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PME 416: POWER PLANT DESIGN AND

RENEWABLE ENERGY

TECHNICAL REPORT 3: COOLING TOWER DESIGN

YEHOSUAH G. RAÑO
BSME 4A

ENGR. JUANITO ORIGINES

INSTRUCTOR
I. INTRODUCTION

Cooling towers are essential for lowering the temperature of process water and
preventing equipment from overheating. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water
to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the
case of dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air
temperature using radiators.

Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil

refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations, nuclear power
stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings. The classification is based on the type of air
induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are natural draft and induced
draft cooling towers.

Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid
structures (as in the adjacent image) that can be up to 200 meters (660 ft) tall and 100 meters
(330 ft) in diameter, or rectangular structures that can be over 40 meters (130 ft) tall and 80
meters (260 ft) long. Hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants,
[1]
 although they are also used in some coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large
chemical and other industrial plants. Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast
majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings
to discharge heat from air conditioning. Cooling towers are also often thought to emit smoke or
harmful fumes by the general public, when in reality the emissions from those towers do not
contribute to carbon footprint, and consist solely of water vapor.

Cooling towers are indispensable for cooling process water and keeping equipment from
overheating. A cooling tower is a heat rejection device. It works by bringing air and water into
contact to cool the water and release unwanted heat into the atmosphere. Cooling towers are
useful in industrial processes because industrial equipment tends to generate tremendous
amounts of heat. Facilities need reliable ways to dissipate that heat to keep their working
environments cool and reduce the risk of breakdowns and fire.

A cooling tower is a partially enclosed apparatus used to evaporate cool water by

coming into touch with air. For more even distribution and improved atomization of the water
inside the tower, corrugated surfaces, baffles, or perforated trays are placed inside the wooden,
steel, or concrete construction. The top of the tower is fed with hot water from the condenser,
which is then allowed to drip in the form of tiny droplets. After being effectively cooled, the air
exits from the bottom of the tower or in a direction opposite to the flow of water. To stop water
vapor from escaping with the air, draft eliminators are available at the tower's peak.

1.2 Types of Cooling Tower

A. Natural Draft Cooling Tower

Natural draft towers use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through the
media. Due to the large size of these towers, they are generally used for water flow rates
above 45,000 m3/hr. These types of towers are used only by utility power stations. It
produces airflow through utilization of the stack, or chimney.

B. Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower

 A mechanical draft cooling tower uses large fans to produce airflow through the tower fill.
Water is distributed over the tower fill, and heat transfer takes place by evaporation and
convection as a result of water to air interface.

a. Forced draft – Forced draft cooling towers have the fans mounted at the base of
the tower. Air is forced in at the bottom and discharged through the top of the
tower. It has one or more fans located at the tower bottom to push air into the
tower. During operation, the fan forces air at a low velocity horizontally through
the packing and then vertically against the downward flow of the water that
occurs on either side of the fan. The drift eliminators located at the top of the
tower remove water entrained in the air.

b. Induced draft – The induced draft tower has the fans located downstream of the
tower fill section so that the air is pulled through the fill section. A mechanical
draft tower with a fan at the discharge which pulls air through tower. The fan
induces hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low entering and high
exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in which discharged
air flows back into the air intake.

Mechanical draft towers are available in the following airflow arrangements:

i. Counter flows induced draft – in the counter flow induced draft design, hot
water enters at the top, while the air is introduced at the bottom and exits at the
top. Both forced and induced draft fans are used.

ii. Counter flow forced draft – The crossflow cooling tower has a fill
configuration through which the air flows horizontally, across the
downward fall of water. Crossflow tower fill typically is a splash bar type.
Splash bar fill functions to impede the progress of the falling water by
breaking it into tiny droplets. The bars are typically arranged in staggered
rows. Heat and mass transfer occur at the surface of the droplets.

iii. Cross flow induced draft – the air enters the tower through the openings in
the lower portion of the tower, turns 90 degrees, and passes upward
through the fill section, where heat and mass transfer between the air and
the water take place. The air then passes through the drift eliminators
above the fill, enters the tower plenum space, and passes out through the
fan stack.

I.2. Components of Cooling Tower

 Frame and casing – support the exterior enclosures such as motors, fans, and other
components.
 Fill – facilitate heat transfer by maximizing water and air contact. It can be either
splash or film type.
 Cold water basin – it receives the cooled water that flows through the tower and fill.
  Drift eliminators – these capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that
otherwise would be lost to the atmosphere.
 Air inlet – this is the point of entry for the entering a tower.
 Louvers – it equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower.
 Nozzles – these provide the water sprays to wet the fill.
 Fans – both axial and centrifugal fans are used in towers.

I.3. Design Consideration for Cooling Terms

 Cooling Range
 Approach to wet bulb temperature
 Mass flow rate
 Wet bulb temperature
 Air velocity through tower or individual tower cell
 Tower height

II. COOLING TOWER DESIGN

2.1. Energy Analysis of Cooling Tower

AIR-MASS BALANCE
mass of water vapor Pv ( vapor pressure )
ma=m1=m2 : mass flow rate of air w=0.622 =
mass of dry air Pt ( usually P atm ) −Pv
mw =m3=m4 : mass flow rate of water
w 1=h umidity ratio of inlet Pv
φ=
P s ( saturation pressure )

w 2=h umidity ratio of outlet

φ Ps
Therefore; w=(0.622)
P t−φ P s

m3 +m1 w 1=m4 + m1 w2 ENERGY BALANCE

mw +ma w1=mw + ma w 2 Energy dissipated=Energy in–Energy out
m 5=m3−m4=ma ( w 2−w 1)
m1 h1+ m3 h3 +m5 h5=m1 h2 +m 4 h4

ma ( h2−h1 )=m w ( h3−h4 ) + m5 h5

Where m5=ma ( w 2−w 1 )

ma ( h2−h1 )=m w ( h3−h4 ) + ma ( w2−w1 ) h5

Cooling range is the difference between the temperature entering and leaving water
temperature:
Cooling range=t a −t b
Approach is the difference in temperature between the cold water and entering air wet bulb.
Approach=t b −t wb
Cooling efficiency is the ratio of the actual coolimg range to the theoretical coolimg range.
t a−t b
Cooling efficiency=
t a −t wb

II.2. Cooling Tower Design

Volume of Circulating Water (V) m3 Enthalpy of air at inlet temperature kJ
320 65
hr (h a ) 1
kg
Inlet Temperature of Water (t a ¿ 30 ° C Enthalpy of air at outlet kJ
Oulet Temperature of Water 25 ° C 75
temperature (h a ) 2
kg
(t b) Specific humidity of air at t inlet (ω1 ) kg
Wet Bulb Temperature (t wb ) 25 ° C 0.016
kg of dry air
Inlet Temperature of Air (t a ) 25 ° C Specific humidity of air at t outlet ( ω2 ) kg
1
0.019
Outlet Temperature of Air (t a ) 2
28 ° C kg of dry air
3
Design Relative Humidity (φ) 80 % Specific volume of air at t inlet (V s ) m
1
0.8605
Allowable Evaporating Losses 1.44 % kg
Specific volume of air at t outlet (V s ) m3
Table 1: Technical Specifications 2
0.88
kg
Enthalpy of water at t outlet ( hs ) kJ
1 125.8
kg
Enthalpy of water at t inlet (hs ) kJ
2 104.9
Table 2: Data from Psychometric Chart and SteamkgTable

2.2.1 Thermal Design Calculations

Cooling approach ( CA ) =t b −t wb Cooling range ( CR )=t a−t b
¿ 25 ° C−22 ° C ¿ 30 ° C−25 ° C
CTA=3 ° C CR=5 ° C

Mass of water circulated in cooling tower

mw =( volume of circulating water ) ( mass density of water ) =( 320 )( 1000 )
1

kg
mw =320 000
1
hr

Heat Loss by Water (HL)

HL=( m¿ ¿ w 1) ( C pw ) ( t 1−t b ) ¿ Mass of air required (ma )
HL=(320 000)( 4.186)(30−25) V 663 887.582
kJ m a= =
HL=6 699 200 Vs 0.8605
hr
1

kg
ma=795 729.62
Volume of air required (V) hr
V = ( HL∗V s ) [ ( ha −h a )−( ω2−ω 1 )( C pw∗t b ) ]
1 2 1

V = ( 6 699200 ) [ ( 76−65 )−( 0.019−0.016 )( 4.186 )( 25 ) ]

3
m
V =663 887.582
hr

Quantity of make-up water

V ( ω 2−ω 1 ) 663 887.582 ( 0.0186−0.0162 ) kg
m make−up= = =1 814.73
Vs 2
0.88 hr
Taking evaporative loss in consideration 1 814.73
kg
hr(1+
1.44
100 )
=1,840.86
kg
hr
mmake−up=30.68 kg/min ⁡

Effectiveness of cooling tower

CR 5
ε= = =0.625
CR+CA 5+3
ε =62.5 %

 Estimation of different types of losses in cooling tower

Drift Losses (DL)
Taking drift losses as 20% of circulating water

( )
DL=( 0.20 )
mw
100
1

(
=( 0.20 )
100 )
320 000

kg
DL=640
hr
Windage Losses (WL)
Taking windage losses as 0.5% of circulating water
WL=( 0.005 ) ( mw )=( 0.005 )( 320 000 )
1

kg
WL=1,600
hr
Evaporative Losses (EL)
Taking evaporative losses as 1% of circulating water per 10°F of cooling range
( 0.01 ) ( m w ) ( CA ) ( 0.01 ) ( 320,000 )( 86−77 )
EL= =
1

10 10
kg
EL=2,880
hr
Blow down Losses (BL)
XC
Cycles of Concentration, COC=
XM
XC= concentration of solids in circulating water
XC= concentration of solids in make-up water
Water Balance Equation for Cooling Tower is,
kg
M =WL+ EL+ DL=1600+2880+640=5,120
hr
M 5120
COC= = =2.2857
M −EL 5120−2280
EL 2880
BL= =
COC−1 2.2857−1
kg
BL=2,240.02
hr

II.2.1. Structural Design Calculations

 Cooling Tower Characteristics

Assume that the air outlet temperature = 28°C
Relative Humidity (φ)=80%
hsa = enthalpy of saturated air at water temperature
ha = enthalpy of moist air at that temperature and humidity

( ) ( ) h sa −ha ‐1
T (° C ) kJ kJ ( h sa−h a)
h sa ha
kg kg
25 76.5 65.5 11 0.0909
26 81 69.5 11.5 0.08696
27 85 73 12 0.08333
28 90 77.5 12.5 0.08
29 95 80 15 0.0667
 30 99.5 85 14.5 0.06897
‐1
Table 3: Calculation for ( h sa −h a)

From Chitalent, P.R., cooling tower characteristic equation can be given as,

( )
K a∗V 1
=R
L hsa −h a Avg

K=mass transfer coefficient

( hrkg. m )
2

A=area ( m )
2

V =active cooling volume ( m )

3

L=loading factor
(
k g water
sec . m
2 )
−1
( h sa−h a) avg=0.07948
K a∗V k g air
=0.3974
L k g water

II.2.2. Determination of Loading Factor

Liters
L=3.55
sec
2
m

( )
K a∗V L
Z=
L Ka
Z: height of the tower (m)
B: base area (m2)
Vf: fill volume (m3)
k gair Volume of fill=B∗Z
Considering, K a =0.47
sec−m3 k g water
3 3 88.89
liters 10 mwater sec 2
L=3.55 =3.55 × B= .=25.05 m
sec −m
2
sec−m
2 k g water
3.55 2
k gwater sec−m
L=3.55
sec −m
2 Square shape tower dimensions are (5m × 5m)
( 0.3974 ) ( 3.55 ) Fill volume=25.050× 3
Z= V f =75.15 m
3
0.47
Z=3 m ( fill height )

II.2.3. Modelling of Cooling Tower

Applying the Appropriate Boundary Conditions
Inlet temperature of hot water 303 K
Inlet wet bulb temperatire of air 295 K
Mass flow rate of water kg
8
s
Inlet mass flow rate of air kg
221.04
s
Inlet air pressure 1.013 ¿¯
Inlet wet bulb temperature of air 295 K
Fills porosity 50 %
Table 4: Appropriate Boundary Conditions
 Figure : Cooling Tower Model

III. SAMPLE PROBLEMS IN COOLING TOWER

1. The cooling water from the condenser of a power plant enter a wet cooling tower at
40°C at a rate of 40 kg/s. The water is cooled at 30°C in the cooling tower at 1 atm
 (101.325 kPa), 22°C and 16°C, dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature, respectively.
Neglecting the power input to the fan. Determine the following:
a. the volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower
b. mass flow rate of the required make-up water
c. cooling range temperature
d. approach temperature
e. cooling efficiency
Given:
(1) (2) (3) (4)
t db=22 ° C t db =32 °C t 3=40 ° C t 4=30 ° C
t wb =16 ° C φ=95 % m3=40 kg/ s

SOLUTION:
Air mass balance: m1=m2=ma

Water mass balance:

m3 +ma w1=m4 + m1 w 2
m3−m4 =ma ( w2 −w1 ) =m5

Energy balance:
E¿ =E out note ( Q=W =0 )
ma h1 +m3 h 3=ma h2+ m 4 h4
ma h1 +m3 h 3−m a h2−m4 h 4=0
m a ( h2−h1 ) +m3 h 3−m 4 h4 =0 since m4 =m 3−m 5
ma ( h2−h1 ) +m3 h 3−(m ¿ ¿ 3−m5) h4 =0 ¿
ma ( h2−h1 ) +m3 h 3−[ m 3−ma ( w 2−w 1) ] h4=0
m a ( h2−h1 ) +m3 ( h 3−h 4 )−ma ( w 2−w 1 ) h4 =0
Solving for ma
m3 ( h3 −h4 )
m a=
( h 2−h1 )− ( w2 −w1 )
For Phase (1)Air inlet : Using Psychometric Chart
t db=22 °C ;t wb =16 °C For Phase (2)Air Exit
kJ t 2=32° C ; φ=95 %
h1 =44.6486
kg kJ
h2 =106.4919
Pv kg
w 1=( 0.622 ) φ Ps
Pt −Pv
w 2=( 0.622 )
[
w 1=( 0.622 )
1.4261 kPa
] Pt −φ P s

w 1=0.00888
101.325 kpa−1.4261 kPa
k g water
w 2=( 0.622 )
[ ( 0.95 )( 4.7585 )
101.325−( 0.95 ) ( 4.7585 ) ]
k gair k g water
3 w 2=0.02905
m k gair
v1 =0.8472
kg

For Phase (3) Warm Water inlet m3 ( h3 −h4 )

Using Steam Table» Table A-4 m a=
kJ ( h 2−h1 )− ( w2 −w1 )
h3 =hf ° C =167.53
kg
(40 kgs ) ( 167.53−125.74 ) kJ
@ 40

For Phase (4) Cold Water inlet

Using Steam Table» Table A-4 kg
kJ ¿
h 4=h f ° C =125.74 kJ k gwater
@ 30
kg (106.4919−44.6486 ) −( 0.02905−0.00888 )
kg k gair
kg
ma=25.98
s
 ( )( )
3
kg m
V 1=ma v 1 = 25.98 0.8472
s kg
3
m
V 1=22 . 01
S

kg
m5=ma ( w 2−w 1 )=25.98 ¿
s
kg
m5=0 . 504
s

Cooling range=t a −t b=40 ° C−30° C

Cooling range=10° C

Approach=t b −t wb=30 ° C−16 °C

Approach=14 ° C

t a−t b 40° C−30 ° C

Cooling efficiency= × 100 %= ×100 %
t a −t wb 40° C−16 ° C
Cooling efficiency=41.67 %

2. Water at 30°C flows into a cooling towrr at the rate of 1.15 kg per kg air. Air enters
the tower at the dbt 20°C and a relative humidity of 60% and leaves it at a dbt of
28°C and 90% relative humidity. Make-up water is supplied at 20°C. Determine (a)
the temperatire of water leaving the tower, (b) the fraction of water evaporated, (c)
the approach and range of the cooling tower.

SOLUTION:
Using Psychometric chart,
t w b =15.2 °C 34.2
t w −t w = =30−t w
1

kJ 3 4
4.19 4
h1 =43
kg t w =21.8 ° C
4
k g water vapor
w 1=0.0088
k g dry air Approach=t w −t w b
4 1

t w b =26.7 ° C
2
Approach=21.8−15.2
kJ Approach=6.6 °C
h2 =83.5
kg
k g water vapor x=G ( w 2−w 1)
w 2=0.0213
k g dry air x=1 ( 0.0231−0.00888 )
kJ kg
h w =125.8 x=0.0125
3
kg k g dry air
kJ
h w =84
kg Range=t w −t w =30−21.8
3 4

G Range=8.2° C
h w −hw = [ ( h2−h1 ) −( w 2−w 1) h w ]
3 4
ωc
1
h w −h4 =
3
1.15
[ ( 83.5−43 )− ( 0.0213−0.0088 ) 84 ]
kJ
h w −hw =34.2
3 4
kg
3. Warm water at 45°C enters a cooling tower at the rate of 6 kg/s. An ID fan draws 10
m3/s of air through the tower and absorbs 4.90 kW. The air emntering the tower is at
20°C dbt and 60% relative humidity. The air leaving the tower is assumned to be
saturated and its temperature is 26°C. Calculate the final temperature of the water
and the amount of make-uo water required per second. Assume that the pressure
remains constant through the tower at 1.013 bar.

SOLUTION:

pw
At inlet, RH = =0.6
ps
 at 20° C , ps =0.0234 ¿¯
ps =( 0.6 ) ( 0.0234 )=0.01404 ¯¿
1

pa =1.013−0.01404=0.99896 ¯¿
1

Dry air flow,

kJ
( 105 ) ( 0.99896 ) ( 10 ) h w =2553.13
G 1= 1
kg
( 0.28 ) ( 10−3 ) ( 293 ) kJ
h w =h g =2548.4
kg 2 @26 °C
kg
G1=11.88
s ( 6 )( 188.4 )−( 5.85 ) hw =11.88 ¿
4

kJ
( 0.01404 ) ( 105 ) ( 10 ) h w =116.752
ω 1=
4
kg
( 0.4619 ) ( 10 ) ( 293 )
5 116.752
exit water temp .=
kg 4.187
ω 1=0.1037 exit water temp .=27.88 ° C
s

0.1037
W 1=
11.8795
k gvapor
W 1=0.00874
k g dry air

At exit, 26°C,
ps =0.0336 ,̄ φ=100 %
pw =0.0336 ¯¿
2

pw
W 2=W s=0.622 2

p− pw 2

W 2=0.622 (
0.0336
1.013−0.0336 )
k g vapor
W 2=0.02133
k gdry air
G2 k gvapor
Now, W 2= =0.2133
ω2 k g dry air

kg
ω 2=( 0.02133 ) ( 11.88 )=0.2534
s
makeup water reqd .=ω2 −ω1
makeup water reqd .=0.2534−0.1037
kg
makeup water reqd .=0.1497
s

Applying steady flow energy equation,

ω c h w +G1 ( h1 +W 1 hw ) +W s=ωc h w +G2 ( h2 +W 2 hw )
2 3 1 2 4 2

where,
W s=4.90 kW
kJ
h w =4.187 ( 45 )=188.4
3
kg
h w =h g@ 20 ° C +c p ( t −t sat @ p )
1 w1

h w =2538.1+ 1.880 ( 20−12 )

1

4. A wet cooling tower is to cool 25 kg/s of cooling water from 40 to 308C at a location
where the atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa. Atmospheric air enters the tower at 208C
and 70 percent relative humidity and leaves saturated at 358C. Neglecting the power
input to the fan, determine (a) the volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower and
(b) the mass flow rate of the required makeup water.

SOLUTION:
Dry Air Mass Balance
 ma =m a =ma
1 2

Water Mass Balance

m3 +ma ω1=m 4 + ma ω 2
1 2

m3−m4 =ma ( ω2−ω1 )=mmakeup

Energy Balance
m3 ( h3−h4 )
m a=
( h 2−h1 )− ( ω2−ω1 ) h4
Pv 1=φ1 P g 1=φ Psat @ 20 ° C
Pv 1=( 0.70 )( 2.3392 )
Pv 1=1.637 kPa
( 25 ) ( 167.53−125.74 )
m a=
Pa 1=P1−P v 1 ( 134.4−47.5 )−( 0.0387−0.0108 ) (125.74 )
Pa 1=96−1.637 kg
ma=12.53
Pa 1=94.363 kPa s

V 1=ma v 1 =( 12.53 )( 0.891 )

R T ( 0.287 )( 293 )
v1 = a 1 = m3
Pa 1 V 1=11.2
394.363 s
m
v1 =0.891
k gdry air
mmakeup=ma ( ω 2−ω 1)
0.622 Pv 1 mmakeup=( 12.53 )( 0.0387−0.0108 )
ω 1= kg
P1−Pv 1 mmakeup=0.35
s
( 0.622 )( 1.637 )
ω 1=
( 96−1.637 )
k g water
ω 1=0.0108
k g dry air
h1 =c p T 1+ ω1 h g1
h1 =( 1.005 )( 20 )( 0.0108 ) ( 2537.4 )
kJ
h1 =47.5
kg

Pv 2=φ2 P g 2=φ Psat @ 35 ° C

Pv 2=( 1.00 ) ( 5.6291 )
Pv 2=5.6291 kPa
0.622 P v2
ω 2=
P2−Pv 2
( 0.622 )( 5.6291 )
ω 2=
96−5.6291
k g water
ω 2=0.0387
k g dry air
h2 =c p T 2 +ω2 h g 2
kJ
h2 =( 1.005 )( 35 )+ ( 0.0387 )( 2564.6 )=134.4
kg

kJ
h3 =hf @ 40° C =167.53
kg
kJ
h 4=h f @ 30 ° C =125.74
kg

5. The cooling water from the condenser of a power plant enters a wet cooling tower at
1108°F at a rate of 100 lbm/s. Water is cooled to 808°F in the cooling tower by air
that enters the tower at 1 atm, 768°F, and 60 percent relative humidity and leaves
saturated at 958°F. Neglecting the power input to the fan, determine (a) the volume
flow rate of air into the cooling tower and (b) the mass flow rate of the required
makeup water.
 SOLUTION:

Dry Air Mass Balance

ma =m a =ma
1 2

Water Mass Balance

m3 +ma ω1=m 4 + ma ω 2
1 2

m3−m4 =ma ( ω2−ω1 )=mmakeup

Energy Balance
m3 ( h3−h4 )
m a=
( h 2−h1 )− ( ω2−ω1 ) h4

From Psychometric Chart,

Btu
h1 =30.9
lbm
lb m water
ω 1=0.0115
lb m dry air
3
ft
v1 =13.76
lbm

Btu
h2 =63.2
lbm
lb mwater
ω 2=0.0366
lb mdry air

Table A-4E
Btu
h3 =hf @110 ° F =78.02
lbm
Btu
h 4=h f @ 80 ° F =48.07
lbm

( 100 ) (78.02−48.07 )
m a=
( 63.2−30.9 )−( 0.0366−0.0115 ) ( 48.07 )
lbm
ma=96.3
s

V 1=ma v 1 =(96.3)(13.76)
ft 3
V 1=1325
s

m makeup=ma ( ω 2−ω 1)
mmakeup=(96.3)(0.0366−0.0115)
lbm
mmakeup=2.42
s