CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES
 Describe the circulatory system as consisting of tubes (blood vessels), with a pump (heart) and
valves to ensure one-way flow of blood
 Describe circulation as consisting of pulmonary and systemic circuits
 Discuss the difference between the two circuits (pulmonary and systemic) in terms of pressure,
direction of blood flow and quality of blood
 Name and identify the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys
 Describe the structure and function of the heart
 Compare the structure function of arteries, veins and capillaries
 Locate pulse points and count the pulse rate
 Investigate the effects of physical activity on pulse rate
 Describe coronary heart diseases in terms of the occlusion of coronary arteries
 Discuss possible causes of coronary heart diseases (diet, stress, smoking)
 Discuss preventative measures of coronary heart diseases
 Describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid

Description of the circulatory system
It consists of the heart (pump), blood vessels (tubes) and valves. The heart pumps blood, blood vessels carry
blood and valves ensure one-way flow of blood.
[NB: The circulatory system is a closed system because blood travels inside blood vessels.]
There are two circulatory circuits
1. Pulmonary circuit
2. Systemic circuit
Mammalian circulatory system is called a double circulatory system because blood passes through the heart
twice on a complete circulation
The pulmonary circuit is the pathway of blood flow between the heart and the lungs. The systemic circuit
is the pathway of blood flow between the heart and the rest of the body.
Diagram in textbook on page 132,fig 12.9

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PULMONARY AND SYSTEMIC CIRCUITS

Factor Pulmonary circuit Systemic circuit

Blood pressure
Distance travelled by blood
Quality of blood
Direction of blood flow
blood flows at a relatively low
pressure
blood travels a short distance
blood flowing from the heart is
deoxygenated while blood
flowing to the heart is
oxygenated
blood flow from the heart to the
lungs and back to the heart
blood flows at a relatively high
pressure
blood travels long distances
blood flowing to the body is
oxygenated while blood flowing
to the heart is deoxygenated
blood flow from the heart to the
rest of the body and back to the
heart
MAIN BLOOD VESSELS TO AND FROM THE HEART, LUNGS, LIVER AND KIDNEYS

Organ Blood enters through Blood leaves through

Heart vena cava aorta
Lung pulmonary artery pulmonary vein
Liver hepatic artery hepatic vein
Kidney renal artery renal vein

Draw a diagram on page 132, Fig 12.11

[NB :Blood vessels that supply the heart cells with blood are called coronary blood vessels i.e. coronary arteries supply the heart
cells with oxygenated blood and coronary veins carry deoxygenated blood away from heart cells.]

HEART STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Draw the diagram of the heart Page 110,fig 12.6

The heart is a muscular organ made of a special tissue called the cardiac muscle which begins to pump
blood from 6 weeks of development till death without getting fatigued. The heart is separated into two sides
i. e. left and right. It is then divided into four chambers which are two atria and two ventricles (each side
has one atrium and one ventricle). The two sides of the heart are separated by a wall called the septum,
which ensures that blood does not mix between the two sides. The heart is covered by a membrane called
the pericardium which reduces friction between the heart and nearby organs

HOW THE HEART WORKS

Oxygenated blood enters the heart through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium while deoxygenated
blood will enter the right atrium through the vena cava (this occurs simultaneously). This occurs during the
relaxed state of the atria. After filling with blood the atria contract at the same time and push blood into
their respective ventricles.
The pressure of blood forces the bicuspid valve and the tricuspid valve to open and let blood into the
ventricles. This takes place when ventricles are in a relaxed state. Shortly after, both ventricles contract
forcing blood out of the heart through the pulmonary artery on the right side and on the left through the
aorta.
To prevent backflow of blood into the atria, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves close when the ventricles
contract. The semi-lunar valves found at the bases of the aorta and pulmonary artery close to prevent blood
from flowing back into the ventricles due to the drop in pressure.
The left ventricle of the heart is more muscular than the right side. This enables it to exert enough pressure
to push blood over long distances.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ARTERIES, VEINS AND CAPILLARIES

There are 3 types of blood vessels

1. Arteries - carry blood away from the heart
2. Veins - carry blood towards the heart
3. Capillaries -form a link between arteries and veins and form a site for substance exchange
between blood and body cells.
[NB Small arteries are called arterioles. Small veins are called venules]
 Draw diagrams of arteries, veins and capillaries page 112,fig 12.10
ARTERY VEIN CAPILLARY

 have thick walls  have thin walls 

walls are one-cell thick and
 elastic  less elastic porous – tissue fluid can
seep out; phagocytes can
squeeze through to attack
bacteria
 not elastic
small lumen large lumen very small lumen – allows only
one red blood cell to pass at a
time
do not have valves have valves do not have valves
blood flows at high pressure in blood flows under low pressure blood flows under decreasing
pulses. and smooth pressure (pressure is higher at
the arteriole end and lower at the
venule end)
all arteries carry oxygenated All veins carry deoxygenated carry both oxygenated and
blood except the pulmonary blood except the pulmonary vein deoxygenated blood.
artery
carry blood away from the heart carry blood away toward the  site for material exchange
heart between blood and tissue
fluid
 make a link between the
arteries and veins.

PULSE

Pulse is a wave of pressure felt as blood passes through arteries when the left ventricle pumps blood into
the aorta. This pressure is caused by each heartbeat thus pulse rate and heart beat rate are equal.

ACTIVITY
1. Locate pulse points (e. g. radial artery on the wrist, carotid artery on the neck) and count
pulse rate at rest.
2. Count pulse rate after vigorous physical activity e.g. a sprint.

Units for pulse rate are beats/minute

EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON PULSE RATE

Physical activity increases pulse rate. This is because during physical activity the heart beats faster to pump
more blood as more oxygen and glucose need to be transported to working muscles. More respiration takes
place to release more energy required by muscles. In addition more carbon dioxide produced by the muscles
also has to be transported to the lungs quicker.
CORONARY HEART DISEASE

Coronary heart disease is described as the occlusion/blockage of the coronary arteries. This blockage
restricts blood flow to the heart cells. If the coronary artery becomes completely blocked, the heart will stop
beating, a condition known as a cardiac arrest/ heart attack. Death will follow unless the heart resumes
beating within minutes. Symptoms of partial blockage of the coronary arteries include Angina pectoris i.e.
sharp chest pains during even mild physical activity and shortness of breath during mild physical activity
or emotional stress.

HOW CORONARY HEART DISEASE DEVELOP

1. Some fatty deposits called atheroma form on the lining of the coronary arteries leading to
their blockage. This is known as coronary atherosclerosis.
2. The surface of the atheroma may become rough and platelets will stick to it as blood passes
over it. This will trigger the clotting process which will result in the formation of a blood
clot called a thrombus that will further block the coronary artery. This is known as coronary
thrombosis.
3. Atheroma and thrombus reduce the size of the lumen in coronary arteries. This will cause
an increase in blood pressure. This may also decrease the supply of oxygenated blood to the
heart muscles.

CAUSES OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE

1. Wrong diet
2. Emotional stress
3. Tobacco smoking

WRONG DIET

1. Too much sugar in the diet- high sugar content in the diet may make people overweight.
Excess glucose in blood is converted to fats and thus increase the rate of atheroma formation
on coronary arteries.
2. Too much fat- high fat content especially animal fat which is rich in cholesterol will lead to
the formation of atheroma in coronary arteries.

TOBACCO SMOKING

1. Carbon monoxide inhaled from tobacco smoking increases the rate of atheroma formation
in arteries which will lead to the blockage of coronary arteries.
2. Nicotine causes constriction of blood vessels, thus restricting blood flow. It also triggers
production of adrenaline which triggers increase in heart rate (i.e. the heart beats faster).
The combined effect of atheroma formed, narrowed arteries and increase in heart beat rate
may rupture coronary arteries resulting in coronary thrombosis.

EMOTIONAL STRESS
It triggers the production of adrenaline which increases heart rate. This increases blood pressure which
may rupture coronary arteries resulting in coronary thrombosis.
LACK OF EXERCISE

This results in a slow flow of blood which increases the rate of atheroma formation in blood vessels.
Lack of exercise may cause obesity.

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE

1. Reducing fat and sugar content in the diet

2. Stop or avoid tobacco smoking
3. Avoid or manage emotional stress e.g. through counselling
4. Regular exercise.

BLOOD COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

 List components of blood

 Identify red and white blood cells as seen in diagrams and/or photomicrographs
 Describe the functions of blood:
 Red blood cells – haemoglobin and oxygen transport
 White blood cells-phagocytosis, antibody formation and tissue rejection
 Platelets-fibrinogen to fibrin causing clotting
 Plasma-transport of blood cells, ions, end products of digestion, hormones, carbon dioxide,
urea, vitamins, plasma proteins

Components of blood:

1. Cellular component - red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
2. Non cellular component – plasma
[N.B. The cellular and non-cellular components can be separated using a centrifuging technique. The
solid parts settle at the bottom of the container and plasma floats on top]

FUNCTION OF BLOOD

Red blood cells

Draw a diagram of a red blood cell

Transport oxygen around the body. Contains haemoglobin which binds to oxygen and forms an oxy-
haemoglobin complex. This complex forms under high oxygen concentrations and breaks down/
decomposes under low oxygen concentrations.

[N.B: carbon monoxide binds irreversibly with haemoglobin forming carboxy-haemoglobin ]

White blood cells

Draw two types of white blood cell

Protect/defend the body against pathogens. This is achieved through phagocytosis and antibody production.
 Phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens like bacteria, a process called phagocytosis. This involves
the cell surrounding pathogens, releasing digestive enzymes that break down the pathogen.
Phagocytes have the ability to change shape in order to engulf pathogens. They also have a lobed
nucleus which is flexible thus allowing the cell to change shape with more ease e.g. during
engulfing or when squeezing through blood vessels to pursue bacteria.

Diagram on page 108 fig 12.1 (b) [include another diagram that shows phagocytosis!]

Lymphocytes produce antibodies that destroy pathogens. They have a large nucleus which contains
many copies of the genes to enable them to produce antibodies.

Diagram on page 108 fig 12.1 (b)

White blood cells also carry out tissue rejection. Transplanted organs may be recognized as foreign
bodies and antibodies will be released to destroy the transplanted organ. Immunosuppressive drugs
are used to reduce the activity of lymphocytes and improve acceptance of transplanted organs.
Some lymphocytes serve as memory cells. They capture memory of the antigens encountered as
well as the ability to make antibodies against those antigens. This gives the body the ability to
respond quickly to infections when attacked again after the first encounter.

Platelets
They are needed for the clotting process. During this process a soluble plasma protein fibrinogen is
converted into an insoluble fibrin molecule.

Draw the flow diagram of the clotting process

Fibrin threads form a network/ mesh on the cut and trap red blood cells and plug the cut. Clotting serves
two purposes:
 stops bleeding
 prevent entry of pathogens
[N.B: inability to clot blood is called haemophilia. This is a genetic condition.]

PLASMA

Transports blood cells and soluble substances (ions, hormones, end products of digestion, carbon dioxide,
urea, vitamins and plasma proteins.) The plasma helps to maintain a constant internal environment
especially ionic concentration and pH by evenly distributing the ions. It also distributes heat from more
metabolically active organs to the rest of the body.

TRANSFER OF MATERIALS BETWEEN CAPILLARIES AND TISSUE FLUID

Draw a diagram showing arterioles. Capillary bed, venules and body cells surrounded by tissue fluid D. G.
Mackeen page 114fig 12.16

As blood passes from arterioles into narrow capillaries, a hydrostatic pressure is created which forces tissue
fluid to escape through capillary walls. This occurs at the arteriole end of the capillary bed. Capillary walls
are porous as there are spaces between cells that make up the capillary wall. Tissue fluid is part of plasma
without plasma proteins. Tissue fluid surrounds all body cells. Useful substances diffuse from tissue fluid
into body cells. Excretory products diffuse from body cells into tissue fluid. At the venule end of the
capillary bed there is less pressure and this allows tissue fluid to seep back into capillaries.
[N.B. Some tissue fluid will seep into lymphatic vessels and will slowly drain into blood at the subclavian
vein. Inside lymphatic vessels, this fluid is called the lymph. It appears milky in colour as it is rich in fatty
acids, glycerol and fat soluble vitamins and minerals.]