2020 PHYSIOLOGY

SAQs
QUESTION 18
Write short notes on
a. Physiological and anatomical dead space
b. Surfactant
c. Chemical regulation of breathing
ANS
i. Physiological dead space – This refers to the total dead space which includes both the
anatomical and alveolar dad spaces.

ii. Anatomical dead space – Refers to the volume of air present in the conducting zone of the
respiratory passage i.e. from the nose to the terminal bronchioles. It is the volume of the
lung that is not involved in gas exchange. Its total volume is about 15mL.

b. SURFACTANT
Composition – Pulmonary surfactant is a complex mixture of several phospholipids, proteins, and ions.
Production – it is secreted by type II alveolar epithelial cells.
Location – It line the alveolar surface of the lungs
Functions of Surfactant – Surfactant performs the following functions in respiration.
i. Reduces surface tension and therefore prevents the alveoli from collapsing.
ii. Reduces the work of breathing
iii. Maintains the uniform size of the alveoli.

C. CO2 Transport in the blood.

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three ways or forms,
i. In dissolved form
ii. In bicarbonate form (70%)
iii. In Carbamino compound form (23%)
The major form of CO2 transport in the blood is in the form of Plasma Bicarbonate ions described as
follows
-CO2 enters he Red Blood Cells
-Carbonic anhydrase rapidly reacts with water to form Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
-The Carbonic acid H2CO3 dissociates into Bicarbonate ions and Hydrogen ions H+
-The bicarbonate on diffuse out of the RBCs into the plasma and are transported as Sodium Bicarbonate
(Alkali reserve of Blood)

D. Chemical Control of Breathing

The chemical factors regulating respiration are pCO2, pO2 and pH of blood. These factors influence
respiration in such a way that their own blood levels are maintained constant. The chemical mechanism
of regulation operates through the chemo receptors (Sensory nerve endings, highly sensitive to changes
in PCO2,PO2 and pH f blood).
These are of 3 types
Peripheral chemoreceptors – located in the carotid and aortic bodies. They respond to low PCO2,
increased PCO2 and increased H+ concentration arterial blood. They lead to or cause Hyperventilation
(increased rate and depth of respiration)
Central chemoreceptors – located on the surface of the medulla oblongata and also called medullary
receptor. They respond to H+ concentration.
Pulmonary and Myocardial chemoreceptors – Located in the pulmonary and coronary blood vessels
respectively. They are stimulated by injecting Nicotine and other agents into pulmonary circulation.

QUESTION 19
Describe the factors regulating gastric emptying
ANS
Gastric emptying is regulated by various ways as following
i. Fluidity of the chyme: The rate of gastric emptying depends on the rate at which the chyme is
broken down into smaller particles. Liquids empty much faster than solids.
ii. Gastric factors - Which are
- Volume of food in the stomach – the greater the volume, the greater the rate.
- Gastric hormone – gastrin enhances the activity of Pyloric pump and therefore promotes
the gastric emptying.

iii. Duodenal factors – They are duodenal reflex and Enterogastric Hormones.
- Duodenal reflex – Prevents the flow of exceeding the ability of intestine to handle it.
- Enterogastric reflex – is a neuro-mediated reflex. Controls distention of the duodenum,
acidity of contents and osmolarity of chime.
They both inhibit gastric emptying.

Enterogastric Hormones – CCK, Secretin, Gastric inhibitory peptide. These hormones are collectively
called enterogastrones. They inhibit gastric contractions.

Other factors affecting gastric emptying are

Emotions;
Anger and Depression – increases gastric emptying
Depression and Fear – decrease gastric emptying

QUESTION 20
Describe the digestion and absorption of Carbohydrates.

ANS

DIGESTIONOF CARBOHYDRATES
The digestion of carbohydrates begins in mouth, continues in stomach but occurs mainly (almost all) in
the small intestine.

Digestion of Carbohydrate in the mouth

Digestion of starch starts in the mouth by the enzyme α-amylase (ptyalin) present in the saliva. a-
amylase present in the Saliva acts on the 1-4 linkages (but not on the 1-6 linkages). It digests cooked
starch to maltose.

Digestion of Carbohydrate in the Stomach

Minimal carbohydrate digestion occurs in the stomach. α-amylase activity continues in the stomach for
20–30 min till the highly acidic gastric juice mixes with the food and makes it inactive. The optimum pH
for the action of salivary amylase is 6–7. The HCl of the gastric juice may hydrolyze some sucrose.

Digestion of Carbohydrate in the Small intestine –

In the small intestine, Carbohydrates are digested by
Pancreatic a-amylase - present in the pancreatic juice acts on boiled as well as unboiled starch and
variety of other carbohydrates except cellulose. It converts the starch (polysaccharides) into
oligosaccharides, such as maltose, malt triose and dextrin.

Brush Border Enzymes – These splits Carbohydrates and include dexrinase, maltase, Sucrase and
Lactase. They digest Oligosaccharides into monosaccharides.

The end products of Carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, and galactose)

ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are absorbed from the GIT in the form of monosaccharides.

Site of absorption – Most of the monosaccharides are absorbs from the mucosal surface of jejunum and
Upper ileum.

Glucose and Galactose are absorbed by Na+ dependent active transport system
Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion
Pentose are absorbed by simple diffusion.