricles have to pump blood to long distances. From right ventricle to the lungs for
oxygenation and from left ventricle to the farthest points in the body, hence their walls
are thick and muscular.

8 The covering of the heart contains the pericardial fluid.

A The heart keeps pumping throughout, hence the pericardial fluid reduces friction during
the heart beat and protects it from mechanical shocks.

9 Smaller the size of the body faster is the heart beat.

A Smaller the animal, more it loses its body heat due to higher surface volume ratio, and
therefore the increased heart beat distributes body heat faster.

10 Our circulatory system is called a double circulation.

A The blood flows twice through the heart before it completes one full cycle: 1) the short
pulmonary and 2) the long systemic circulation. Hence it is termed as double circulation.

11 Why do the number of leucocytes increase during infection period.

A To fulfil the defence demand of the body, the number leucocytes increase.

12 Veins have valves at intervals.

A To prevent the backflow of blood in the veins , due to low pressure in the blood the veins
have valves.
18 Left ventricle has thicker wall than the right ventricle.
A The left ventricle must pump the blood under great force in-order to reach it to distant
parts away from the heart. Hence----

19 Oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood do not mix in human heart.

A The human heart has four chambers – two right and two left chambers. The right and the
left chambers are completely separated from each other by a septum. The deoxygenated
blood flows through the right chambers while the oxygenated blood flows through the
left chambers, thus the blood does not mix.

20 SA node is called the pacemaker of the heart.

A The SA node is called the pacemaker of the heart as the impulse which starts the heart
beat arises in it.