3-2 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES Q3.1 A block is at rest on a table. Figure 31 An object at rest. What are the forces? 8) On figure 3.1 draw in all the forces acting on the block. ‘The block is not accelerating, so the net force on it must be zero. What does this tell you about the vertical forces and any horizontal forces that may be present? b) Suppose that a horizontal force is applied in an attempt to push the block along the table, but the block does not move. What is opposing the horizontal force? Q3.2. Block moving at constant velocity A block is being pulled across the table at constant velocity (figure 3.2) ll mail Figure 32 An object moving with constant velocity Draw in the other forces. AA fictional force opposes the motion. Draw in this force and the other forces on the block ‘Again, the block is not accelerating so the net force on it must be zero. What does this tell you about the vertical and horizontal forces? ‘The meaning of equilibrium 1 and 3.2 are simple illustrations of equilibrium. In both cases the velocity of the block is constant, i.e. its acceleration is zero, and the total force on it is zero. ‘The examples in questions 3 However itis not enough that the forces balance in order to have equilibrium. ‘This guarantees only that there is no change of translational motion, i. that the motion of the body as a whole does not change. The definition of equilibrium needs to be extended to include the requirement that the rotational motion of the body also remains constant. Thus, for example, a body which is completely at rest is in equilibrium only if it does not start to move or rotate. As another example, a wheel rotating about a fixed axle, is defined to be in equilibrium only if its rotational speed does not change, In order to consider this rotational aspect of equilibrium we need the concept of torque. We shall then see that for equilibrium, torques, as well as forces, must balance.LECTURE 3-3. TORQUE Example 3.1. Wheel on a fixed axle Consider a wheel which can rotate about its axle. The axle remains in a fixed position. An ‘object is hung by a string from the rim of the wheel as shown in figure 3.3, Figure 3.3__An unbalanced wheel When the object is released, the wheel stars to rotate so, cleaty, it is not in equilibrium. ‘The forces acting on the wheel are shown. Wis the wheel's weight, Fy is the force exerted by the axle on the wheel and Fis the force exerted by the string altached to the falling object, Which causes the wheel to rotate. Note that these forces are not all acting through the same point In this example, rotation occurs about an axis - a line in space - which is perpendicular to the plane of the forces involved. In such cases we define torque as follows. ‘The torque of a force F about a specified axis is defined as r Fx G1) where x is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the force's line of action. Torque is also known as the moment of a force. Note that we can, in principle, define many torques for each force, one for every possible choice of axis. It is not necessary for the axis to be a possible axis of rotation, Example 3.1 - continued Figure 3.4 Torque ona pivoted wheel In this example, we consider torques about the wheel's axis of rotation, its axle. Only the force F has a non-zero torque about the axle so there is a net torqve, due to F, acting on the wheel. This net torque produces an angular acceleration, i. it changes the angular speed of rotation about the axle.Demonstrations © Consider two wheels which have the same shape and the same total mass. One has a dense metal rim, the other has a dense metal axle, Identical loads are hung from their rims. This demonstration shows that the angular acceleration depends on the distribution of mass in the object. metal axle Figure 3.3 Eifect of mass distribution on angular acceleration Identical loads were attached to the wheels and then released. ‘The angular acceleration ‘was greater for the wheel whose mass is more concentrated near the axle. . Other demonstrations show rotational motion when the axis is not fixed, 3-4 EQUILIBRIUM OF TORQUES Example 3.1 - continued ‘The wheel has no translational motion so the total force on it must be ze. Torques Torque Fx Figure 3.6 Forces and torque on the pivoted wheel “The vertically upward component ofthe total force = Fy - W- F = 0, but the net torque, Fr, is unbalanced. Note that this torque produces a clockwise rotation. Example 3.2: Equilibrium of the wheel To bring our wheel back into equilibrium, a torque of the same magnitude but in the opposite Jockwise) sense would have to be provided. Another object with the same mass could be ched to the opposite side of the wheel in order to achieve this, See figure 3.7. (Note that the ipporting force F'g will take on a new value.) ‘Torques, OY Figure 3.7_ Forces and torques at equilibriumFES: Equilibrium 31 3-5 CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM In general, then, the conditions for equilibrium of an object which is free to rotate about a fixed axis are (total force acting on the object Gi) total torque about the axis = 0. Note that, since force is a vector quantity, the calculation of the net force must take account of directions. This can be done using the method of components introduced in chapter FE2. Torque, as defined here, is a scalar quantity whose values need to be associated with either clockwise or anti-clockwise rotation. We can assign positive values to one of these two senses, and negative values to the other. (The usual convention makes anti-clockwise values positive.) Example 3.2 - continued ‘When we apply these conditions to the wheel with two objects hanging from its rim, we ean choose vertically down as a component direction for the forces (all horizontal force components are equal to zero), @ FsW+F-F, =0 (Fg takes on a new value when the second object is attached.) ‘The condition for balancing the torques is satisfied because the two torques have the same ‘magnitudes but opposite senses: «i Fx-Fxr=0 It is obviously inconvenient to have to draw two diagrams for each example - one showing forces and one showing torques. Henceforth both forces and torques will be shown on the same diagram. Remember, however, that forces and torques are quite different entities and must be combined separately. 3-6 CENTRE OF GRAVITY Example 3.3. Centre of gravity of a flat object A flat object is pivoted at the point P. See figure 3.8. Imagine that the object is divided up into litte pieces. The weight of each piece provides a torque about the pivot. ‘The object will be in equilibrium only ifthe torques due to all these pieces add up to zero Figure 3.8 Distribution of gravitational forces on an object It is obviously inconvenient to have to consider the weights of all the little pieces of the object separately. Fortunately, their total can be represented by the total weight, W., acting through a point called the centre of gravity.Egquilibeium Centre — of gravity, ‘Then W provides a torque about the pivot (equal to the sum of the many small torques). ‘The object will be in equilibrium if its centre of gravity Ties vertically below the fixed pivot point. In this position the length of the perpendicular from the pivot to the line of action, Of the weight is zero, and so is that from the pivot to the supporting force at the pivot ‘Therefore the torques of the weight and the supporting force about the pivot ate beth zero. Example 3.4. Locating the centre of gravity 7 To locate the centre of gravity of a flat object, first mark a vertical line showing the line of action of the weight, The cenue of gravity must be somewhere on this line. Then choose & different pivot point and repeat the process, The centre of gravity must be also be somewhere ‘on the new line; so it must be at the intersection of the lines. ‘A wheel is symmetric about its axis and the centre of gravity is at the centre of the wheel. This is easily verified, EQUILIBRIUM OF A SYSTEM OF OBJECTS Example 3.5: Two children balancing on a seesaw. This example is analysed in terms of forces and torques acting on asystem which consists of the two children and the plank. The forces acting on this system are the weights of the wo children, the weight of the seesaw's plank and a vertical supporting force at the pivot. ‘The weights of the children, W, and W. act at distances x, and 1p from the pivot. as shown on the figure. These forces give torques W).x, (anticlockwise) and Wx (clockwise) respectively about the pivot ‘Suppose that the centre of gravity of the plank is directly above the pivot so that the ‘weight Ws of the seesaw plank acts downwards at the pivot, N is the upward supporting force exerted by the pivot on the plank. Each of these two forces gives zero torque about the pivot. For equilibrium the following conditions must be satisfied, (@ Total force acting on the system = 0. Taking force components in the vertically downward direction:W, + W) + Ws-N =0. (i) Total torque about an axis through the pivot = 0. ‘Taking clockwise as the positive sense: Woy Wary = 0. ‘This analysis is essentially the same as that for a beam balance 3-8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A FREE OBJECT A free object is one that is not pivoted. This is a more general situation than the case of a fixed axis. Demonstration moves forward spins anticlockwise push —b>| moves forward spins clockwise moves forward no spin Tgure 3.11 Motion of a tree object The centre of gravity is shown as a heavy dot. A net force not acting through the centre of gravity of a rigid body will cause translational acceleration of the object as well as change in its rotational motion, The resulting motion can be described as a combination of translational motion of the centre of gravity and rotational motion about the centre of gravity. 3-9 | GENERAL CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM ‘The general conditions for equilibrium are as follows (The total force must be zero (as before). Gi) The total torque about any axis must be zero. In many cases it is convenient to consider torques about axes through the centre of gravity.Figure 3.3) Defining the moment of inertia For objects with a fixed axis of rotation, total torque about the axis equals moment of inertia about the axis times angular acceleration. ‘This is the reason why the wheel with the metal axle in the lecture demonstration had the larger angular acceleration. 3-12 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS ON EQUILIBRIUM. 03.3 a) A tall block sitting on a table is being pulled. Figure 3.21 Tipping an object If the pull is applied near the top, the object will tip over instead of sliding along the table. Why? Hint: to get the block moving, the force F must be greater than the maximum frictional force acting at the bottom on the block. F cannot be any smaller than this. Now consider torques. What point is the block going to rotate about? How could you pull the block along the table without tipping it? » Pulling trees down with a tractor can be a dangerous occupation. Which of the methods shown below is the less dangerous way to tie the rope to the tractor? Why? Figure 322 _Uprooting a tree. Which way is safer? Equilibrium of pivoted objects Q3.4 Two children are balancing on a seesaw. Theit weights are 200N and 300'N . The smaller child is 1.80 m from the centre. Suppose that the weight ofthe scesaw is SOO N and the centre of gravity is directly above the pivot. Draw all the forces acting on the seesaw 2) Cala e the magnitude of the force c pivot exerts on the seexaw ) How far from the centre isthe larger child at equilibrium? Q3.5 Explain why a beam balance gives the same value forthe mats of an object on the Moon as on the Earth, 3-13 STABLE, UNSTABLE AND NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM We sometimes distinguish between stable and unstable equilibrium. For example, consider a cone.Figure 323 Stable and unstable equilibrium In both cases the cone is in equilibrium because the total force is zero and the total torque is zero. But the first case is stable, a slight displacement has no effect, while the second case is unstable, a slight displacement causes the cone to tip over. When the cone is lying on its side it is in neutral equilibrium. Q3.6 What forces are acting and where are they acting in each case? What torques are responsible for restoring the cone to its original position or otherwise? Centre of Gravity Q37 a) Does the centre of gravity always lie within an object? If not, give examples. ») ‘Suggest a way of locating the centre of gravity of a "lumpy" object (not a flat object).