History of Food and Nutrition

- The history of the study of food as medicine reveals centuries of discovery

and development of nutrition careers.
- Although modern science and the latest discoveries in biology, medicine, and
health inform today’s field of nutrition and diet, people have been investigating
the very real link between food and health for much longer than you may
think.

Food and the History of Healing Through Nutrition

- In 400 B.C. the Greek physician Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine” said,
“Let thy food be thy medicine and thy medicine be thy food.” Hippocrates
realized that food impacts a person’s health, body and mind to help prevent
illness as well as maintain wellness.
- In Hippocrates’ Greece, as well as across pre-modern Europe and Asia since
ancient times, foods were used to affect health. For instance, the juice of liver
was squeezed on the eye to treat eye diseases, connected to Vitamin A
deficiency. Garlic was used to cure athlete’s foot, and eating ginger was
thought to stimulate the metabolism.
- In 1747, a British Navy physician, Dr. James Lind, saw that sailors were
developing scurvy, a deadly bleeding disorder, on long voyages. He observed
that they ate only nonperishable foods such as bread and meat.
- Lind’s experiment fed one group of sailor’s salt water, one group vinegar, and
one group limes. Those given limes didn’t develop scurvy. And although
Vitamin C wasn’t discovered until the 1930s, this experiment changed the way
physicians thought about food, creating a market for nutrition careers.

Scientific Developments in Nutrition

- During the Enlightenment and into the Victorian age, scientific and medical
development increased exponentially.
- The concept of metabolism, the transfer of food and oxygen into heat and
water in the body, creating energy, was discovered in 1770 by Antoine
Lavoisier, the “Father of Nutrition and Chemistry.” And in the early 1800s, the
elements of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, the main components of
food, were isolated and soon connected to health.
- Work in the area of the chemical nature of foods—carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins—was done by Justus Liebig of Germany, and led to research in the
area of vitamins in the early 20th century. In 1912, a Polish doctor, Casimir
Funk, coined the term “vitamins” as essential factors in the diet. The term
vitamin—first called “vitamine”—comes from “vital” and “amine,” because
vitamins are required for life and they were originally thought to be amines—
compounds derived from ammonia.
- In 1912, E.V. McCollum, a U.S. Department of Agriculture researcher at the
University of Wisconsin, began using rats instead of humans in his
 experiments rather than cows and sheep. He found the first fat-soluble
vitamin, Vitamin A, and discovered that rats were healthier when they were
fed butter rather than lard, as butter contains more Vitamin A. Other diseases
were linked to vitamin deficiencies, such as beri-beri, resulting from a lack of
Vitamin B, and rickets, brought on by a lack of Vitamin D.

Introduction to Nutrition
- Nutrition is the process by which the body nourishes itself by transforming
food into energy and body tissues. The science of nutrition concerns
everything the body does with food to carry on its functions. Food provides
essential substances called nutrients. The body needs these nutrients to help
it make energy; to grow, repair, and maintain its tissues; and to keep its
different systems working smoothly.
- The term nutrition can also refer to the quality of someone’s food choices, or
diet. A balanced diet is one in which foods eaten on a regular basis provide all
the nutrients needed in the right amounts. A balanced diet has many benefits.
It can help people feel and look their best. It can also help them stay energetic
and healthy, both in the short term and later in life

Essence nutrient requirements

- Nutrients can be described as the chemical components of food and can be
classified into six broad groups: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals and water. Water is not technically a nutrient, but it is essential for
the utilisation of nutrients. Nutrients perform various functions in our bodies,
including energy provision and maintaining vital processes such as digestion,
breathing, growth and development.
- Calories
- Protein
- Fat and oils
- Vitamin
- Mineral
- Water
The Basic Tools in Nutrition
Food Group/Guide
GO – Gives us energy
GROW – helps build our muscle
GLOW – protects us from illness and keeps our hair, skin and nails healthy

GO FOODS – The “GO” foods contain fats and carbohydrates. These foods provide
energy which makes them more active and gives them strength to exercise.
GROW FOODS – The “GROW” foods are high in protein and are responsible for
bone and muscle health
GLOW FOODS – The “GLOW” foods are the ones loaded with vitamins and
minerals that helps maintain good eyesight and healthy skin. These foods maintain
the good state of overall body health.

DIETARY STANDARD
• Eat Most – Grains
• Eat More – Vegetables and fruits
• Eat Moderately – Meat, fish, egg and alternatives (including dry beans) and
milk and alternatives
• Eat less – Fat/oil, salt and sugar Drink adequate amount of fluid (including
water, tea, clear soup, etc.) every day.
Dietary Guide
Children (aged 2-5)
• Grain: 1.5 – 3 bowls
• Vegetables: atleast 1.5 servings
• Fruits: atleast 1 serving
• Meat, fish, egg and alternatives: 1.5 – 3 taels
• Milk and alternatives: 2 serving
• Fat/oil, salt and sugar: eat the least
• Fluid: 4-5 glasses
Children (aged 6-11)
• Grain: 3 – 4 bowls
• Vegetables: atleast 2 servings
• Fruits: atleast 2 serving
• Meat, fish, egg and alternatives: 3-5 taels
• Milk and alternatives: 2 serving
• Fat/oil, salt and sugar: eat the least
 • Fluid: 6-8 glasses
Teenagers (aged 12-17)
• Grain: 4-6 bowls
• Vegetables: atleast 3servings
• Fruits: atleast 2 serving
• Meat, fish, egg and alternatives: 4 – 6 taels
• Milk and alternatives: 2 serving
• Fat/oil, salt and sugar: eat the least
• Fluid: 6-8 glasses
Adults
• Grain: 3 – 8 bowls
• Vegetables: atleast 3 servings
• Fruits: atleast 2 serving
• Meat, fish, egg and alternatives: 5 – 8 taels
• Milk and alternatives: 1-2 serving
• Fat/oil, salt and sugar: eat the lease
• Fluid: 6-8 glasses
Elderly
• Grain: 3 – 5 bowls
• Vegetables: atleast 3 servings
• Fruits: atleast 2 serving
• Meat, fish, egg and alternatives: 5 – 6 taels
• Milk and alternatives: 1-2 serving
• Fat/oil, salt and sugar: eat the lease
• Fluid: 6-8 glasses
Dietary Guide for Pregnant Women
Bread, cereals, rice and pasta. These provide carbohydrate and fibre. You should
consume 7 to 12 portions per day. These provide carbohydrate, low-quality protein
and fibre. You should consume 5 to 6 portions per day. These provide carbohydrate
and fibre. You should consume 3 to 4 portions per day and avoid sugary fruit juice
and fruit in syrup. Milk and dairy products. These provide calcium, highquality protein
and fats. You should consume 2 to 3 portions per day.
Food Composition Tables
Are collections of data on the nutritional content of foods. The chemical nutrient
values are provided given a certain serving size of specific foods.
Chemical values in the USDA nutrient databank include:
- Calories
- Protein, Carbohydrate, Fat (total fat & type of fatty acid)
- Fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)
- Water soluble vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folate, vitamin B6, vitamin B12,
vitamin C)
- Major minerals (sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus)
- Trace minerals (iron, zinc, iodine, selenium, etc.)
Chemical values are also given in some cases the types of amino acids and for
phytochemicals (plant chemicals that are not essential nutrients but have many
beneficial physiological effects in the human body when consumed from a variety of
plant foods).

Uses of Computers in Nutrition

- Technologies offer the opportunity to optimize nutrition, as information about
diet intake, interpretation of the diet in the context of the person and their
health, and the ability to generate practical feedback are important features of
clinical nutrition.
Technology Improve Nutrition
- Increase in Food Scanner
- Delivery Food Apps
- The use of Nano packaging
- Advances in Agricultural Biotechnology
- Increase in Food Tech Start-ups
Nutrition Labels
Units of Measurements and Abbreviations in Nutrition

C. – Cup
T, Tbsp, tbsp. – Tablespoon
Gal – Gallon
T or tsp – Teaspoon
Pt. – Pints
Oz. – Ounce
Mg – milligram
Fl.oz – Fluid ounces
ml. – Mililiter
L, - Liter
g. – Gram
kg. – kilogram
qt – Quartz
z – zinc
Ca – Calcium
CHO – Carbohydrates
Fe – iron
K – Potassium
Kcal – Calories
Pro – protein
PFAT – Percent of calories from fat
SF – Saturated Fat
Vit A – Vitamin A
EFA – Essential Fatty Acid
Hb – Hemoglobin

Tools and Equipments in Cooking

Knife Set
• Chef’s Knife – all-purpose knife used for chopping, slicing, and mincing
• Paring Knife – used for PEELING and PARING fruits and vegetables
 • Tourne Knife – used for fruits and vegetables; similar to paring knife
• Boning/Filleting Knife – used to separate meat from the bone; use to fillet fish
• Cleaver – somewhat heavy and has rectangular shape
• Meat Slicer – used to slice roasted meats, ham, and thick solid cuts of meat
• Bread Knife – used to slice divide breads and pastries
• Dinner knife – used during meal
Measuring Tools
• Measuring Cups – used to measure wet and dry ingredients
• Measuring Spoons – used to hold specific amounts of dry and wet ingredients
• Mass Scale – used to measure the mass of an ingredient; can be operated
manually or digitally
• Instant-read Thermometer – to measure the temperature of food know if it has
been cooked properly or being stored at the right temp.
Strainers
• Strainer – used to separate liquid from solid ingredients
• Colander – bowl shaped strainer with holes. Used to drain pasta
• Drum Sieve or Tamis – like a snare drum with a low walled cylindrical frame
• Cheesecloth – loosely woven gauze-like cotton cloth used primarily in cheese
making
• Chinois (shin-wahs) – used to strain custard, purees, soups, and sauces,
making them very smooth
• Food Mill – used to grind, mash, puree, and sieve soft food
Cook wares
• Stockpot – cylindrical, deep, heavy-bottomed, straight-sided pot for preparing,
cooking, and storing stocks, soups, and stews
• Saucepan – medium deep pot with a flat bottom. Used to make sauces and
gravies
• Casserole – oval, four sided or round dish or pan made of stainless steel,
ceramic, or glass where food may be cooked and served
• Roasting Pan – large rectangular pan used to roast meat and fish
• Non-stick Pan – coated with materials that prevent food from sticking to the
surface while cooking
• Wok or Carajay – often for stir-frying, steaming, pan frying, deep frying,
poaching, boiling, braising, searing, making soups, smoking and roasting nuts
Cooking utensils that every kitchen needs
• Baster – used to moisten the surface of meat with pan drippings, sauces, or
butter
• Bottle and Can Opener – used to open food tin, preferably smooth operation,
and comfortably grip and turning knob
• Cutting or Chopping Board – durable board on which food may be cut and
chopped
 • Dredger/Shaker – a container with holes used to hold flour, herbs, salt,
pepper
Kitchen Tools
• Emery Boards and Sharpening Steel – used to sharpen knives
• Flipper – used to flip or turn and life pancakes
• Funnels – used to pour without spillage liquid or small grained
• Garlic Press – used to crash garlic cloves efficiently
• Grater – used to grate, shred, and slice food such as carrots, cabbage, and
cheese
• Handy Poultry and Roasting Tools – used to lift easier a hot roasted poultry
form without falling apart
• Kitchen Shears – used for cutting, snipping, and cracking nuts
• Pasta Spoon or Server – used to transfer a little or much cooked pasta to a
plate
• Soup Ladle – a specialized spoon which is designed for serving soups
• Serving forks and serving spoons – used together to serve food that requires
two utensils.
• Potato Masher – used for mashing cooked potatoes, turnips, carrots
• Peeler – used to peel off or remove skin of fruits and vegetables
• Scraper – used to blend or scrape food from the bowl or pan
• Spatula – broad, flat, flexible scraper with unsharpened edges used to
spreading and smoothing icing
• Tongs – used to lift, turn, and transfer food
• Two-tine Fork – used to hold meats while slicing
• Whisk or Wire Whip – used to beat, fold, blend, and whip ingredients
Kitchen Equipments – More complicated tools They may refer to a small electrical
appliances or large power operated appliances
• Refrigerator and Freezer – used to keep food fresh, prevent food spoilage,
and inhibit the growth of bacteria
• Stove – stoves rely on the application of direct heat for the cooking process
• Range – Refers to the combination of stovetop and oven into one kitchen
equipment
• Steamer – generally used for steaming food like siopao, siomai, and fish
• Turbo Broiler – used for broiling and roasting

Bread and Pastry Equipments

A. OVEN – a chamber used for cooking, heating, baking, and grilling food.
DECK OVEN – Items to be baked either on sheet pans or in the case of some bread
freestanding are placed directly on the bottom or deck of the oven. Also, called
Stack Oven because several may be stacked on top of one another.
Rack Oven – large oven which entire racks full of sheet pan can be wheeled for
baking. Used to baking everything from bread to pastries and is great all-purpose
oven.
Mechanical Oven – food is in motion while it bakes in this type of oven. Can
eliminate the problem of hot spots, or uneven baking because the mechanism
rotates the foods throughout the oven.
Convection Oven – fans that circulate hot air continuously throughout the oven to
create a dry atmosphere that enables food to more evenly than with regular (thermal)
ovens.
Bread Toaster
Double Boiler
Dutch Oven

B. Preparatory Tools:
• Oven Mitts
• Pastry Tips
• Pastry Brush
• Utility Tray
• Rolling pin
• Pastry Cloth
• Flour Sifter
• Grater
• Spatula
C. Measuring Tools for Baking
• Measuring Cups
• Measuring Spoons Weighing scale
• Measuring cups for Liquid Ingredients
• Timer
D. Mixing Tools
• Mixing Bowls
• Wooden Spoon
• Rubber Scraper
• Electric and Handy Mixer
• Rotary Egg Beater
E. Cutting Tools
• Pastry Blender
• Pastry Wheel
 • Kitchen Shears
• Chopping Board
• Paring Knife
• Biscuit and Doughnut Cutter

F. Baking Tools
• Tube Center Pan
• Jelly Roll Pan
• Custard Cup
• Griddle Pans
• Popover Pans
• Macaroon Molders
• Baking Sheets
• Cake Pans
• Muffin Pan
• Bundt Pan

MENU AND MEAL PLANNING

Menu – is list in dishes that served for meal.

Meal – act of advanced planning of the menu for different situations such as for a
family or a restaurant. It is important to consider the dietary needs of the people one
is preparing for.
Importance of Menu Planning
• Customer Satisfaction
• Facilitating costing
• Facilitating pricing
• Reference by customer and management
• Guide production
• Facilitate evaluation and improvements
Types of Menu
Table D’ Hote
• A set of menu forming a complete meal at a set price.
• A choice of dishes may be offered at all courses, choice and number of
courses is limited to two, three or four.
Ala Carte
 • Menu with all the dishes individually priced
• Customers compile their own menu from the list
• The meal is cooked to order
• Customer should be prepared to wait for this service
Events Menus – designed as per the culture, their eating preferences, tastes, and
habits around the world.
Hospital Menus – Dietician is generally involved while compiling such menus to
ensure the recipient eats healthy foods always.
Institutional Menus – it is the menu of meals offered for the staff or students in
college

Factors to be considered when Planning Menus

1. Nutritional requirements
2. Health consideration
3. Availability of foodstuffs
4. Numbers of courses
5. Nutritional balance
6. Occasions
Principle of Meal planning
• Adequacy – meal plan or meals we eat provide enough energy, major
macronutrients, micronutrients and fluid for our body
• Balance – isn’t a low-carbohydrate or low-fat diet
• Variety – get the nutrition we need from a variety of foods
• Moderation – the complement to the adequacy
• Nourishment – the food or other substances necessary for growth, health, and
good condition
Menu Courses
1. Appetizer – a small food that is taken before a meal or main course ex:
chicken skin, chicharon, nachos
2. Main Course – Group of foods that are heavy ex: chicken adobo, lechon
kawali, arroz caldo
3. Dessert – usually serve after a heavy meal and is usually sweet ex: icecream,
leche flan, halo-halo
4. Beverage – drink especially one other than water ex: soft drinks, juice, and
water
Basic Nutrients and Foods
-A healthy diet throughout life promotes healthy pregnancy outcomes, supports
normal growth, development and ageing, helps to maintain a healthy body weight,
and reduces the risk of chronic disease leading to overall health and well-being
Water is an important component of nutrition
Fats, Proteins, and Carbohydrates are all required to help your body function
CARBOHYDRATES ARE YOUR BODY'S MAIN SOURCE OF FUEL OR ENERGY.
FATS THAT COME FROM PLANTS AND FISH ARE KNOWN AS UNSATURATED
FAT.
PROTEIN HELPS TO BUILD TISSUE AND REPAIR YOUR BODY AFTER
DAMAGE OR STRESS.

MAIN FOCUS OF FOOD AND NUTRITION

• INVESTIGATE HEALTHY EATING GUIDELINES.
• DEVELOP AN UNDERSTANDING IN THE CHOICE, STORAGE,
PREPARATION, COOKING AND SERVING OF FOOD.
• EXPLORE HOME AND FAMILY LIFE. RESEARCH THE IMPORTANCE OF
THE FAMILY AS A CARING UNIT AND DEVELOP AN AWARENESS AND
AFFILIATION TO THE CHANGING FAMILY UNITS IN SOCIETY
• BECOME DISCERNING CONSUMERS AND EFFECTIVE MANAGERS OF
RESOURCES.
• DEVELOP A RANGE OF MANIPULATIVE SKILLS IN THE SAFE, HYGIENIC,
HEALTHY AND CREATIVE USE OF FOOD.
• MANAGE INFORMATION TO INVESTIGATE HOME ECONOMICS ISSUES
EFFECTIVELY
6 basic Nutrients and Foods
- Water
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
- Vitamins
- Fats
- Minerals
CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates (C6H12O6) is a substance composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. It supplies the body with the energy it needs to function. In fact, the
central nervous system, and other simple carbohydrates for energy.
• Protein and fat can be burned for energy by other cell, but the body uses
carbohydrates first in part, because it is not desirable.
• When fat is burned for energy without any carbohydrate present the process is
incomplete and results in the production of ketone bodies, which start to
accumulate in the blood.
• Carbohydrates found almost exclusively in plant food, such as fruits,
vegetables, peas and beans. Milk and milk products are the only food derived
from animals that contain significant amount of carbohydrates.
• Carbohydrates also forms the structural component of cell walls of plants and
tissues and organs of animals.
Three Classification of Carbohydrate
1. Monosaccharides are the building blocks of carbohydrates and the simplest
form sugar.

Most important Monosaccharides:

a. Glucose
• It is known as blood sugar/dextrose
• It is the most widely distributed sugar found mostly in the plants and
in the blood of the animals.
• Normally human blood contains about 100mg of glucose per 100ml.
• It is used as a primary source of energy by cells.
• Diseases, hormone imbalances, diet, physical activities etc.
• If a person has high concentration of blood glucose, the person is
hyperglycemic.
• Diabetes is one of the most frequent causes of hyperglycemic.
• Diabetes is an incurable condition in which the body is unable to
properly regulate the blood glucose concentration because of an
inability to produce the hormone insulin.
• Hypoglycemia is exactly the opposite of hyperglycemia blood
glucose concentrations are usually less than 50mg/100ml.
• Symptoms of hypoglycemia includes sweating, nausea and
dizziness.
• Hypoglycemia is treated by regulating the dietary intake of
carbohydrates.

b. Fructose
• It is the sweetest of all sugars.
• Fructose is known as fruit sugar because the sweetness of many
fruits is due to the presence of fructose.
• The liver converted fructose to glucose.
 • Fructose is sometimes used as a source substitute to diabetes or
other people who want to reduce their sucrose intake.

c. Galactose
• Galactose is found as constituent of lactose, the sugar in milk.
• It occurs as a part of complex molecules in pectin, gums, mucilage
and agar-agar.
• In the animal body galactose is found in the brain and nervous tissue
in the form of glycolipids but they are not found in the general
circulation of the blood.
• Liver converts galactose to glucose.
• Galactosemia is a genetic disease in which one of the required
enzymes to convert to glucose is absent. If not treated, infants who
suffer from galactosemia become mentally retarded.

2. Disaccharides are group of compound sugars composed of two

monosaccharides linked together through a glycosidic bond with the loss of
water.

Most important Disaccharides

a. Maltose
• It is known as malt sugar because of its use in alcohol production.
Through the process called fermentation; this sugar is converted to
ethanol by yeast cells in the absence of oxygen.
• In nature, it is found as constituent of starch and glycogen.
• Glucose + Glucose = Maltose

b. Lactose
• Lactose is sometimes referred to as milk sugar.
• Glucose + Galactose = Lactose
• It is the least soluble and the least sweet of the sugars.
• Lactose is found in cow’s milk which is about 4%.
• In the animal body lactose is synthesized in the mammary gland. It
composes about 7 to 8% in human milk.
• With a few minor exceptions, lactose is the only sugar in the milk and
does not occur elsewhere.
• Lactose is an essential food in the diet of an infant to furnish
galactose needed for the formation of galactolipids or cerebrosides
present in the brain and nerve tissues.
• Lactose solution is not fermented by ordinary yeast.
• Lactose is an enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose.

c. Sucrose
• Sucrose is commonly called sugarcane or table sugar.
 • Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose
• Sucrose can be found in sugarcane, sugar beets and maple sugar.
• Sucrose is very widely distributed in nature and is universally used.
• It is used in sweetening food, in making candies, cakes and other
types of sweet.
3. Polysaccharides are sugar complex carbohydrates with high molecular
weight, composed of many monosaccharide units combined through the loss
of molecules of water.

Most important polysaccharides:

a. Starch
• Starch is sometimes called amylum the most important form of
carbohydrates in the diet. It is a major form of food storage in plants.
• Sources of starch as cereals, grains, beans, peas and tubers such
as potatoes. Green fruits such as apples and bananas contain much
just like starch, wheat, bread, and pasta.
• Starch occurs in plants in the forms of granule.

b. Dextrin
• The dextrin is a group of glucose polysaccharides which are
intermediate products in the hydrolysis of starch to maltose.
• It is soluble in water.
• Dextrin is also added to give smoothness to the product.

c. Glycogen
• Glycogen is also known as animal starch.
• It is a glucose polysaccharide found in animal tissue and it is the
storage of polysaccharide of animals.
• Glycogen can also be found in oyster and scallops.
• The glycogen in the liver is used up rapidly in emotional reaction like
fear and anger and in excessive exercise.

d. Cellulose/Dietary Fiber
• It is found in the cell walls and woody fibers of all plants, where it
forms the skeletal structure.
• Cellulose is composed of glucose; it has no value as a food for man,
because humans do not have the enzymes to digest cellulose.
• Example, herbivorous animals, like horses, carabaos, cow and
sheep have fermenters in their intestines which are capable of
hydrolyzing cellulose into monosaccharide. Hence, herbivorous
animals are able to obtain caloric food value cellulose.
• Consumption of soluble and insoluble fiber makes the elimination of
waste much easier.
• Dietary fiber intake help prevent colon cancer.
PROTEIN
• Protein are essential nutrients because they are sources of the amino acids
used by the body to build new proteins.
• There are 20 amino acids used commonly found in cellular protein.
20 Amino Acids
Alanine Glutamate Leucine Serine
Arginine Glutamic Lysine Threonine
acid
Asparagine Glycine Methionine Tryptophan
Aspartic acid Histidine Phenylalanine Tyrosine
Cysteine Isoleucine Praline Valine
(9 amino acids are considered essential – they must be consumed in the diet.)
(5 non-essential amino acid – they can be made by the human body.)
(Some authorities recognize a 21st amino acid, selenocysteine, which is
derived from serine during protein biosynthesis.)
• Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.
• They are used by the body for building and maintaining body tissues and part
of DNA which controls the genetic code.
• The greatest amount of protein is needed when the body is building new tissues
rapidly, much as during pregnancy and infant.
• Protein deficiency disease is called kwashiorkor. It characterized by retarded
growth and development with muscle wasting, weakness, edema (swelling of
the body tissues), listlessness, flaky skin, and a loss of color hair.
• Energy deficiency disease is called marasmus, occurs during starvation. The
term marasmus means “to waste away”. The disease is characterized by gross
underweight, no fat storage, and wasting away of muscle.

Protein Functions
• Catalytic Function – to speed up the chemical reaction within cells.
• Structural function – to maintain cell shape.
• Protective function – to identify and bind to very specific foreign molecules.
• Regulatory function – to protect the binding DNA sequences from nuclease
cleavage.
• Nerve impulse transmission – to help nerve impulse pass from one neuron to
the other.
• Motion function - transmitting the flow of energy and allosteric signals to
shuttling a protein via biased routes on the energy landscape for folding and
catalysis (Miyashita et al., 2003)
• Transport function – to transport substances across biological membranes.
FATS OR LIPIDS
• Lipids are biological compounds that are wax or oily that is insoluble in water
and soluble in fat solvents such as alcohol, ether, acetone, etc.
• Many lipids are formed from molecules called fatty acids.
• Fatty acids contain a long chain with carboxyl group (COOH) attached to the
end.
• Fatty acids can be saturated and unsaturated.
• Saturated fatty acids have single bonds and contains maximum number of
hydrogens per carbon.
• Saturated fats are solid at room temperature and accumulate as fat storage.
• Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds and with fewer hydrogen in the
molecule.
• A fatty acid with two or three double bonds is called polyunsaturated.
Major Roles of Biological Lipids
1. They serve as structural components of biological membranes.
2. They provide energy reserve, predominantly in the form of triacyclglycerols.
3. Both lipids and lipid derivatives serve as vitamins and hormones.
Classification of Fats
1. Cholesterol
2. LDL’s (low-density lipoprotein)
3. HDL’s (low-density lipoprotein)
4. Tryglecerides
5. Saturated fats
6. Unsaturated fats
7. Polyunsaturated fats
8. Omega-3 Oils
9. Monosaturated fats
ENZYMES
• Enzymes are the most specialized type of proteins.
• They are very important substances because they control the chemical
reactions that happen in our bodies.
• They are known as biological catalysts.
• Enzymes are soluble in water, glycerol and dilute alcohol.
• Enzymes deliver nutrient, carry away toxic wastes, digest food, purify the blood,
deliver hormones by feeding and fortifying the endocrine system, balance
cholesterol and triglyceride levels, feed the brain and cause no harm to the
body. All these factors contribute to the strength of the immune system.
• Enzymes names usually end in “ase”

There are two main types of enzymes:

a. Intracellular enzymes which control reactions that occur inside cells.
b. Extracellular enzymes which could control reactions that occur outside cells.
VITAMINS
• Vitamins are organic nutrients found in foods that are essential in small
quantities for growth, normal functioning of our bodies, vitality and general
well-being.
• Most vitamins are obtained through food.
• There are some that are also produced by bacteria in the intestine and are
absorbed into the body.
• Absence of vitamin stunt growth and leads to a specific deficiency. There is
no perfect food that contain all the vitamins in just the right amounts.
• The best way to assure an adequate intake of vitamins is by eating a balanced
diet.

Classification of Vitamins
1. Fat soluble vitamins
• Include Vitamin A,D, E and K
• Stored in the body as fat and in some body organs like liver
• Dissolve in lipids
2. Water-soluble vitamins
• Include C and eight B vitamins
• Dissolve in water so cooking and washing may leach them out.
• Easily absorbed and excreted

a. Vitamin A (Beta-Carotene)
b. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
c. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
d. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
e. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
f. Niacinamide (Niacine-Vitamin B3)
g. Pantothenic Acids
h. Biotin
i. Folic acid
j. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
k. Vitamin D
l. Vitamin E
m. Vitamin K
MINERALS
Major minerals are
• Calcium
• Phosphorus
• Magnesium
• Sodium
• Potassium
• Chloride
These are the ones that present in your body in the largest amounts.

Trace Minerals are:

• Iron
• Zinc
• Iodine
• Copper
• Manganese
• Fluoride
• Chromium
• Selenium
• Molybdenum
These are required in smaller amounts.
WATER
• Water is the most important liquid in the world.
• Water is known as a universal solvent.
• Most living things contain a large proportion of water.
• Three fourths of the earth’s surface is covered with water.
• The human body in two-thirds water (60-70% of body weight)
• Water is essential nutrient that is involved in every function of the body.
• Water helps transport nutrients and waste products in and out of cells.
• Water is necessary for digestion, absorption, circulation and excretion and
building tissues.
• Water is needed for utilization of the water-soluble vitamins.
• It is needed for the maintenance of proper body temperature.
• Water serves as an important part of lubricants, helping to cushion the joints
and internal organs, keeping body tissues such as eyes, lungs and air passages
moist, and surrounding and protecting the fetus during pregnancy.