ETHNOCENTRISM AND CULTURAL RELATIVISM

The concept of Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism has been a critical issue of morality in our
society for a long period of time. With the complexities of these topics, it is helpful to analyze the
points of view of experts regarding this concern.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is the view that one’s own cultural elements such as norms, values, ideology,
customs, and traditions are dominant and superior to others(Brown, 2007).

William Graham Sumner (1906) coined the term ethnocentrism in his work Folkways that served
as the foundation in social analysis of every culture. According to his definition, ethnocentrism is
a technical name to see things in which one’s own cultural identity is the center of everything
over which all must be scaled, rated, and referred to. This perspective led to conceited behavior
and the belief of the superiority of one’s own group with great prejudice to outsiders. While
ethnocentrism takes universal stage, which propels cohesion and continuity at all levels of social
structure, it provides a rational explanation for attack made on other culture or subculture in its
extreme forms.

Sumner mentioned some characteristics of an individual with an ethnocentric view. Ethnocentric

persons -

 have a dominant cultural element which they see as superior to other cultures;
 view rigidly their own socio-economic, political, and cultural elements;
 see their cultural elements as normal and acceptable to all;
 consider in-group norms can be universalized;
 discard out-group ethnicities and cultures;
 believe that other cultures are inferior; and
 look at other culture’s elements as inferior and unacceptable

It can be seen in Philippine society that ethnocentrism is still emerging. The sense of identity
seems to be a contributing reason for this. It goes deeper in our history that the mixture of
different cultures has created several identity marks resulting in our diverse cultural heritage,
both tangible and intangible. Also, our indigenous culture can be categorized as old, non-
advanced technology with no sense of modernity. After the primitive age, we begin to be the
melting pot of Western and Oriental cultures resulting in a shaky and complex identity attributed
to us today. With this characteristic, it is very difficult to blend this type of indigenous culture to
the fast-changing society.
Chinof (2016) made some observations on how to address this growing concern on Filipino
ethnocentrism.

1. Identify indigenous culture that truly reflects Filipino identity.

2. Eliminate foreign influences and stick to “home-grown" practices.

3. If we want to settle our identity, we must accept the good part of the foreign influences that
come to us.

Although colonization by the Spaniards, Americans, and Japanese has caused a shift in
several of our cultural, social, political, and economic policies, it made the Philippines a single
nation. Thus, the Philippines today stands strongly behind our acceptance of our Filipino identity
marked by our appreciation of foreign influences. Truly, it is difficult to do away with these
influences, because if we will totally disregard them, we will run the risk of being left with nothing
but purely our own native culture and tradition that may alienate us from the globalized world.
We need to acknowledge their part in the richness of the tapestry that is the Filipino culture.

Cultural Relativism

Culture, just like a story, conveys different meanings and it can vary among the people who
created it. It poses a challenge to the idea that culture is the same for everyone. Also, culture
like a story has a life of its own. This notion rejects the concept of cultural universality.

Cultural relativism refers to an objective analysis of one’s own culture –seeing and
understanding of one’s beliefs and traditions from his/her own point of view. It also entails not to
judge the practices of others based on your own culture; hence, respecting it in their own
cultural context. For example, you may find eating insects as an unacceptable and a disgusting
practice. However, in Thailand, as well as parts of Central America like Mexico, it is considered
a delicacy. Instead of being prejudiced, one can pose an interesting question like “Why do some
cultures eat fried insects?”.

According to James Rachels (2003), the following claims have all been made by cultural
relativists:

1. Each society has a diverse set of moral conducts.

2. The rightfulness of an action within a society is primarily determined by the moral standards
of that society.

3. There is no objective standard that can be used as a basis of comparison among societies.

4. The moral code of our own society is just part of a larger body of morality and ethical
standards.

5. High tolerance among all culture must be exercised always.

However, in his critical analysis, he also posited some observations and consequences of
accepting cultural relativism.
1. It is difficult to determine if the custom of other societies is morally inferior to others.

2. The decision whether actions are right or wrong can be done just by consulting the standards
of our society.

3. The idea of moral progress is always questionable.

4. The objective criticism of one’s own culture is shallow.

5. There will be no idea of moral progress because of acceptance of other’s culture.

The aspect of mutual respect and understanding must be observed. This is the first step
towards a deeper appreciation of one’s culture. Tolerance and acceptance of cultural diversities
within the bounds of our own moral and ethical standard can be a way to understand individual
differences.

Cultural Relativism as the Opposite View

Cultural relativism is a belief that cultures are equally complex. There is no such thing as
superior or inferior culture. Cultural relativism is very important in studying the culture of other
people. It is a way of viewing the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from its own
viewpoint. Another way to say this is that others should understand an individual’s beliefs and
activities in terms of that person’s own culture.

 Cultural relativism promotes greater appreciation of the cultures that an individual might
encounter along the way.
 Cultural relativism is a good way to rehearse the norms and values of a society –-- a
requirement that one must subscribe to, regardless of his/her cultural origin.
 It means that the function and meaning of a trait are relative to its cultural setting.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CULTURAL, SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC SYMBOLS

HUMAN CULTURAL EVOLUTION

It is a saying that “human has no contentment”. As the environment changes, we continuously

grow and find ways to make maximize our effort as we live. It is very evident in the different
stages of human cultural evolution: Palaeolithic Period, Neolithic Period, and Age of Metal.

The term “Palaeolithic” was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It is derived the
from Greek word, palaios, which means "old"; and, lithos, "stone", In short, the Palaeolithic
Period, which happened 2.5 million years ago, is also known as "Old Stone Age".

In the Palaeolithic period, the Earth was extremely cold and ocean levels were much lower than
they are now. Due to the cold climate, much of the Stone Age is also called the Ice Age.

During these years, people were nomads and able to use simple tools and weapons made of
unpolished stone. The caves served as their shelter.

Similarly, this was the time when people discovered to use the fire, through the use of stone, for
their protection against cold temperature and to cook their own food.

Human beings in this time were grouped together in small societies such as bands, and
subsisted by gathering plants and fishing, hunting or scavenging wild animals. Also in this era,
according to study of Dr. Jesus T. Peralta of NCCA, respect is given to age, and individual
prowess and ability are recognized. There are no leaders that could be said to be above
everybody else and whose commands are obeyed without question. In some cases, one who is
known for good decisions is consulted when a problem arises; or well-known hunter will be
asked to lead a hunting group.

Likewise, the term “Neolithic” also comes from the same archaeologist and from the Greek word
“neo” which means new and “lithos” meaning stone or in short, the “New Stone Age” which was
happened for about 10,000 B.C. In this period, the Cro Magnon disappeared and the new
people who are considered the modern man appeared.

The Neolithic Revolution is also called as the First Agricultural Revolution. During this period,
there was a wide-scale transition of many human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and
gathering to of agriculture and settlement kind of society which eventually led to population
increase. People depend on domesticated plants and animals. They learned to create such
crafts as pottery and weaving. They likewise developed boat as means of transportation and for
fishing as well.

From being nomads during the early stage, human began to develop a sedentary type of society
of which they built-up villages and towns. Furthermore, they were never contented of their
accomplishments. They kept on discovering things for their own convenience. So, they
discovered metals, and they gradually abandoned stone as the basic element for their
instrument and tools
This period was known as Age of Metals (4000 B.C – 1500 B.C). The used of metal such as
bronze, copper, and iron produced a new historical development from the cradle civilization of
Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia including the India, and China which later spread throughout Asia.

There were three stages distinguished within this Age due to the different types of metals that
were used: The Copper Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age; copper was the first known
metal, it is of a low hardness and it was used to make ornaments; bronze is an alloy of copper
and tin and it is harder and stronger than copper. Several eastern Mediterranean peoples
discovered this metallurgy and progressed rapidly.

During this age, agricultural tools were developed with bronze, such as plows and sickles,
military weapons like swords, spears and shields, as well as household utensils like jars, bowls
and cups. Likewise, a more developed social, cultural, political, and economic system were
improved. Tribes, empires, and state were recognized at this point.

Ancient State and Civilization

One of the earliest states and civilizations was found in the Fertile Crescent which is known as
the Mesopotamian civilization. The word Mesopotamia is a Greek word for “Land between two
rivers” which is often referred to as the cradle of civilization. It is the region of the Western Asia
located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It is known as the Fertile Crescent where the
first evidence of agriculture was also found. Here the first human civilizations were taking the
earliest steps from hunter-gatherer society into settled community. Moreover, it is in
Mesopotamia that the history writing appeared as early as over 5,000 years ago. This invention
was so important that it marks the end of the Prehistory, and the beginning of history. One of the
first writing systems, the Cuneiform, is one of the most important civilizations in the history of
Mesopotamian culture.

Every city in Mesopotamia had its own government, rulers, warriors, patron god, and functioned
like an independent country. Mesopotamian cities were Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagesh. There is a
temple at the center of each city called a ziggurat (a massive, tiered, pyramid-shaped structure).
There was also what we called Mesopotamian warrior-gods (2.400-2.500 B.C.) who govern and
protect the people under its government. Military commanders eventually became monarch
creating a new structure of government called a Dynasty. It is a series of rulers descending from
a single-family line. The Akkadian Empire lasted about 200 years. In the year 2350–2150 B.C,
Babylonian Empire overtook Sumerians around 2000 B.C., and they built capital, the Babylon,
on Euphrates River.

Another ancient states and civilizations was the Egyptian civilization. It emerged more than
5,000 years ago along the River Nile in the north-east of Africa. The Ancient Egyptians lived
near the River Nile because of its fertile land suitable for growing crops and domestication of
animals. Each year, water from the Nile rose and flooded the area. When the water went back, it
left mud that made the fields fertile.
Modern State and Civilization

In the European continent, several states and civilization grew tremendously over centuries. In
England, around 1500s, most of the people lived in small villages. They paid tithes to their
feudal landlords. Henry VII won the War of the Roses in England, which led into what is known
as the Tudor dynasty, and begun the development of the English nation-state.

In Spain in the year 1492, Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella took Spain back from the
Muslim. It became the era of Spain as a global power. In France, Louis XIV of France created
an absolute monarchy. France became the dominant power in Europe. When The French
Revolution broke out, it created the modern French nation-state, which sparked nationalism
around Europe.

In 1914, when various nation-states started to claim their power and superiority over all the
nations in the world, the World War I begun until 1918. In 1919, Treaty of Versailles ended the
World War I. It divided several multinational empires that led to the creation of several new
nation-states.

In 1939, the World War II started until 1945. The end of World War II led to the formation of
United Nations in 1945. The State of the People: Democratic State

In the recent decade after the two World Wars, people are becoming more active in their
government and state affairs, in which people become the source of political power and
government rules. This evolution in the government is known as the process of democratization,
or simply democracy – the rule of the people.

Democratization is the transition to a more democratic political regime, including substantive

political changes moving in a democratic direction. It may be the transition from an authoritarian
regime to a full democracy, a transition from an authoritarian political system to a semi-
democracy or transition from a semi- authoritarian political system to a democratic political
system. What is a democracy?

Moreover, a democracy is a form of government where the citizens of the nation have the power
to vote. There are several different types of democracies; (1) a representative democracy is a
system where citizens choose government representatives among their citizens, (2) direct
democracy is when the citizens form a governing body and vote directly on issues, (3)
constitutional democracy limits the powers of government through the nation’s constitution.