Published online February 16, 2018

Mathematics Associated
with Seed Emergence, Plant 13
Population, Stand Uniformity,
and Harvest Losses
Stephanie A. Bruggeman,* Sharon A. Clay,
Cheryl L. Reese, and C. Gregg Carlson
Collecting Plant Health Benchmarks Chapter Purpose
To assess the effectiveness of a precision farming treatment, it is important
to collect adequate plant health benchmarks to ensure that the appropriate Accurate benchmarks on plant
treatments were applied (Carlson and Clay, 2013; 2016). A benchmark is a ref- health, seed germination, and
erence point or starting point from which comparisons can be made. Specific harvest losses are needed to
benchmarks might include soil test values, a record of weed distributions and assess if precision treatments
population levels, and seed emergence. A good record keeping system with are successful. This chapter
accurately measured and recorded benchmarks is a cornerstone of precision discusses and provides ex-
farming, and is critical for calculating the success of any given treatment. amples how to conduct these
To assess the effectiveness of a management practice (the overall effects of all assessments.
the treatments), the collected information should be stored for future reference.
Many Integrated Pest Management programs recommend measuring yield and Key Terms
tracking the extent of pest populations and distribution; whereas to assess soil Benchmarks, seeding rate,
nutrient improvements, soil samples should be collected and analyzed. The list plant emergence rate, harvest
of benchmarks should include plant emergence, plant variability, the extent of loss, seed germination stan-
pest populations and distribution, soil nutrient levels, remote sensing, and yield dard deviation.
data (Nielsen, 2001; Liu et al., 2004; Carlson et al., 2013). Seed rates, plant emer-
gence, stand uniformity, and harvest losses are discussed below. Mathematical Skills
Calculating the Seeding Rate Comparison of measured val-
The desired plant population at harvest should not be used as the seeding ues with appropriate bench-
rate. Seed germination rates (the percentage of seed that will germinate after marks, calculating emergence
planting), seed purity (actual percentage of crop seed in a bag of seed), and per- of germinated seeds, calcu-
centage of seedling emergence all need to be taken into account. To assess the lating stand uniformity and
effectiveness of a variable rate seeding plan, measurements and evaluations harvest losses.
of plant populations and emergence at many different seeding rates should
be performed. Seeding and emergence rate are calculated with the equations,

Desired population at harvest

Seeding rate=
% emergence of p l anted seeds
100

South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007. *Corresponding author (Stephanie.Bruggeman@sdstate.edu)

doi: 10.2134/practicalmath2016.0029
Copyright © 2017. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America, 5585 Guilford Rd.
Madison, WI 53711, USA. Practical Mathematics for Precision Farming. David E. Clay, Sharon A. Clay, and Stephanie A. Bruggeman, (eds.).

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 Problem 13.1
Determine the percentage of germinated seed that emerged from the soil. If the seed germination rate is 95%,
the seeding rate is 35,000 seeds acre-1, and the postemergence counted plant population is 33,000 plants per
acre, what is the percentage emergence of germinated seeds (EGS)?

Answer: # seed emergence 33, 000 pla n ts acre

−1

Planted rate 35, 000 plants acre −1

= = 0 . 992
%EGS = %germinated seeds 0 . 95
100
This calculation suggests that 99% of the germinated seeds emerged from the soil.
Problem 13.2
If the seedling plant population is 33,000 plants acre-1 and the plant population at harvest is 31,000 plants
acre-1 what is the survival of seedlings to harvest.

Answer:
31, 000
% survival=100× = 93 . 9 %
33, 000

The seed emergence rate and the emergence of germinated seeds are two different values. The % emergence of
planted seeds (emergence rate) is based on two values, % germinated seed and % emergence of germinated seed
and it can range from 90% to 95%. These values are related by the equation below.
% emergence of planted seeds % germinated seeds % em e rgence of germinated seeds
= ×
100 100 100
In this equation, the germination rate (% germinated seeds) is provided by the seed seller, whereas the % of germinated
seeds that emerged from the soil is not known and therefore must be estimated or calculated. This value is important
because it can reveal planter problems. Sample calculations for these values are provided in problems 13.1, 13.2, and 13.3.

Seed Emergence of Planted and Germinated Seeds

Seed emergence is influenced by many factors including seedbed preparation, crusting, and diseases, and it is cal-
culated with the equation:
 Plant population after emergence 
% Seed emergence =100%× 
 See d ing rate 
The plant population can be measured as soon as the plants emerge by counting the number of plants in a speci-
fied area. Many agronomists recommend measuring the plants in 1/1000 of an acre (Table 13.1; Carlson et al., 2013).
The distance along a row that represents 1/1000 of an acre depends on the row width. For a 30-inch row, the length
of the row for 1/1000 of an acre is 17 feet and 5.1 inches (Table 13.1).

Determining Stand Uniformity

Increasing the plant population may increase the yield per unit area, however it can also reduce the yield per
plant (Nielsen, 2001; Carlson et al., 2002). Yields are reduced because adjacent plants compete for water, nutri-
ents, and light. Lower or higher yields may be a function of stand uniformity, as opposed to cultivar. The field
variability of a stand by location of individual plants along a tape measure (Fig. 13.1).
Variability is determined by recording the location of the plants, followed by determining the standard deviation
of the distances between the plants (Table 13.2). This process should be repeated at a number of locations in the field.
A standard deviation of 2 inches is excellent, and there is approximately a 4 bu acre-1 yield loss per inch for standard
deviations greater than 2 inches. Landscape, soil, and seedbed differences may influence stand variability.

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Table 13.1 The distance along a row representing 1/1000 of an acre. On the row, the number of plants should
be counted. The plant population is 1000 times the number of plants in 1/1000 of an acre. “Feet” and “Inches”
= distance in feet and inches of row to measure.
Row width (inches)
Distance 6 7 8 10 14 15 20 21 28 30
Feet 87 74 65 52 37 34 26 24 18 17
Inches 1.4 7.1 4.1 3.3 4 10.2 1.6 10.7 8 5.1

Problem 13.3.
Calculate the seeding rate if the purity is 96%, and 90% of the planted seeds emergence rate (emerged seeds/
planted seeds). The desired live population is 135,000 plants acre-1.
Answer:
135, 000 plants @V2  seeding rate 
= ×Purity×Emerg e nce rate
acre  acre 

135, 000 plants @V2  seeding rate  15 6, 250 seeds

= ×0 . 96×0 . 90 =
acre  acre  acre
Problem 13.4.
If the % germination is 94%, the expected survival of germinated seed to harvest is 92.2%, and the target plant
population is 34,000 seed acre-1, what is the seeding rate?

Answer:
Target population at harvest
Seeding rate=
% germinated seed % emergence of germinated seeds
×
1 00 100
34 , 000/acre
Seeding rate= = 39, 230 plants acre -1

0 . 94×0 . 922

Problem 13.5.
Determine the seed emergence if the seeding rate is 38,000 plants acre-1.
Measure the row width, and if your row width is 30 inches, count the number of plants in a row that is 17 feet
and 5.1 inches long. If 35 corn plants are contained in the row, then your plant population is 35,000 plants acre-1
(35×1000).
 35, 000 
Seed emergence=100%×  = 92 . 1 %
 38, 000 
In a second example, you plant corn in 15-inch rows, what is the length of row to produce 1/1000th of an acre?
Based on data in Table 34.1, count the number of plants in a row that is 34 feet and 10.2 inches long.

The calculations in Table 13.2 are used to determine the standard deviation of the distance between adjacent
plants. As shown in B12, the average distance is determined with the command = average (start, end). As shown in
B13, the standard deviation is determined with the command = stdev(start, end). The standard deviation is a measure
of variability. A high standard deviation value has a high yield loss and is the result of a poorly calibrated planter
or poor seed bed. The harvest loss in B12 is calculated with the equation, harvest loss = (standard deviation -2)×4. This
is based on a standard deviation of three, which has a yield loss of 4 bu acre-1.

Harvest Losses
Increasing the population has the potential to reduce the size of the individual kernels, which in turn can impact
harvest losses. Harvest losses are unavoidable; however, they can be minimized by careful management (Humburg

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Fig. 13.1. The number of corn plants along a transect within a single row. In this example, corn plants are located
at 2, 6, 18, 25, 37, 43, 46, 56, and 58 inches.

Table 13.2. Sample spreadsheet showing how to calculate plants acre-1 and yield losses due to variable seed-
ing (for information in Fig 13.1). The tables below show the locations on a tape measure. In the table on the
right, the equations behind the values in column B are shown. The row spacing is 30 in.
A B C A B
Measured loca- Spacing distance
Row spacing
tion of each corn between each pair Equations
(inches)
plant (inches) of plants
1 0 30
2 2 2 = A2-A1
3 6 4 = A3-A2
4 18 12 = A4-A3
5 25 7 = A5-A4
6 37 12 = A6-A5
7 43 6 = A7-A6
8 46 3 = A8-A7
9 56 10 = A9-A8
10 58 2 = A10-A9
= A11-A10
12 Average 6.44 = average(B2:B11)
13 Standard deviation 4.07 = stdev(B2:b11)
Bu acre in esti-
-1

14 mated yield loss 8.26 = (B13–2)*4

15 Plants acre-1 32,467 = (1/(C1*B12))*144*43,560

2016a, 2016b). Harvest losses are determined by counting the number of kernels on the ground before and after
harvest. If a combine is not properly adjusted, losses can be as high as 4 to 5% of the crop. Different calculations
are required for different crops. For corn, two types of losses are possible, through kernels and/or ears, whereas for
soybeans, the beans may fall on the ground. To assess preharvest losses, the field must be inspected prior to com-
bining. When checking the field, identify any factor that may have contributed to the loss. For example, is the yield
loss a result of a nutrient deficiency or pests?
Corn, wheat, and soybean seeds on the soil surface can be counted using an open circle or square with a known
area, such as a square foot. Many agronomists use a circle or square that contains one square foot. The circle is
placed on the soil, and number of seeds contained within the designated area are counted. To improve the esti-
mate, counts should be conducted at a number of locations. If the field contains multiple cultivars or seeding rates,
counts should be made in each areas. The yield loss is dependent on the number and size of seeds (Table 13.3).
Losses associated with the combine are associated with shattering, stubble, loose stems, separator, and machine
leakage. Shattering loss is associated with cutting and gathering processes at the head. Stubble losses result from
pods that are located below the cutting bar. Loose stem losses are the pods that remain after the combine has
stripped the plant. Separator losses are associated with soybeans that are not threshed. Machine leakage losses

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occur from machine wear. To fix the problem, the type of loss must be identified (Humburg 2016a, 2016b). The cal-
culations for converting the number of soybeans ft-2 to bu acre-1 loss are provided in Table 13.4.
As with corn and soybeans, the weight of the individual wheat kernels are variable (Table 13.5). A bushel of
wheat can contain over 1 million kernels and the number of seeds lb-1 can range from 16,000 to over 22,000 kernels
(Lyon and Klein, 2001; Nielsen, 2004; Carlson et al., 2013). If a bushel contains 1 million kernels, then 23 kernels per
1 ft2 would represent 1 bu acre-1.

Problem 13.6.
What is the estimated corn yield loss if five kernels that are medium in size are found in a 1-ft2 area? Use 43560
ft2 per acre and 90,000 medium kernels per bushel.

Answer:
5 kernels 43560 ft 2 bu 2.4 bu
2
× × =
ft acre 90,000 kernel acre

This calculation assumes that kernels are medium in size (Table 13.3). If the kernels were small, then 110,000
kernels bu-1 would be used.

Table 13.3. The relationship between corn kernel size and kernels ft-2 equal to a 1 bu acre-1 yield loss. These
values are used to determine yield losses using the number of kernels found on the ground following harvest.
Weight bu-1 (15.5% Kernels lb-1 (15.5% Kernels ft-2 equivalent to
Kernel Size Kernels bu-1
moisture) moisture) 1 bu acre-1
lb
Large 56 70,000 1250 1.6
Medium 56 90,000 1607 2.1
Small 56 110,000 1964 2.5

Table 13.4. The relationship between soybean seed size and the number of beans ft-2 equal to a yield loss
of 1 bu acre-1. The number of beans per ft2 that is equivalent to one bu acre-1 is determined by dividing the
number of soybeans bu-1 by 43,560. The data in Table 13.4 is based on size of the soybeans, which can be
determined by weighing 200 soybeans. The weight is then converted to beans per bushel. As with corn, har-
vest losses can be measured by collecting the amount of kernels contained within a specified area (1 ft2). The
harvest loss is dependent on the weight of the kernels and the number of kernels collected. Loss increases
with kernel weight.
Beans
Weight bu-1 (13% Soybeans in beans ft-2 that
Bean bu-1 lb-1 (13%
moisture) are equivalent to 1 bu acre-1
moisture)
lb
Small soybeans 60 218,000 3633 5
Medium soybeans 60 174,000 2900 4
Large soybeans 60 130,800 2180 3

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 Problem 13.7.
How many beans are contained in a bushel if 200 soybeans weight 0.95 ounces?
Answer:
beans  200 beans  16 ounces 60 lb 202,100 beans
= × × =
bushel  0 . 95 ounces  1 lb b ushel bushel

Problem 13.8.
There are 15 soybeans ft-2 in a ground loss count. What is the estimated loss if there are 240,000 beans bu-1?

Answer:
bushel  15 beans  43, 560 ft 2 bushel 2 . 72 bushels
= × × =
acre  ft 2  acre 240, 000 b eans acre

These calculations are based on a bushel of soybeans containing 240,000 soybeans (Table 13.4) If the soybeans
were medium in size a bushel would contain 174,000 soybeans.
Problem 13.9.
Behind a combine harvesting wheat, 23 kernels ft -2 were found. What is the loss if there are 1,000,000
kernels bu-1?

Answer:
2
 23 wheat kernels  43, 560 ft bushel 1 . 00 bushel wheat
 2 × × =
 ft  acre 1, 000, 000 k e rnels acre

Table 13.5. Approximate seeds gram-1, seeds lb-1 and the standard weight and moisture content of selected
annual crops.

Plant Seeds gram-1 Seeds lb-1 lb bushel-1 Standard moisture %

Barley 30 12,000–15,000 48 14.5%
Corn 3 1000–1,500 56 15.5%
Field pea 8 1500–3,600 60 15.0%
Lentil 20 9000 60 13.5%
Oats 30 13,000 32 14.0%
Rye 40 18,000 56 14.0%
Rice 65 29,000 45 12.0%
Soybean 9 2500–3,000 60 13.0%
Wheat 35 12,000–15,000 60 13.5%

Summary
In summary, to assess the effectiveness of a precision treatment, benchmarks for comparison are needed. In some
situations, these benchmarks might include soil chemical analysis, whereas in other situations seed emergence
and plant stand variability should be measured. This chapter provides examples on how to establish benchmarks
for a seed emergence, stand uniformity, and harvest losses. These measurements provide clues on how to increase
agronomic efficiency.

Acknowledgments
Support for this document was provided by South Dakota State University, South Dakota Soybean Research and
Promotion Council, and the Precision Farming Systems communities in the American Society of Agronomy and

206
 Additional Problems
13.10. If the plant population is 120,000 plants acre-1 and the seeding rate is 125,000 what is the emergence rate?
13.11. What is plant population if the row width is 30 in, and there are 22 plant in a row that is 17 ft and 5.1
in long?

13.12. What is the plant population if the row width is 15 in and there are 25 plants along row that is 37 feet
and 4 in long?

13.13. You measure the distance of corn plant on a tape, plants are located at 0, 3, 6, 15, 22, 23, 30, 37, 42, 47, 56,
and 57 in. What is your standard deviation and what is the yield loss due to variability?

13.14. Why are benchmarks important?

13.15. Behind a combine, you find 5 medium sized corn kernels ft-2, what is the estimated loss?
13.16. Behind a combine in a strip trial study, you find, 15 corn kernels ft-2 (small size) for Variety 1 and 5 corn
kernels (medium size) for Variety 2, what is the estimated loss and what do you conclude?

the International Society of Precision Agriculture. Additional support was provided by the USDA-AFRI Higher
Education Grant (2014-04572).

References and Additional Information

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South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD.
Carlson, C.G., and D. Clay. 2016. Chapter 34: Estimating the corn plant population and seed emergence rate. In: D.E. Clay,
C.G. Carlson, S.A. Clay, and E. Byamukama, editors, iGrow corn: Best management practices. South Dakota State Uni-
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Lyon, D.J., and R.N. Klein. 2001. Estimating winter wheat grain yield. Neb Guide G1429. Nebraska Extension Service, Lin-
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Nielsen, R.L. 2001. Stand establishment variability in corn. AFRY- 91-01. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
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