Cardiovascular System

Blood
 Red Blood Cells
(red corpuscles, erythrocytes)

 form within bone marrow

 short life span with about 120 days

 old red blood cells are destroyed in

liver & spleen
 they have no nuclei when mature

- it increases the space to carry

haemoglobin
 they have biconcave disc shape
- which provides large surface area to
diffuse oxygen
 possess of haemoglobin
– haemoglobin is an iron-containing compound
and its presence is responsible for the colour
of red blood cell
– enable red blood cell to carry oxygen from
lungs to all parts of the body
Red blood cells
 Transport of Oxygen
haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen
when the concentration of oxygen is high

In lung
Oxygen + haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin
In tissue
change of haemoglobin to oxyhaemoglobin is
accompanied by the colour change from
purplish red to bright red
 Transport of Carbon Dioxide
CO2 CO2
(from tissue) (in bloodstream)
enzyme +
H + HCO3
-
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
hydrogen-
carbonic acid carbonate ion

HCO3
- (In red blood cell)

(in plasma)
 White Blood Cells (white corpuscles,
leucocytes)
 larger than red blood cells White bloodand
cells
irregular in shape
 prominent nucleus
 no haemoglobin
 kill germs, defend against disease
 two main kinds of white blood cells:
phagocytes and lymphocytes
Red blood cells
 White Blood Cells
- Phagocytes
 made in bone marrow but different from the place
where red blood cells are made
 irregularly shaped nucleus
 move like Amoeba
 can squeeze out through the walls of capillaries
into the surrounding tissues
 engulf dead cells or pathogens
 White Blood Cells
- Lymphocytes
made in bone marrow, then migrate to
lymph nodes

large nucleus which nearly fills up the

cells
produce antibodies to attack germs by
reaction with their surfaces and often cause
them to clump together

produce antitoxins to neutralize the toxins

secreted by germs
 Platelets
(thrombocytes)
platelets are not cells
fragments budded off from specialized cells in
bone marrow
smaller than other blood cells
life-span is about 5 to 9 days
agent for initializing blood clotting
 Blood Vessels
 there are three main kinds of vessels: arteries,
veins and capillaries

 arteries carry blood away from the heart while

veins carry blood towards the heart
 Blood Circulation
Vein Artery
Heart

Venule Arteriole
Capillary
 Blood Vessels

Artery

Vein
 Artery


wall of arteries are thick and

supported with muscles and
elastic fibres

Artery
 Vein
• Blood pressure is much lower in vein as blood has
flowed slowly through the capillaries before
entering the vein

• vein has larger lumen and thinner walls than

artery

Vein
valves present to prevent
backflow of blood and ensure
that it flows towards the heart

Valve closed
blood can’t
flow back

Valve open
blood can flow
return of blood to heart is aided by
contraction of body muscles as they
squeeze the blood along the vein

Blood squeezed
towards heart
Muscle contracted

Valves closed
Prevent back-flow
 Differences between
Arteries and Veins
Arteries Veins

Direction of carry blood away return blood to the

blood flow from the heart heart

thick wall made up thin wall made up

of muscles and of muscles and
elastic fibres elastic fibres
 Differences between
Arteries and Veins
Arteries Veins

blood flows with blood flows steadily

pulse with no pulse
 Differences between
Arteries and Veins
Arteries Veins

Lumen small large

 Differences between
Arteries and Veins
Arteries Veins

deep inside close to the

Location
the body surface
 Capillaries
It is the smallest blood vessels
It is the site of exchange (by diffusion)
Thin wall (one cell) Nutrients

Diffusion
O2

CO2 Waste
 Adaptation of Capillary
 It has many branches
to increase the surface area for diffusion of
materials like glucose, amino acids, water,
carbon dioxide, oxygen, mineral salts and
metabolic wastes between blood and tissue
cells
 It has thin wall (only one-cell thick)

to decrease the diffusion distance for

exchange of materials between blood and
tissue cells
 Exchange of Materials
It is carried out by diffusion through the whole length of
capillaries

(B.P. > O.P.) (O.P. > B.P.)

substance pressed out substances diffused into
to the tissue cells the blood capillary
O.P. O.P.
O.P.= osmotic
pressure
B.P.= blood B.P. B.P.
pressure blood flow
arteriole end venule end
 Heart rate
Definition:
The number of beats /min, resting heart rate 70-90/min.
Methods of determination:
1) Counting redial pulse.
2) Counting apical pulse by stethoscope.
3) ECG.
Normal physiological variation of heart rate:
Factors increasing heart rate:
1-exercise
2-emotion
3-pregenancy
4-After meals
5-neonates
 Factors decreasing heart rate:
1-adulthood
2-during sleeping
3-athelitic persons
Regulation of H.R
1) Nervous factor:
-sympathetic stimulation( increasing H.R as during fear,
emotion, exercise
-parasympathetic stimulation(decreasing H.R
2) Mechanical factors (baroreceptors):
H.R change e’ the change in arterial blood pressure (ABP)
If increasing ABP(stimulate baroreceptors in aortic bodies in
arterial wall(send impulses via vagus nerve (to stimulate cardiac
inhibitory center (CIC) in medulla oblongata ( decrease HR.
If decreasing ABP( stimulation of cardiac acceleratory center in
medulla oblongata(increase HR
3) Chemical factors (chemo receptors):
Changes in chemical positions of blood can affect H. R
Increase CO2(decrease ph( stimulate receptors in carotid
&aortic bodies (stimulate CAC >> increase H.R

4) Ion level in the blood (Na+,K+,Ca++):

K+( decrease H.R
Ca++( increase H,R
Na +(increase H.R

5) Respiration:-
-inspiration ( increase H.R due to activation of cardiac
acceleratory center (CAC) by active respiratory center and
impulses from inflated alveoli
-expiration ( decreasing H.R
6) Role of venous return (VR):
Increasing VR(increasing central pressure in right
atrium(stimulate volume receptors(impulses to
CAC(increase HR

7) Body temperature
Increase body temp. (Increase HR
Decrease body temp. (Decrease HR

8) Muscle proprioreceptors:
Exercise (stimulation of muscle proprioreceptors (impulse to
CAC (increase HR

9) Hormones:
1) Epinephrine & nor epinephrine( increase HR
2) Decrease thyroxine (decrease HR
 Cardiac out put (Cop)
Definition:
The amount of blood pumped by the heart/min=5L
C.O.P=stroke volume *H.R
Stroke volume: it’s the amount of blood pumped out/beat=70 ml

Normal variation in COP:

↑COP by
-Nervousness -After meals -Exercise
↓ Cop by
-Sleep -Heart failure
Factors affecting COP:
Heart rate :
↑ HR→↑Cop
↓ HR→↓Cop
2-Myocardial contraction:
The myocardial fibers are distend able and their power of
contraction is propionate e’ elasticity of muscle fibers, so
increase filling of the heart (preload) →↑tension of muscle
→powerful contraction →↑Cop

3. Arterial blood pressure:

ABP=Cop*peripheral resistance
Mild increase in ABP →↑COP due to ↑ the tension of
muscle fibers of heart &increases power of contraction.
Serve increase in ABP→↓Cop due to ↑in peripheral
resistance →hypertrophy of cardiac muscle→↓stroke
volume→↓Cop.
4. Venous return (VR)
V.R is directly proportional e’ Cop
↓VR→↓Cop--↑VR→↑Cop
Cop ↓ in cases of low blood volume (hemorrhage)
↑ Cop in case of exercise

5. Nervous & drug effect:

Sympathetic stimulation →↑HR →↑Cop
Parasympathetic stimulation→↓HR →↓Cop
 Arterial Blood Pressure
Definition:
It is the lateral pressure induced in big arteries and arterioles
by the pumped column of blood during systole.
ABP= COPXPR
ABP=SVXHRXPR
Normal variation in ABP:-
1-Increase in ABP occurs in the following:
a-exercise b-pregnancy c-after meals
d-emotion e-nervousness

2-Decrease in ABP occurs during sleep

The difference between systolic and diastolic BP is called

pulse pressure=40 mmHg
 Control of
ABP: 1-
Vasomotor center: It
is found in medulla oblongata and divided into Vasopressor
center and vasodepressor
center. -Vasopressor center is
sympathetic in function and its stimulation leads to
vasoconstriction leading to increase in ABP
- Vasodepressor center is parasympathetic in function and
its
stimulation leads to vasodilatation and decrease in ABP
2Regulation in diameter of arteries and
arterioles: Vasoconstriction and Vasodilataion of artery can
control ABP by circulating of certain substances.
Vasodilator substances Vasoconstrictor substances

Kinins-bradykinin Adrenaline-noradrenaline

-histamine Vasopressin-angiotesin π

Metabolites as co2 excess O2excess

 Elasticity of
aorta and big arteries: -
ABP is kept constant by elasticity of aorta and big vessels,they are
distenable by systole to absorb power of resistance and friction on
wall of arteries resulting in ABP=120mmhg, during diastole they
recoil resulting in ABP=80.

COP: incr
ease in cop-----increase in
ABP. decrease in COP-----decrease in
ABP
5-Peripheral
resistance: a-PR
depends on diameter of arteries and arterioles decrease
diameter------increase in ABP b-PR
depends on viscosity of blood increase
Functions of the Respiratory System
1. Gas exchange. The respiratory system allows oxygen from the air to enter the
blood and carbon dioxide to leave the blood and enter the air.

2. Regulation of blood pH. The respiratory system can alter blood pH by

changing blood carbon dioxide levels.

3. Voice production. Air movement past the vocal folds makes sound and speech
possible.

4. Olfaction. The sensation of smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn
into the nasal cavity.

5. Protection. The respiratory system provides protection against some

microorganisms by preventing their entry into the body and by removing them
from respiratory surfaces.
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
 Boyle’s Law
Changes in intrapulmonary pressure occur as a
result of changes in lung volume.
Pressure of gas is inversely proportional to its volume.

Increase in lung volume decreases intrapulmonary

pressure.
Air goes in.

Decrease in lung volume, raises intrapulmonary

pressure above atmosphere.
Air goes out.
Regulation of breathing:
Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities
Spirometry (spı￣-rom_e˘-tre￣) is the process of measuring volumes of
air that move into and out of the respiratory system, and a spirometer
(spı￣-rom_e˘-ter) is a device used to measure these pulmonary
volumes (figure 23.15a). The four pulmonary volumes and representative
values (figure 23.15b) for a young adult male follow:

1. Tidal volume is the volume of air inspired or expired

during a normal inspiration or expiration (approximately
500 mL).

2. Inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can

be inspired forcefully after inspiration of the normal tidal
volume (approximately 3000 mL).
3. Expiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be
forcefully expired after expiration of the normal tidal
volume (approximately 1100 mL).

4. Residual volume is the volume of air still remaining in the

respiratory passages and lungs after the most forceful
expiration (approximately 1200 mL).
Pulmonary capacities are the sum of two or more pulmonary
volumes (see figure 23.15b). Some pulmonary capacities follow:

1. Inspiratory capacity is the tidal volume plus the

inspiratory reserve volume, which is the amount of air that
a person can inspire maximally after a normal expiration
(approximately 3500 mL).

2. Functional residual capacity is the expiratory reserve

volume plus the residual volume, which is the amount of air
remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration
(approximately 2300 mL).

3. Vital capacity is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume,

the tidal volume, and the expiratory reserve volume, which
is the maximum volume of air that a person can expel from
the respiratory tract after a maximum inspiration
(approximately 4600 mL).

4. Total lung capacity is the sum of the inspiratory and

expiratory reserve volumes plus the tidal volume and the
residual volume (approximately 5800 mL).
 Physical Properties of the Lungs
Ventilation occurs as a result of pressure differences induced
by changes in lung volume.
Physical properties that affect lung function:
1-Compliance.
2-Elasticity.
3-Surface tension.

Compliance
Distensibility (stretchability):
Ease with which the lungs can expand.
Compliance is reduced by factors that produce resistance to
distension
Elasticity
Tendency to return to initial size after distension.
-High content of elastin proteins.
-Very elastic and resist distension.
-Recoil ability.
Elastic tension increases during inspiration and is reduced
by recoil during expiration

Surface Tension
Force exerted by fluid in alveoli to resist distension.
Law of Laplace:
Pressure in alveoli is directly proportional to surface
tension; and inversely proportional to radius of alveoli.
Pressure in smaller alveolus would be greater than in larger
alveolus, if surface tension were the same in both.
 Gastrointestinal system

GI components
 Alimentary canal (also called the GI tract)
 Accessory GI organs

GI functions
 Digestion (breaking down food and fluid into simple chemicals that
can be absorbed into the bloodstream and transported throughout the
body)
 Elimination of waste products (through excretion of stool)

Alimentary canal
The alimentary canal is a hollow muscular tube that begins in the mouth
and extends to the anus.
Stomach
The stomach is a collapsible, saclike structure.
 Functions of the stomach
1-Serves as a temporary storage area for food
2-Begins digestion
3-Breaks down food into chyme, a semifluid substance
4-Moves gastric contents into the small intestine

Small intestine
 The small intestine is a tube that measures about 20′ (6 m) long. It's
the longest organ of the GI tract.
Functions of small intestine:
 Completes food digestion
 Absorbs food molecules through its wall into the circulatory system, which
then delivers them to body cells
 Secretes hormones that help control secretion of bile, pancreatic juice, and
intestinal juice

Large intestine
Functions of large intestine:
 Absorbs excess water and electrolytes
 Stores food residue
 Eliminates digestive waste products in the form of feces
Accessory organs of digestion
Accessory organs include the liver, biliary duct system, and pancreas. These
organs contribute hormones, enzymes, and bile, which are vital to digestion.

Liver
Functions
 Metabolizes carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
 Detoxifies blood
 Converts ammonia to urea for excretion
 Synthesizes plasma proteins, nonessential amino acids,
vitamins, and essential nutrients
 Secretes bile
Biliary duct system
Functions of bile
 Emulsifies fat
 Promotes intestinal absorption of fatty acids
, cholesterol, and other lipids
 Gives stool its color
Gallbladder
 Pear-shaped organ joined to the ventral surface of the liver by
the cystic duct
 Covered with visceral peritoneum
 Stores and concentrates bile produced by livethe liver
 Releases bile into the common bile duct for delivery
to the duodenum in response to the contraction
and relaxation of Oddi's sphincter
Pancreas
 Measures 6″ to 8″ (15 to 20.5 cm) in length
 Consists of a head, body, and tail
 Beta cells secrete insulin to promote
carbohydrate metabolism (endocrine function)
 Alpha cells secrete glucagon to
stimulate glycogenolysis in the liver (endocrine function)
 Produces enzymes that aid in digestion (exocrine function)
 Urinary system
Components of the urinary system
The urinary system consists of
two kidneys
two ureters
the bladder
the urethra.
Functions of the kidneys
 Eliminate wastes and excess ions
 Filter blood
 Maintain fluid-electrolyte and
acid-base balance
 Produce erythropoietin (hormone
that stimulates red blood cell
production) and enzymes (such
as renin, which governs blood
pressure and kidney function)
 Convert vitamin D to a more
active form
How the kidneys form urine
STEP 1
Glomerular filtration
As blood flows into the glomerulus, filtration occurs. In glomerular filtration, active
transport from the proximal convoluted tubules leads to reabsorption of sodium
(Na+) and glucose into nearby circulation. Osmosis then causes water (H 2O)
reabsorption.
STEP 2
Tubular reabsorption
In tubular reabsorption, a substance moves from the filtrate back from the distal
convoluted tubules, into the peritubular capillaries. Active transport results in Na+
reabsorption. The presence of antidiuretic hormone causes H 2O reabsorption

STEP 3
Tubular secretion
In tubular secretion, a substance moves from the peritubular capillaries into the
tubular filtrate. Peritubular capillaries then secrete ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen
(H+).
The ears
The ears are organs of hearing; they also maintain the
body's equilibrium. Each ear is divided into three main
parts (external ear,middle ear,inner ear)