HANDOUT – 4 2nd Term (2023-2024)

Name: Class: VIII Roll: Section:

Subject: Biology Teacher: Zabir Ahmed Date:

Double Circulation in Mammals:

Unlike simpler circulatory systems found in some lower organisms, such as fish, amphibians, and
reptiles, which possess single circulation, mammals have evolved to employ a more complex
mechanism known as double circulation. Double circulation entails the separation of oxygen-rich
and oxygen-poor blood into two distinct circulations: the pulmonary circulation and the systemic
circulation.

In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated

blood from the body is pumped by the
right side of the heart to the lungs, where
it undergoes gas exchange, releasing
carbon dioxide and picking up oxygen.
This oxygen-rich blood then returns to
the left side of the heart. From there, it is
propelled into the systemic circuit, where
it is distributed to the body's tissues and
organs via arteries. As tissues utilize
oxygen and release waste products, such
as carbon dioxide, the blood becomes
deoxygenated once more and returns to
the right side of the heart through veins
to begin the cycle anew.

Fig: Double Circulation in Humans.

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The advantage of a double circulation is that blood can be pumped around the body at a faster
rate. Once blood returns to the heart from the lungs it can be pumped at high pressure and faster
rate to all parts of the body.

Structure of the heart:

The size of the heart is roughly about the size of a clenched fist. It is roughly conical in shape with
it apex slightly towards the left side of the body. The whole heart is surrounded by a two-layered
bag known as the pericardium. Between the two pericardial membranes there is a fluid known as
the pericardial fluid which helps to reduce friction when the heart is beating.

The mammalian heart has four

chambers- the two upper
chambers are known as auricles
or atria, below which are two large
chambers known as the
ventricles.

The heart is divided into two

sides- the left and right side by the
means of a muscular wall known
as the median septum which runs
down the middle of the heart. This
prevents oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood from mixing.

1. Blood from all the parts of the body enters the right atrium of the heart through the superior
vena cava (blood from the head, arms and neck) and the inferior vena cava (all the other
parts of the body except the lungs) and the blood is deoxygenated.
2. As the right atrium contracts, it pushes the blood through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle.
3. When the right ventricle contracts, it forces the blood through the semilunar (pulmonary)
valve into the pulmonary artery, which carries the deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
4. In the lungs, the blood undergoes gas exchange, releasing carbon dioxide and picking up
oxygen. This transforms the blood from deoxygenated to oxygenated.
5. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins, entering the left atrium.
6. The left atrium contracts, pushing the oxygenated blood through the mitral (bicuspid) valve
into the left ventricle.
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 7. The left ventricle contracts, pumping the oxygenated blood through the semilunar (aortic)
valve into the aorta, the body's largest artery.
8. From the aorta, oxygenated blood is distributed throughout the body via smaller arteries,
supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues and organs.

The bicuspid and tricuspid vales are attached to the walls of the ventricles by cord-like structures
called chordae tendineae.

When the ventricles contract after receiving blood, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves are forced
shut preventing the backflow of blood.

The right ventricle has thinner walls compared to the left ventricle as the right ventricle pumps
blood only to the lungs which are a short distance from the heart. Therefore, the blood in the
pulmonary arteries is at a lower pressure compared to the pressure of blood in the aorta.
The atria have comparatively thinner walls than the ventricles as it has to only force blood into the
ventricles which does not require much force.

Mode of action of the heart:

The two atria of the heart contract and relax simultaneously and the two ventricles of the heart
contract and relax simultaneously.
The mode of action of the heart is basically represented by one heartbeat. A heart beat is made up
of two phases of the heart- Systole and diastole.
A heartbeat can be identified by the sound it produces, that sounds similar to a “Lub-Dub’ sound.
1. "Lub" Sound: The first sound, "lub," happens when the heart contracts. This sound is caused
by the closing of the valves between the atria and ventricles of the heart. Specifically, it's
the closing of the mitral and tricuspid valves. When the ventricles contract, blood is pushed
out of them to go to the lungs and the rest of the body. As this happens, the valves between
the atria and ventricles snap shut, creating the "lub" sound.
2. "Dub" Sound: The second sound, "dub," occurs when the heart relaxes. This sound is
produced by the closing of the pulmonary and aortic valves, which are the valves between

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 the ventricles and the blood vessels that carry blood to the lungs and the body respectively.
After the blood is pumped out of the heart, the ventricles relax and start filling up with blood
again. As they relax, the pulmonary and aortic valves close, preventing blood from flowing
back into the heart. This closing creates the "dub" sound.

The average normal heartbeat of an adult is about 72 beats per minute.

Blood Pressure:

Blood pressure is the force of the blood exerted on the walls of the blood vessels. The pressure is
highest in the arteries during ventricular systole when the blood is forced into arteries. It
decreases during ventricular diastole. Blood pressure varies in different parts of the body.
There are two readings that show up on a blood pressure the upper reading for the ventricular
systole and the lower reading is for the ventricular diastole.
The upper reading for an average person range from 120-140 mm of mercury and the lower
reading ranges from75 to 90mm of mercury.

The blood Vessels:

Arteries:
The arteries are the blood vessels responsible for taking blood away from the heart. Arteries have
thick, muscular walls that are designed to withstand the high pressure of blood being pumped
from the heart. Imagine these walls like sturdy walls of a pipe that can handle the pressure of
water being pumped through them. They carry oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary
arteries). The artery has a muscular layer that allows arteries to contract and relax- which causes
the lumen to narrow or dilate.

Veins:
The veins are the vessels responsible for bringing blood towards the heart. The walls are relatively
thin and slightly muscular. The have semilunar valves along the length of veins to prevent the
backflow of blood. They carry deoxygenated blood (except for pulmonary veins)
*The movement of blood alone the veins is assisted by the action of the skeletal muscles on the
veins.

Capillaries:
They are microscopic thin-walled (one cell thick) blood vessels which carry blood from arterioles
to venules. They surround the tissues of our body. It has a porous outer wall which causes
components to leak out of the blood.

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Comparison of the three blood vessels:

Blood:

Composition of Blood:

Red Blood Cells (RBCs): These are the most numerous cells in the blood and are responsible for
carrying oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body. RBCs contain a protein called hemoglobin,
which binds with oxygen molecules.
White Blood Cells (WBCs): These cells are part of the body's immune system and help to defend
against infections and foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses.
Platelets: Platelets are small cell fragments that play a crucial role in blood clotting. When there is
an injury or damage to a blood vessel, platelets help to form a clot to stop bleeding.
Plasma: Plasma is the liquid component of blood and makes up about 55% of its volume. It
consists mainly of water, but also contains various proteins, hormones, nutrients, gases, and
waste products.

Function of Blood:
1. Transportation: Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to all the cells in the body and
transports carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular metabolism, from the cells back to
the lungs for exhalation. It also carries nutrients, such as glucose and amino acids, from the
digestive system to the cells and carries waste products, such as urea, from the cells to the
kidneys for excretion.

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 2. Immune Defense: White blood cells (WBCs) play a crucial role in the body's immune
response by identifying and destroying pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and
by producing antibodies to neutralize them. Two major types of white blood cells-
lymphocytes and Phagocytes.
a. Lymphocytes are responsible for producing antibodies that act as toxins for
pathogens.
b. Phagocytes are the white blood cells that carry out the process of phagocytosis.
Phagocytosis is the process where the cell expands and engulfs the pathogens to
destroy them.
3. Clotting: Platelets help to prevent excessive bleeding by forming clots at the site of an injury
or damage to a blood vessel. This process, known as hemostasis, is essential for wound
healing and preventing blood loss.
4. Regulation of Body Temperature: Blood helps to regulate body temperature by absorbing
heat from the body's core and distributing it to the skin, where it can be released through
sweating or radiation.
5. Transportation of Hormones: Blood carries hormones produced by various glands, such as
the pituitary gland and the thyroid gland, to target organs and tissues throughout the body,
where they regulate various physiological processes.

Exchange of materials:

The components that leak out of blood makes up the tissue fluid. Tissue fluid, also known as
interstitial fluid, is the fluid that surrounds cells in tissues. It is essential for supplying cells with
nutrients, removing waste products, and facilitating communication between cells. Tissue fluid is
primarily composed of water and contains various solutes dissolved within it. The components
that make up tissue fluid include:
Water, oxygen, dissolved food, hormones and proteins.
Cells that make up our tissues get their required oxygen from tissue fluid and releases their waste
products into the tissue fluid. The tissue fluid is later collected by the lymphatic vessels, which
later returns the tissue fluid into the circulatory system.

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Blood Clotting:

Upon vascular damage, platelets stick to the damaged area and a complex chain reaction starts
where the enzyme thrombokinase actives the enzyme prothrombin into its active state known as
thrombin. Thrombin goes on to convert the protein fibrinogen into an insoluble mesh-like protein
known as fibrin. The fibrin covers the wound like a net trapping platelets and red blood cells. The
fibrin mesh tightens, squeezing out the liquid forming a solid scab which covers the wound until it
fully heals.

The pulse:

The pulse originates from the heart's pumping action. Each time the heart beats, it sends a surge
of blood into the arteries, creating a temporary increase in blood pressure. This surge of pressure
travels along the arteries, causing them to momentarily expand and then contract back to their
normal size.
The pulsation of the arteries near the surface of the skin can be felt by placing fingers gently over
specific pulse points. Common pulse points include the radial artery in the wrist, the carotid artery
in the neck, and the temporal artery on the temple.

Monitoring the activity of the heart:

The activity of the heart can be measured by a few different parameters- Blood pressure, pulse,
heartbeat monitoring. However, there is a test that provides a broader picture regarding the
activity of the heart- electrocardiogram (ECG).
An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a test that records the electrical activity of the heart over a
period of time. It works by detecting and measuring the electrical signals generated by the heart
as it beats. To perform an ECG, small electrodes (usually sticky patches) are placed on specific
areas of the skin, typically on the chest, arms, and legs. These electrodes are connected to a
machine called an electrocardiograph. The electrodes detect the electrical signals produced by
the heart during each heartbeat. These signals are very weak, so the electrodes amplify them to
make them easier to measure.

Cardiovascular Diseases and its factors:

Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD) are commonly referred to diseases of the heart. The most
common heart disease is known as coronary heart disease. They are prone to fats depositing in
them leading to them being partially or fully blocked thus reducing blood supply to the heart
muscles. These obstructions can be caused by atherosclerosis- which is the thickening of the
walls of the arteries. The deposits cause damage to the inner lining off the vessels which leads to
blood clots forming. This over time can cause angina or in severe case a heart attack. Angina
means chest pain.

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Heart attack occurs when the cardiac cells start dying due to lack of blood supply. This causes the
heart functioning to be irregular, inconsistent or stop partially or completely.

Factors affecting the risk of CVD:

1. Age: The risk of CVD increases with age, with older adults being more susceptible.
2. Gender: Men tend to have a higher risk of CVD at a younger age, while women's risk increases
after menopause.
3. Family History: Having close relatives (parents or siblings) with a history of CVD increases one's
risk.
4. Smoking: Tobacco use is one of the most significant risk factors for CVD. It damages blood
vessels, raises blood pressure, and increases the risk of blood clots.
5. Unhealthy Diet: Diets high in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, sodium, and processed
foods can contribute to the development of CVD.
6. Lifestyle: Having a lifestyle without much physical activity can increase the risk of CVD. A
sedentary lifestyle results in poor blood circulation and puts stress on the heart.
7. Stress: Chronic stress can lead to unhealthy coping behaviors (such as smoking or overeating)
and contribute to hypertension and other risk factors for CVD.

Effect of a Healthy Diet and Exercise:

A good diet and exercise can vastly reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.
Healthy eating patterns can provide necessary nutrients and antioxidants that support heart
health. Avoiding oily food, processed food, food high in cholesterol (red meat) can also increase
risk of heart disease.

Engaging in regular aerobic exercise, such as brisk walking, jogging, cycling, swimming, or
dancing, can strengthen the heart muscle, improve circulation, and lower blood pressure. This can
greatly reduce the risk of heart failure. Regular exercise helps burn calories and maintain a healthy
weight, reducing the risk of obesity and related conditions such as diabetes and high blood
pressure, which are risk factors for CHD.

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