Eee Viii Modern Power System Protection 06ee831 Notes

Modern Power System Protection 06EE831
ELECTIVE-IV (GROUP D)
MODERN POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
Subject Code : 06EE831 IA Marks : 25

No. of Lecture Hrs./ : 04 Exam : 03
Week Hours
Total No. of Lecture : 52 Exam : 100
Hrs. Marks
IN
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PART - A
UNIT - 1
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STATIC RELAYS: Introduction, Basic construction, Classification, Basic Circuits,
Smoothing Circuits, Voltage regulation, square wave Generator, Time delay Circuits, Level
Detectors, Summation device, Sampling Circuits, Zero crossing detector, output devices.
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8 Hours
UNIT - 2 & 3
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COMPARATORS: Replica impedance, Mixing Transformers, General equation of phase

and Amplitude, Comparators, Realization of ohm, mho, Impedance and offset impedance
characteristics, Duality principle, Static amplifier comparator – Rectifier bridge circulations
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current type, sampling comparator, static phase comparator coincidence circuits type Rectifier
phase comparator, Block split comparator, Zener diode phase comparator,
12 Hours
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UNIT - 4
PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL/ NUMERICAL RELAYS: Definition of Numerical
Protection System, Advantages of Numerical relays, Block diagram of Numerical Relays,
Processing Unit, non machines Interface, communication in protective relays, Information
handling with sub station monitoring system.
6 Hours
CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 1
PART - B
UNIT - 5
STATIC OVER CURRENT, TIMER AND VOLTAGE RELAYS: Instantanense over
current Relay, Definite time lag relay, inverse time over current relay, static timer relay, Basic
relay circuits, monostable delay circuits Single phase Instantaneous over voltage and under
voltage relays, instantaneous over voltage relay using Op-amp.
10 Hours
UNIT - 6 & 7
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DISTANCE RELAY: general Principle of operation, Zone discrimination, Fault area on
impedance diagram, Basic measuring elements, Different characteristics used in distance
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relaying- Impedance, Reactance, Admittance. Ohm, Distance relay settings, Distance
measurement Problems.
10 Hours
UNIT - 8
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DIGITAL RELAYS: Block Schematic approach of microprocessor based relays, over
current relay Protection, Transformer differential protection, Directional relay scheme,
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Impedance relay scheme. 6 Hours
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CONTENT
SL NO Topic Page No
1 UNIT - 1: STATIC RELAYS 4-28
Introduction, Basic construction, Classification.
Basic Circuits, Smoothing Circuits.
Voltage regulation, square wave Generator.
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Time delay Circuits, Level Detectors.
Summation device, Sampling Circuits.
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Zero crossing detector, output devices.
2 UNIT – 2 & 3 COMPARATORS

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Replica impedance, Mixing Transformers.
29-44
General equation of phase and Amplitude, Comparators.

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Realization of ohm, mho, Impedance and offset impedance
characteristics.
Duality principle, Static amplifier comparator – Rectifier

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bridge circulations current type, sampling comparator.
static phase comparator coincidence circuits type Rectifier

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phase comparator, Block split comparator.
Zener diode phase comparator.
3 UNIT - 4 PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL/ NUMERICAL 45-50

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RELAYS
Definition of Numerical Protection System.
Advantages of Numerical relays, Block diagram of Numerical

Relays.
Processing Unit.
Non machines Interface.
Communication in protective relays.
Information handling with substation monitoring system.
4 UNIT – 5 STATIC OVER CURRENT, TIMER AND 51-62

VOLTAGE RELAYS
Instantaneous over current Relay.
Definite time lag relay.
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Inverse time over current relay.
Static timer relay, Basic relay circuits.
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Monostable delay circuits.
Single phase Instantaneous over /under voltage relays.

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Instantaneous over voltage relay using Op-amp.
5 UNIT – 6 & 7 DISTANCE RELAY 63-75

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General Principle of operation.
Zone discrimination.
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Fault area on impedance diagram.
Basic measuring elements.
Different characteristics used in distance relaying- Impedance,

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Reactance, Ohm, Distance relay settings.
Distance measurement Problems.

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6 UNIT - 8 DIGITAL RELAYS 76-90
Block Schematic approach of microprocessor based relays.
Over current relay Protection.
Transformer differential protection.
Directional relay scheme.
Impedance relay scheme.
UNIT - 1
STATIC RELAYS: Introduction, Basic construction, Classification, Basic Circuits,
Smoothing Circuits, Voltage regulation, square wave Generator, Time delay Circuits, Level
Detectors, Summation device, Sampling Circuits, Zero crossing detector, output devices.
8 Hours
UNIT - ONE
General introduction to Static Relays
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1.1. History of electronic Relays and their Relation to
Electromechanical counterparts
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References to the design and application of electronic relays for power system protection can
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be found in the literature from the year 1928 onwards. In that year Fitzerald (205) published a
scheme for pilot wire protection. Wideroe (31) in 1934 brought out a series of circuits for the
common types of protective relays while Loving in 1949 published refinements to these.
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Macpherson, Warrington and McConnell (35) updated the developments upto 1948, and
these were extended in later years by Barnes, Kennedy, Honey, Reedman, Dlouhy, Cahen and
Chevallier. In all these schemes, either thyratrons or thermionic tubes have been employed.
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None of these types has found general application for power system protection for reasons to
be discussed later. In the field of carrier current relaying, however, electronic protection with
thermionic tubes has been successfully employed. Even in this field, with the heavy power
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supplies required for the electronic tubes, combined with the rapid development of
semiconductor components, the attention has been rapidly diverted to building carrier
equipment with solid state circuits. Appendix A. 1.1 to Chapter 1 discusses briefly he basic
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electromechanical relay elements and their relation to static devices. The discussion therein is
brief and greater details can be found in later chapters. In appendices A. 1.2, A. 1.3 and A.
1.4 at the end of Chapter 1, the following details are given:
A. 1.2-Details of device numbers accepted internationally
A. 1.3-List of symbols for relays and protection
A. 1.4-Glossary of common relay terms
1.2. Application of Electronic Relays to Protection

The adequacy or otherwise of the present methods is always one of the most important
factors influencing technological research and development. Over 75% of the existing
protective relay requirements are met without undue difficulty by electromagnetic relay
elements. The scheme in use depend on the characteristics of induction disc or cup, moving
coil or moving armature (hinged armature) elements. However, there are bigger issues and
considerations which have influenced the pace of development in static relays, such as the
following:
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(a) Better performance and characteristics, e.g. higher speed with greater accuracy and
sensitivity in distance relays.
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(b) Greater standardization in manufacture.
(c) Easier manufacture and reduction in maintenance time.
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Edgeley and Hamilton (37) in 1952 claimed test and constructional advantages for
their relays employing transductors (magnetic amplifiers).
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1.3. Reasons for the Short-lived Research into Relays Using Thermionic Tubes
As already mentioned,(the research effort up to the year 1956 was predominantly towards
circuits employing thermionic tubes, thyratrons etc., since till then solid state devices like
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transistors, were just in their infancy. None of these circuits reached the commercial stage
and the research effort rapidly tapered off. However, there were certain disadvantages in
thermionic tube circuits in relaying and the main ones were the following:
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(a) Provision of special power supplies for valve heaters-this imposes constant drain on
the power supplies.
(b) Provision of appreciable voltages for valve anodes and electrode bias.
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(c) Incorrect operation under transient conditions.

In view of these disadvantages, attention has been diverted to the development of static relays
using solid state components. As there is at present no interest in relays using electronic
valves and as they are of historical importance only, we shall not further discuss such r elays
in this book. The reader is referred to the various papers appearing in the literature mentioned
under References.
1.4 Advantages of Static Relays

Static relays in general possess the following advantages:
(a) Low burden on current and voltage transformers, since the operating power is, in
many cases, from an auxiliary d.c. supply.
(b) Absence of mechanical inertia and bouncing contacts, high resistance to shock and
vibration.
(c) Very fast operation and long life.
(d) Low maintenance owing to the absence of moving parts and bearing friction.
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(e) Quick reset action and absence of overshoot.
(f) Ease of providing amplification enables greater sensitivity.
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(g) Unconventional characteristics are possible-the basic building blocks of
semiconductor circuitry permit a greater degree of sophistication in the shaping of
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operating characteristics, enabling the practical utilization of relays with operating
characteristics more closely approaching the ideal requirements.
(h) The low energy levels required in the measuring circuits permit miniaturization of the
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relay modules.
Table 1.1 shows the comparative VA burdens of some static and electromechanical
relays, taken from certain manufacturers.
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Table 1.1-Comparison of Burdens of Static and Electromechanical Relays.

Types of relay or protection Electromechanical Static
scheme Current Voltage Current Voltage
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Definite time delay relay - A.C. 110V - A.C. 110V

25 VA 2.4 VA
D.C. 110V D.C. 110V
10W 4.46 W
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Biased differential relay Operating Coil 0.33 VA

0.6 VA at 40% at 1.0 A
setting 3.7 VA 1.00 VA
at 100% setting at 5.0 A
Bias Coil 0.4

VA at 40%
setting
Mho distance relays: 3-step 0.4 to 8.5 VA 20 VA 0.04 to 8.7 8.7 to 11.2
protection dependent on VA VA
setting dependent on
1A, 2A, or
5A and
setting
Switched distance scheme 0.4 to 8.5 VA 20 VA 2 to 3 VA 8 to 9 VA
for phase and earth faults dependent on
setting
Time-overcurrent relay 0.75 to 1.3 VA - 0.02 to 0.13
(IDMT) dependent on VA
setting dependent on
setting and
current rating
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Instantaneous overcurrent 0.7 to 10 VA - 100 mVA
relay dependent on
setting
Overvoltage relay - 2.0 VA - 0.2 VA
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Static relays with solid state components have certain limitations (as mentioned
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below) but these can be overcome as indicated in each case.
(a) Temperature sensitivity-temperature compensation circuits have been developed (e.g.
use of thermistors).
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(b) Ageing-this is eliminated by presoaking of components for several hours at a
relatively high temperature.
(c) Sensitivity to voltage spikes-this can be eliminated by filters and shielding.
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(d) Damage due to overloading-this is eliminated by careful circuit design.

Static relays may be single, two or multi-input devices. Individual modules are now
being developed to provide critical measuring as well as non-critical switching functions to
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be discussed in detail later.

Timing and counting requirements are much better satisfied by solid state circuit than
with electromagnetic elements. Availability of reed relays has made these more useful as they
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have very high operating speed (1-2 ms). Thyristors are coming up rapidly as tripping
elements.
1.5 What Are Static Relays?

The term ‘static relay’ is generally referred to a relay incorporating solid state components
like transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors, etc. In this type of relay, they functions o f
comparison and measurement are performed by static circuits wherein there are no moving
parts. According to a recent decision of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC),

which has been adopted by the Indian Standards Institution, the following are the terms
relating to static relays.
Static relay- A relay in which the designed response is developed by electronic, magnetic or
other components without mechanical motion.
Static relay with output contacts-A static relay having a contact in one or more of its output
circuit(s). The term previously applied to this type of relay was semistatic relay.
Static relay without output contacts-A static relay having no contact in its output circuit(s).
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The term previously applied to this type of relay was fully static relay.
Most present-day static relays, incorporate a hinged armature or a polarized moving
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coil relay in miniature size as the output device to provide at a low cost a number output
contacts capable of duly tripping. The alternatives are reed relays or thyristors (as indicated in
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Section 4) which are being considered in recent designs but not yet adopted commercially.
With the growth of power systems in both complexity and fault levels, the need for
more sensitive and faster, reliable protection schemes has arisen. The advent of the
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semiconductors overcame the supply problems associated with thermionic valves. The use of
transistor amplifiers, etc. deriving their power from an external source, or in some cases self-
powered from the current and voltage transformers, made it possible to achieve greater
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sensitivity and at the same time obtain excellent mechanical stability. The individual
components should be chosen carefully and should be used well within their designed rating.
It should be clearly understood that it is not usually economical to replace existing
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electromechnical relays with their static counterparts just to reduce maintenance; source gain
in technical performance should also be obtained. At present protective relays are supplied
from iron-cored current transformer and hence excessive saturation should be avoided to
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ensure high speed and discriminative operation. The use of static relays in general reduces the
burden on the current transferers.
One may be surprised to find that static relays have first been commercially produced
only in such cases as distance or differential schemes, while in the case of the much simper
overcurrent relay schemes, they have not been brought out. The reason behind this is the fact
that distance and differential schemes are more amenable to mathematical analysis while the
overcurrent characteristics like those given by the induction disc relays, are more empirical
and less mathematical. This a static relay cannot compete with the electromechanical
standard inverse time overcurrent relay as this characteristic is readily achieved by the
saturation characteristics of the electromagnet. On the other hand, the inverse time replay
required for overload protection of rectifiers has a characteristic of the form I8t=K which can
be achieved with static circuits, but would be extremely difficult to achieve with an induction
disc relay. In the field of distance protection, it is possible to derive many varied and complex
characteristics with the use of multi-input static comparators. It is possible to accommodate a
complete distance scheme in one or two conventional relay cases thus reducing panel space
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and the cost of interconnecting wiring.
When static relays were first developed availability of components and their
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reliability were poor. Now these components have attained a record of reliability much better
than conventional components. Many thousands of static relays have already been
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manufactured and used-the field experience over the last decade has proved their superiorit y
in more than one sense.
As already mentioned, static relays using thermionic valves could not meet practical
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requirements and never reached the commercial state. Rectifier relays, first used in Germany,
revolutionized the development of static relays. Transductors offered the advantage of d.c.
isolation between control and output circuits. They were widely employed in protective relay
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applications, but have been discarded due to their slow speed of operation.
Hall effect relay permit instantaneous analogue multiplication of two measured
valued. However, because of their high cost they have not been sued in practical relays.
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Gauss-effect relay employ semi-conductors whose resistance varies when a magnetic field is
applied. They are also quite expensive.
Measuring elements of static relays have been successfully and economically built up
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from diodes, zener diodes, avalanche diodes, unijunction transistors, p-n-p and n-p-n
bijunction transistors, field effect transistors or their combinations. The main reason for the
rapid progress of transistors into static relays is the instantaneous readiness of operation due
to the absence of heaters and their substantially long working life Further, in recent years, the
manufacture of components has achieved considerable advances like encapsulation, planner
and epitoxial construction techniques, printed circuits, etc. Integrated circuits now occupy a
predominant place. These techniques have increased the reliability of the components and
reduced the sizes of the modules to small chips.
1.6. Basic Construction of Static Protective Relays

Basically, protective relays are analogue-binary signal converters with measuring functions.
The variables such as current, voltage, phase angle or frequency and derived values obtained
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by differentiation, integration of other arithmetical operations, appear always as analogue
signals at the input of the measuring unit. The output will always have a binary signal, i.e.
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either an open (or OFF) signal if the relay is not to trip or a close (or ON) signa l if the relay is
to trip. These output signals can therefore be easily evaluated by subsequent control elements
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requiring very little technical effort. Each protective relay is built up of individual elements in
accordance with the basic block diagram show in Fig. 1.1. The signals, which occur in
analogue and therefore in the continuously variable
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1. Measuring Circuit 2. Measuring Signals 3. Converter Element 4. Measuring Element 5.

Output element 6. Output signal 7. Controlled Element 8. Feed Element 9. Aux. Voltage
Source 10. Measuring Circuit Supply
Fig. 1.1 Basic block diagram of protective relays
form from the measuring circuit (C.T and/or V.T) are first fed to the converter unit in the
protective relay. This converts the measured signals so that they can be easily processed by
the measuring element which follows. This measuring element will be operated when the
input signal reaches a certain value-providing a close signal at its output. The output element
amplifies this binary but weak signal and transfers it to one or more controlled elements. The
controlled elements carry out the final switching functions as opening of circuit breakers, etc.
Power is supplied to the measuring or output element by a feed element. This power is
obtained either from an auxiliary voltage source or from the measuring circuit itself.
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1.6.1 Converter Element
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This element contains chiefly he matching transformers to obtain the required signal level.
The rest of the construction depends on whether one or two or more inputs are to be handled
by the relay.
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Relays for one quantity are supplied with only one electrical quantity, e.g. current or
voltage. After suitable transformation by the matching transformers, this quantity is fed to
diode bridges at whose output it appears as a d.c. variable with ripple. Through setting
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networks consisting of fixed and variable resistors, clipping diodes, etc. the measured value
of the quantity is fed into a harmonic filter (if the speed requirements are not too stringent)
since the subsequent measuring element deals only with d.c. variables. Sometimes smoothing
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filters are used to eliminate ripples, but in high speed relays such filters cannot be used.
In relays for two quantities the converter element is fed at its input with two electrical
quantities. In each case the comparison can be either amplitude or phase comparison between
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the two signals, the signals being converter to voltage or current signals (Fig. 1.2). There is
also a pulse type
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VOLTAGE COMPARISON
1. Measuring Element
2. Feed-back Resistors
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CURRENT COMPARISON
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1. Measuring Element
2. Resistors
Fig. 1.2 Basic voltage and current comparators-two inputs
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comparison in which one of the variables is converted into a pulse when passing through zero
and the second is converted into a rectangular block. When the pulse and the block coincide,
a close signal appears at the output of the comparator circuit. This gives extremely short
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response time.
In relays for three or more quantities, the converter element is supplied with three or
more electrical quantities. In Fig. 1.3 it will be noticed that in two of the measuring bridges
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the feed-back resistors are combined into one.
Fig 1.3 Basic voltage comparison-three inputs
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VOLTAGE COMPARISON
1. Measuring Element 2. Feed-back Resistor
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1.6.2 Measuring Element

This is an analogue-binary signal converter with measuring functions. In the simplest form it
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consists of the Schmitt trigger circuit shown in Fig. 1.4 as the basic circuit. The Schmitt
trigger circuit (which will be discussed in detail later in chapter 14) can be compared to an
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extremely fast polarized d.c. relay and acts as a level detector. Transistors are used in
common emitter connection giving high input resistance and large current gain. The level
detector gives a step output when the input voltages exceed a specified level.
1.6.3 Output Element

This element amplifies the output signal from the measuring element, multiplies it, may
combine it with certain other signals and also introduce a delay if necessary. Since it has to
process only binary signals, this need not be a precision element. It may thus take the form of
auxiliary relays or contactors. These provide potential separation between controlling and
controlled circuits. It many also take the form of a bistable or monostable mult ivibrator
circuit and if required modulated by logic circuits like AND, OR, NOR or timing elements.
Where large powers are involved, e.g. operating trip coils of circuit breakers, silicon
controlled rectifiers (SCR) are used after the logic element.
1.6.4. Feed Element

The function of this element is to supply the power necessary to operate the circuits and the
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power is obtained either from a built-in auxiliary supply (nickel cadmium rechargeable cells)
or from station battery. In many cases it is derived from the measuring circuit itself. In all
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case the feed element should supply a stabilized voltage to the static circuits, so that the
measuring accuracy is not impaired. In the initial stages of development, nickel cadmium
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rechargeable cells. (commonly known as button cells) were used in the commercially
produced static relays, specially in the U.K., but experience has shown that their reliability is
poor. They are being given up at present and in their place station batteries with suitable taps
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at the appropriate voltage are being preferred. In the case of several types of relays, the
supply is derived from the current and voltage transformers themselves, as mentioned above
with the refinement that the power supply to the relay is switched on only in case of a fault
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being detected by a suitable fault detector.
1.7 Complete Electronic Protective Relays

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We have seen how a static relay is basically designed. The detailed circuit in each case will
be discussed in the succeeding chapters of this book. We will also discuss briefly here (details
will be found in the respective chapters) the complete relay systems.
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These relays can be built up in accordance with a unit construction system. This
system can be extended not only to individual relays but also to entire relay assemblies.
1.7.1 Overcurrent Relays

In a three phase system of relays, it is economical to build it on a single phase basis. Thus
there will be three converter elements, one for each phase, but thereafter the rest of the
circuits (e.g. measuring element, output element, etc.) will be common to all the three
circuits. This is shown in Fig. 1.5.
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V Converter Element; OR OR Gate; M Measuring Element; t Timing Element; O Output
Element; S Feed Element. NT
Fig 1.5 Block diagram of an electronic three phase time-over current relay IR, I Y, IB=Three
inputs currents
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1.7.2 Protective System for Generators and Transformers
Here again instead of three elements for the individual three phase relays, a single measuring
element and a single output unit are used. There are combined in Or-gates which in turn
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modulate the high power control units. With this method it is also possible to combine
various measuring elements to save unit construction elements. This is shown in Figs. 1.6 and
1.7.
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1.7.3. Busbar Protection

Figs. 1.8 and 1.9 show the static busbar protection scheme. This scheme offers (i) high
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operating speed, (ii) use of current transformers of any desired characteristic, (iii)
independence of C.T. saturation, (iv) independence of the effect of load-in resistance, (v)
application for coupled or
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I C.T. Connections, V V.T. Connections, CD Circuit Breaker, ES De-excitation switch Fig.

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1.6 Electronic protection of generator-transformer unit N K=External voltage supply

subdivided busbars while maintaining the tripping selectivity of each section, (vi) avoidance
of C.T> change over, (vii) facilities for output signaling, and (viii) simple extensibility for
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later extension of the busbar system. In case of (vi) there is thus no risk of opening of C.T.
secondary circuits since change over takes place only in the logic part of the circuit.
In the case of a short circuit fault, the protective system will measure the phase angle
of all outgoing currents, compare the phase angle of each busbar section and operate if a ll
these angles are within + 90 electrical degrees. The differential current is used as starting
quantity, while the reference value is a quantity which is an phase with the short circuit
current.
1.8. Complete System of Protection

Protective relays, being component parts of electrical switchgear, should be closely
associated with the control section of such systems, e.g. indicating and signaling systems.
Thus the signaling and
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PROTECTION
D Differential, MI Overcurrent, MV Overvotlage, RM Antimotoring, SE Stator E/F, RE
Rotor E/F
OTHER ELEMENTS
V Converter, M Measuring, t Timing, S Signalling, OR OR Gate, NOT NOT Gate, AS

Genral Signal, BS Fire Protection
indicating systems must also be designed on a static basis. The plug in type modular chassis
has been widely adopted already in electronic regulating and control equipment. These
contain a self contained plug in section which consists mainly of a printed circuit with the
appropriate circuit components as well as the front panel with setting scales, set ting
potentiometers and signaling elements. With the development of integrated circuits, these are
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being used more and more. All functional units are mounted in a single rack and for more
comprehensive systems, several racks are combined into the hinged frame. The same
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procedure is adopted for protective relays as well.
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F Feeders.
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B Reference Values
BS Busbar Protection
I Feeder Current
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∆ I Difference Current
L Circuit Breaker
BUS Busbar
W Current Transformers
Fig 1.8 Busbars protected
The future circuit breaker may also follow these lines of static development and may
ultimately be a static device.
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M Measuring Element
V Converter Element
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NOR NOR-Gate
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AND AND-Gate
Fig. 1.9 Block diagram of busbar protection
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1.9 Characteristic Functions of Protective Relays

It is possible to obtain similar functions and characteristic from replay elements using
different operating principles. These principles and design criteria determine how well the
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basic function is performed and how in practice it deviates from the ideal. Static relays can
achieve such a high performance that the departures from the ideal in practice are negligible.
This high performance combined with the design flexibility makes it possible to satisfy a
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wide variety of requirements with a limited number of functional units. The basic elements
needed to cover such a wide range of functions are discussed in the remaining sections of this
chapter.
1.9.1 Summation
The combination of a number of electrical quantities into a single quantity through static
equipment like summation transformers and sequence networks is already well known. These
fit into the concept of static relaying. Summing units can be reduced in size by using new
components and techniques, including active elements. Semiconductor circuits are well suited
to the use of summing junctions (sued in the analogue computation field) and can be applied
into protective relaying.
1.9.2. Single Input Devices (Fig. 1.10)

These form the basis of many protective and control schemes as in the following:
(a) Non-critical repeat function (all-or-nothing relays)-This usually produces a switching
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power gain of the order of 103, with a multiplicity of segregated outputs-these may be
in form of contacts. These devices are generally instantaneous with operating speeds
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of the order of 20 ms. Or less. They may also have an associated time-delay function.
Since these devices are either unenergized of energized very much in excess of
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marginal conditions they ensure fast response and good contact pressure in the case of
electromechanical devices. Examples of this type are : attracted armature replays
(telephone type), reed relays (with high speeds of the order of 1-2 ms are now
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available), semiconductors (specially thyristors). Repeat functions are usually initiated
by outputs from critical or measuring elements [Fig. 1.10 (a)].
(b) Critical or measuring function-This requires a response to an input when the latter
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exceeds a prescribed critical level. Switching gain may be included but is not essential
since repeat devices can be provided. Practical requirements are fast response,
accuracy of setting and high reset ratio. This function is used in many protection
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systems such as overcurrent, undervoltage, overvoltage, differential systems etc. The

elements used for these functions many be attracted armature, induction or moving
coil types. This function can also be derived through semiconductor circuits driving
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electromagnetic relay like polarized moving coil or attracted armature types or reed
relays or thyristors [Fig. 1.10 (b)].
(c) Fixed time or definite time function-This necessitates a delay between input and
output (between the application of an input and the occurrence of an output or
between the removal of an input and the resetting of the output). The input is to be
only non-critical (either nothing or greatly in excess of the critical level) and
switching gains and multiple outputs are possible. The device can also provide a
repeat function. Measuring functions can be combined in the
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inputs circuit. Practical requirements from these devices are accuracy of time setting
and repeatability under successive application [Fig. 1.10 (c)].
(d) Function time-dependent on input—The commonest form of such characteristic is
t=f(Sn) where n is negative and real. Examples of this are over current and overload
protection. These may also contain in addition low set and high set instantaneous
critical function. [Figs. 1.10 (d) and (e)].
1.9.3 Two Input Devices (Fig. 1.11)

With two inputs, it is possible to obtain a wide range of characteristics using different
operating principles. The function is generally defined by the relationship between inputs,
which governs the boundary condition of operation. The two basic forms are as follows:
(i) Amplitude comparison-One input is a restraining quantity and the other is an
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operating quantity so that an output is obtained when the ratio of these quantities is
less than a critical value. Ideally the comparison of the amplitudes of the two inputs is
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independent of the level and phase relationship, of the inputs. The function is
represented by a circle in the complex plane with its centre at the origin-defining the
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boundary of marginal operation. Examples of this are biased relays and impedance
type distance relays [Fig. 1.11 (a)].
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(ii) Phase comparison-Output appears when the inputs have a phase relationship lying
within specified limits. Both inputs must exist for an output of occur-ideally the
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output is independent of their magnitudes, but dependent only on their phase

relationship. The function as defined by the boundary of marginal operation is
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represented by two straight lines from the origin of the complex plane. Examples of
these are directional relays, distance relays excluding the impedance type and other
phase comparison relays [Fig. 1.11 (b)].
These will be discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters. It will also be shown that
either comparator becomes equivalent to the other if it is fed through the appropriate mixing
units giving the sum and difference of the original inputs. Thus any relay characteristic can be
obtained by using the amplitude or the phase comparison principle, although practical
considerations might dictate preference for one scheme out of the two.
1.9.4 Multi-input Devices (Fig. 1.12)

With more than two inputs, the range of complex characteristics is extended. Using
amplitude comparison, the remaining conic section curves like ellipse, parabola, hyperbola,
etc, can be obtained.
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Using phase comparison, characteristics are obtained which contain discontinuities as the
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effective zone is the common area given by a number of straight lines and/or circular
characteristics.
Equivalence of phase and amplitude comparators does not apply to multi-input case.
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1.10 Semiconductors to Obtain Functional Requirements

The characteristics of modern transistors are specially suited to the functional requirements
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mentioned above. These along with the other semiconductor and other components have
made possible commercial production of static relays. The properties particularly useful in
the realization of the functional requirements are amplification, switching characteristics,
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sensitivity, high speeds of response, flexibility of design and application, long life, compact
and rugged construction, and simplified power requirements. The development of
miniaturization resulting in the integrated circuit chips has accelerated the pace of
development and exploitation to commercial standards of the principles of static relaying.
1.11 Practical Non-critical Switching Circuits

The two main functions of such circuits in relation to protection are the following:
(i) Provision of a final signal for tripping to the circuit breaker; may also give
supplementary functions like inter-tripping, alarm and visual indication.
(ii) Acting as intermediate switching stages within the assembly of function elements.
Both the above duties have been met in the past by using electromagnetic relays. For
(i) e.m. relays have proved to be economical and reliable, of course accounting nevertheless
for 10-30 ms of overall tripping time. For (ii) the operating time of e.m. relays may become
unduly long, while being reliable, but with unsuitable contact performance sometimes.
Conventional e.m. relays have been accepted in association with static relays for non-critical
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functions if their operating times are tolerable. Progressively efforts have been made to
replace e/m/ relays by (a) reed relays and (b) static switching circuits using transistors or or
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thyristors.
Reed relays have been found to be reliable with high operating speeds of the order of
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1-2 ms even at small multiples of setting. They can therefore be sued for the intermediate
switching stages giving segregation between input and output. This gives added flexibilit y
and freedom of interconnection. Their operating power may, however, require a preceding
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stage of transitor amplification with positive feed-back.
Transistor switching circuits are also suitable for the intermediate switching functions
and have been used extensively as such. The rating of trip circuits is generally unsuited to
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transistor switching circuits and if a fully static trip circuit is required for various reasons,
then thyristors may be used subject to certain restrictions like interface problems.
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1.12 Practical Critical Level Detectors

The inputs in such level detectors are generally at power frequency and may vary over a wide
range relative to the critical level. Basic requirements are accuracy, lo ng-term consistency,
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fast operation and a controllable reset ratio of high magnitude. Obtaining these with e.m.
relays has always presented problems. When designing a static equivalent of an e.m. relay;
the circuit should be such that it retains the best features of the e.m. relay, but overcomes its
disadvantages. An example of such a design is shown in Fig. 1.13. Here the reset ratio is high
and snap action is retained. The circuit can be made relatively insensitive to the offset
transient conditions present in the fault currents. It may also be made self-energizing since it
permits associated units, for which auxiliary supplies may be essential, to be normally
unenergized. The circuit uses two basic elements, as shown in Fig. 1.13. (a), the critical level
detector and the pulse integrating circuit. The level detector compares an unsmoothed
rectified or an alternating signal against a d.c. datum. For peak inputs below the datum, the
output is zero, but at the critical peak input there is a finite output pulse the width of which is
determined by
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the reset ratio. The output pulse widens with increasing input, but at the critical level the
width substantially exceeds the marginal operating level of the second element. This circuit
retains snap action, even when the reset ratio inherently exceeds 1.0. With the exception of
the datum signals in the level detector, the design parameters are non-critical.
A practical self-energized circuit using these principles is shown in Fig. 1.13 (b). A is
the measuring and switching circuit and B is the pulse integrating circuit. The rectified
unsmoothed signal feeds two alternative paths (I1 and I2). Below the critical level, the
measuring and switching circuit is fully conducting so that current I2 for all practical purposes
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is zero. The datum Vz is derived through a zener diode ZD and is substantially d.c. at the
critical level input. The loading on the input circuit up to the critical level input. The loading
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on the input circuit up to the critical level is controlled so lely by R3 which provides the
voltage for the measuring and switching circuit through R1 R2. The critical level occurs when
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the voltage across R1 exceeds Vz by ∆V required to operate the switching circuit, which then
switches to a high output impedance and diverts the current I2 into the pulse integrating
circuit. The measuring accuracy depends only on Vz and resistors R1, R2 and R3 if ∆V is small
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compared to Vz. Temperature compensation can also be incorporated in the circuit. At the
instant of switching, the input through R1 increases to a value dependent on the input
impedance of the pulse integrating circuit, relative to R3. This provides positive feed-back in
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the measuring circuit, which controls the instantaneous, reset level. Surge and overload
protection are easily incorporated by using non-linear resistors on the input and an
electrostatic screen on the interposing transformer.
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An alternative simple non-transistor arrangement based on reed relays is shown in

Fig. 1.14. The accuracy of the operating level of the first reed relay is important but the reset
ratio is not critical. Such a device can provide operating times of 5-10 ms at 2-3 times the
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setting. The overall reser ratio can be about 0.95.
+,.... R .
..E.-Ie_m_en_'---"" ,.... ._j_:t:.. . J.:... · _
A.C.
t.J
ReedElement
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Fig. I.J4 Level deteclor using reed relays
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UNIT - 2 & 3
COMPARATORS: Replica impedance, Mixing Transformers, General equation of phase and
Amplitude, Comparators, Realization of ohm, mho, Impedance and offset impedance
characteristics, Duality principle, Static amplifier comparator – Rectifier bridge circulations
current type, sampling comparator, static phase comparator coincidence circuits type Rectifier
phase comparator, Block split comparator, Zener diode phase comparator.
12 Hours
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UNIT TWO & THREE
Comparators and Associated Elements
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2.1 Introduction
The basic block diagram of a static relay has been discussed in Chapter1. As per this diagram
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the converter element is the heart of a static relay. This element contains the means for
converting system currents to voltages or vice versa and then comparing them in phase or
amplitude. Taking the case of the general two-input comparators, the inputs S1 and S2 can be
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represented in the following form:
S1 =K1 VL+ZR1 IL
S2=K2 VL+ZR2 IL
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(1)
Where K1 and K2 are constants multiplying the system voltages and and are complex
impedances which convert the system current IL into suitable voltages. The comparator is
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shown in Fig. 2.1, which shows the manner in which the two inputs are derived and applied
to the comparator.
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In a static relay, it is therefore essential to convert the inputs to the comparator to

quantities of the same dimensions, e.g., voltages or currents. The values of K1 and K2 are
obtained through suitable potentio meters, while and are suitable transfer or replica
impedances.
2.2 Transfer or Replica Impedance

This could be either a self or a mutual-impedance as shown in Fig 2.2. Fig. 2.2 (a) shows a
self-inductance used as replica impedance. This is an iron core reactor with an air gap in the
core to give
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linearity in the voltage/current relationship up to the highest value of current expected. We
have
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And
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where LS is the self-inductance of the reactor and r the resistance of the coil. This type of
impedance offers no isolation between IL and VS. In many relay circuit applications this
isolation becomes essential. Fig. 2.2 (b) shows a mutual inductance used as replica
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impedance. There are two windings- one is primary and the other is secondary, wound over
an air gapped iron core to give linearity of transformation over the required current range.
The secondary winding is loaded by a suitable resistance R2 (which includes the internal
resistance of the winding). The ratio of secondary voltage to the primary current can be
shown to be
Here R2 is the resistance connected on the secondary side, L2 is the self-inductance of

secondary, M is the mutual inductance between primary and secondary, and tan . This device
being a combination of a reactor and a tranfermer is known as Transactor, and offers
complete isolation between the primary and secondary circuits, i.e., between IL and VS.
In the case of the self-inductance the angle and in the case of the transactor the angle
are designed to give the appropriate value depending on the particular relay application.
2.3 Mixing Transformers or Circuits
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The inputs given in Eq. (1) are obtained through addit ion or subtraction of different voltages
or different currents. The addition or subtraction is done usually through appropriate
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transformers. Some examples are shown in Fig. 2.3.
In Fig. 2.3 (a) voltage input V is derived by the addition or subtraction of two voltage,
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one derived from the system voltage through a voltage transformer and the other from the
system current through a current transformer and a transactor.
Thus
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In Fig. 2.3 (b) current input I is derived by the addition or subtraction of two currents,
on derived from the system current IL through a current transformer and the other derived
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from the system voltage through a voltage transformer and a reactor.
Thus
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These will be discussed in greater detail under the discussion of static circuit
applications to different relays.
Fig. 2.3 derivation of inputs: (a) ; and (b) current input.
2.4 Phase and Amplitude comparators
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The most important component of the converter element is the comparator (where the inputs
are compared in phase or amplitude) which was introduced in Chapter 1. The discussion in
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this chapter will be confined to two input devices, while multi-input devices will be
introduced later in Chapter 10.
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2.4.1. Classification
Letting the two singnals be S1 and S2, the amplitude comparator gives positive (yes) output
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only if , i.e. only if Ideally this

comparison should be purely scalar or in the other words independent of the phase relations
between the signals.
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The output of a phase comparator is positive (yes) only if α=arg (S1 /S2) satisfies the
relation
. The comparison, ideally, should not depend on the amplitudes of the two
inputs.
Both types of comparator can be arranged either for direct ( instantaneous) comparison, when
they would be known as direct (instantaneous) comparators or their output integrated over
each half-cycle, when they are called integrating comparators.
2.4.2 General Equation for comparators

To cover the complete range of conventional relay characteristics, let the two input signals S1
and S2 be derived from the power system voltage and current as follows:
Fig. 2.3 has shown the manner in which these inputs are derived.
Putting these in the complex form,
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Then
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and cos
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In the following discussion, K1 and K2 will be considered as real numbers, and VL taken as the
reference vector.
This
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2.4.2.1 Phase Comparator (Cosine Type)
Criterion for operations of the comparator in general is In case of

symmetrical phase comparator λ1 = λ2 and all conventional characteristics are obtained when
λ1 = λ1 = π2. Thus the criterion for operation will be
i.e. cos α ≥ 0
Therefore the locus for zero torque (or the characteristic curve) for the comparator is obtained
when
cos α = ac+bd = 0
Thus
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Therefore (ac+bd)
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Thus the criterion for operation becomes
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(2)
Let the impedance seen by the comparator.

Dividing Eq. (2) throughout by
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From the general solution, the properties of a number of particular relay characteristics may
be predicted as follows.
Directional characteristic
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Putting we have
i.e.
and
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Fig. 2.4 Directional characteristic (phase comparison)
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The characteristic obtained by this is shown in Fig. 2.4, where operation occurs to the right of
the straight lines shown shaded. The slope of the line may be controlled by varying θ 2.
Ohm characteristic
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Putting
we get
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This is shown in Fig. 2.5(a). This is a general case and particular cases of this are
resistance and reactance characteristics.
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Resistance characteristic
In the above general case, if θ = 0,
or
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See Fig. 2.5 (b)
Reactance characteristic
In the above general case, if θ = 90 o
or
See Fig. 2.5 (c)

In all the characteristics, positive operation taken place to the left of the line and
negative operations to the right of the line.
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Offset impedance characteristic
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Putting
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This is the equation to a circle of radius and with centre at

. This is shown in Fig. 2.6(a). This I the general case and its particular
cases are the impedance and Mho characteristics.
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Duality Between Phase and Amplitude Comparators:

Taking two input comparators, has shown that any relay characteristics could be
obtained by either phase or amplitude comparison of the input quantities.
Let So and Sr be the operating and restraining inputs respectively into an amp litude
comparator. Thus operation is indicated when So > Sr. This can be written as Z <=1 where Z
= Sr/So
The characteristics of this equation is a circle on a polar graph as shown in fig.
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Let S1 and S2 be two input quantities such as that
So = (S1 + S2) and Sr = (S1-S2)
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In which case for operation (s1+S2) > (S1-S2)
If now S1/S2= W where W is a complex quantity with an argument Y, then
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This gives a straight line as shown in fig. along the vertical axis through the origin.
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The shaded area (to the right of the line) indicates the operating region while the unshaded
area (to the left of the line) indicates the restraining region. This is the characteristic of the
ideal phase (cosine) comparator and the operating angular criterion can be expressed as de. Tr
2< 1° 2 This shows that S1 and SA satisfy phase comparison requirements while SI-f-S2=5;
and S1---St=S, satisfy amplitude camparison requirements. The converse of this can also be
shown to be true. In general, therefore, any relay characteristic w hich can be produced by one
comparator, can also be produced by the other comparator with the sum and difference of the
original inputs. The required relations are as follows:
So = Si +SA Sr Si — S,f Sr St 2 St- 2 The circuit arrangements necessary are shown in Fig.
2.10. It may be mentioned here that the phase comparator in this case must be a cosine
comparator, i.e. one in which zero torque is produced when the angle between the two input
quantities is ±n/2. Such cosine com-parators are possible only with static circuits using solid
state devices. In case of electromagnetic elements the phase comparison is of the sine type,
i.e. one in which zero torque is produced when the angle between
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Though a given relay characteristic can be obtained using either of the two comparators,
considerations of the constants calculated for the required characteristic would indicate which
type of comparator is preferable. In general, an inherent comparator is better than die convert -
ed type, because if one quantity is very large compared with the other, a small error in the
large quantity may cause an incorrect comparison when their sum and difference are supplied
as inputs to the relay.
Static Types Static amplitude comparator may use two voltages, two currents, one current
and one voltage, or one voltage (or current) and one fixed reference as the two input signals.
Present static comparators are made from semiconductor elements. Use of therinionic valves
is not favoured. Transductors arc sometimes but not much emplo yed. These will be now
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discussed in detail.
Rectifier Bridge Comparators Circulating current type The ccmparator uses current input
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signals. As shown in Fig. 2.13, i, and i, are rectified full-wave and their difference Is
averaged. The full-wave bridge rectifiers are connected such that the two currents circulate
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within the two bridges. The output device used should be an integrating device operating on
the average value of the difference between It, and ir.
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Such device is a polarized moving coil relay or an integrating circuit followed by a level
detector to be discussed in detail later. The bridge rectifier consists of silicon or selenium
diodes. The operation is as follows. When io is zero, small values of i, flow in the polarized
relay in the blocking direction. This current raises the voltage drop across the relay, and acts
in the forward direction of the operating bridge. If is increased further, the voltage drop
across the relay rises further to V, the threshold voltage of the operating bridge (whic h is
twice the threshold voltage of each diode) when the operating bridge starts conduction. This
makes the current through the relay flat topped half waves. The action is similar when 1, 0
and lo is circulated. When io and i, flow simultaneously, the output device can respond to
small differences between the two currents. The current in the relay at all times is
proportional to the difference between the two currents io and Ir. It will be found that due to
the non-linear nature of the rectifiers, the current through the relay does not exceed a
maximum value and the balance current flows through the rectifier bridge having the smaller
of the currents. This is shown in Fig. 2.I4(c). The voltage across the relay is limited to twice
the threshold voltage of each diode. Thus there is a limiting action making thc relay very
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sensitive, and also protecting the bridge rectifier and the relay from damage due to high
currents and voltages.
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and I,, but in

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practice the wave shape is dependent on the phase angle. When the two sinusoidal input
currents io and are out of phase, (io—ir) has both positive and negative loops in- the wave
shape and, combined w:th the limiting action described above, the wave shape is of the form
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shown in Fig. 2.14 (b). When io > i, the positive loop becomes larger in time duration
compared to negative loop. When io < in the negative loop becomes larger in time duration
compared to the positive loop. When i,, the positive and negative loops arc equal, each loop
occupying one fourth of the time duration of one cycle of the input currents. Thus the output
waveform is a double frequency pulsation. The output device should therefore be, as stated
earlier, an integrating device responding to the average area over one cycle of the output
waveform. When lo and 1, are in phase, the output waveform is as shown in Fig. 2.I4(a).
Only in this case, a continuous unidirectional output is obtained. The maximum current that
can flow in the relay is dependent on the maxi-mum voltage drop attainable by the bridge
rectifier. It is also necessary in this case to have large values of source impedances for the
current sources io and 1, giving near ideal current sources. This also prevents mutual effects
between the two bridges. For the same reason, it is also necessary to have isolating
transformers between each source and the bridge rectifier as shown in Fig. 2.13. Further
discussion regarding its behaviour for relay schemes will be given in different chapters under
applications. Opposed voltage type This is shown in Fig. 2.15. The output relay has zero
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torque when vo=1),. This type of comparator has no limiting action against high
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Figg. 2.30(a) shows the coincidence type. This is a cosine type two input phase comparator
delivering to a pulse duration detector, a pulse during the positive coincidence period of two
sinusoidal inputs. The pulse duration detector can be a telephone type relay which operates if
the pulse duration exceeds 5 ms (90' duration) for a SO Hz system. 'Hie amplitude of the
output pulse is equal to only half tlac zener voltage due to the potential divider arrangement.
Hence a very sensitive output relay is needed. The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig. 2.30 (b) for the positive coincidence period. In this case during the coincidence period
Zat is conducting with negligible voltage drop across it while ZD, is reverse biased with
zener voltage Vi across it. If the telephone relay has negligible resistance and an inductance
of L henries with N turns, the pick-up current will have to be Vz i --(1—exp(-0.005R12L),1
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Fig. 2.31. Zener dio.le non-coincidence comparator (a) non-coincidence comparator; and (t)
Thevenin equivalent circuit. Fig. 2.31 (a) shows the phase detector for non-coincidence
detection and Fig. 2.31(b) its Thevenin equivalent circuit. Voltage is developed across the
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telephone relay only during the non-coincidence period—during the period ZD, is reverse
biased and ZD2 is forward biased. If the relay picks up at the same current as in the previous
case, the following values arc obtained. External resistance=R ohms Relay inductance =2L
henries Vz 1°=-R(I —exp( —0.005RI2L)] The pick-up m.m.f. is as follows for the above
case.
UNIT - 4
PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL/ NUMERICAL RELAYS: Definition of Numerical Protection
System, Advantages of Numerical relays, Block diagram of Numerical Relays, Processing
Unit, non machines Interface, communication in protective relays, Information handling with
sub station monitoring system.
6 Hours
DEFINITION OF A NUMERICAL PROTECTION SYSTEM
According to ABB Review 1/93 (authors Majda liar and Gunnar Strannc of ABB Relays,
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Switzerland and Sweden), the definition of a numerical protection system is as follows: (a) A
real time microprocessor system utilises sampled or pre-processed power system waveform
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data. (b) Digital filtering and numerical calculations take place on the basis of a continuous
stream of data from the power system. (c) Programmes, algorithms and settings are stored in
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the memory used by the microprocessor. (d) Extensive hardware and software monitoring
ensures high availability. (e) The protection system can communicate with the Station
Control System (SCS) and Station Monitoring System (SMS). (f) Event and disturbance
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recording on printouts, with time tagging, is initiated by abnormal power system conditions,
being available on request afterwards. (g) The interface for the man-machine communication
(MMC) is either a personal computer, a mounted terminal or a remote terminal (with a
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modem). Communication via the personal computer is menu-driven, highly structured and
provides full documentation of all the settings and recorded information. The implementation
of suitable algorithms allows an adaptive response by the protection functions to changing
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power system conditions and changed system parameters.
ADVANTAGES OF NUMERICAL RELAYS

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The introduction of numerical tahnology in protective relays los increased the performance
and flexibility of the equipment and has iricorporared new features such as self-supervision
and the possibility to store faults. These improvements have increased reliability and allowed
more efficient use of primary equipment. ABB introduced the nticroproctssor.based fault
locator called Rants in 1982. This was the first time that a truly numerical approach was used
to calculate the distance to the fault. resulting in significantly improved fault location
accuracy. The next big step was adding communication capabilities to the protection relays
during the mid-1980s. The first communicating sub-station was delivered in 1987. It was
equipped with the SPAC 500 series (of the SPAC()M family) feeder terminals with
protection and bay control. Full utilisation of the benefits of communicating relays and fully-
automated sub-stations became possible when the devices were combined with monitoring
and control software programmes, such as Micro SCADA. running on microprocessor
computers. This facilitated the fully integrated remote control of sub-stations.
They were also connected to. say. a Micro SCADA.based network control system thereby
allowingcomplete information exchange between the sub-station level and the network level.
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Most numerical relays have a self-checking feature—they are capable of periodically
checking their hardware and software and in case of any problem. the relay gives an alarm fin
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corrective action. It is easy to service a numerical relay as in most cases, it requires only
certain cards to be replaced. Many relays have built-in diagnostics so that the can identify
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their own faults, thereby making repairs easy. The information can be accessed quickly and
effectively by means of the remote communication links resulting in improved post -fault
analysis of the faults. Thc relay hardware has to withstand sub-station environment including
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temperature, humidity and dust. besides the electromagnetic interference generated within the
sub-station as well as the effects caused by lightning strokes. Hence tests are conducted as per
IR:. and ANSI standards. A microcomputer system is generally built with separate bus
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structures for all internal connections between the processor and memory devices for Faster
access, while the input/output devices can be slower in operation while using filter circuits
and physkal separation to prevent els-Lulea] noise from corrupt ng the processor operation.
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The internal power supplies for the processor are 5 V dc/12 V de for the circuits while
external supply voltages are the station battery voltages which car be 24,48.110 or 220 V dc.
Usually ddcic convenes, arc used. The twitching frequency is over 80 kHz in order to keep
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the magnitudes small in size. The isolation of various circuits is necessary in the relay cases
as the electric circuits operate at a very low power. Hence sufficient screening has to be
providedbetween vatious circuits:Mc progressof numerical relay development from the 1970.
to the present is indicated in Fig. 6.1
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PROCESSING UNIT
For high speed applications, digital signal processors are used. They provide high speed
computation on the input data winds enables the designer to implement complex algorithms
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for a variety of protection functions and to perform real time calculation of impedances.
superimposed quantities, analysis of power system waveforms. etc. The requirement of
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processing power for any relay increase, as the implementation of the protection functions
becomes more and more algorithmic. The newer versions of these relays have the capabilit y
to include communication, fault location and disturbance recording. The core of the
numerical relay is mark up of a CPU an with 8-16 Nt processor depending upon the
application. The programme memory is used for holding the algorithm and code associated
with the man-machine interface. The data mernory consists of RAM for storing the sample
rabies of use in the algorithm and thedisturbance recorder funaions.The relay settings are
stored as a kuinp database, which is usually an EEPRON1. These values stored in rhe
EEPROM are used for computing the results. The input block consists of an ADC and its
associated circuits for processing the analogue signals.
MAN-MACHINE INTERFACE (MMI) This allows the user to make the entry of relay
settings and to read the relay internal information. The MMI usually consists of an
alphanumeric LCD or LED display unit. Knobs and switches are provided thus allowing the
user to enter the information using the Menu mode. Normally different levels of securities are
usually provided by means of a password so that only authorised personnel are allowed to
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make changes in the settings to the relay. Local printers are also provided to print out the
settings and any stored information on the fault conditions and disturbances. Features like
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remote communication links remove the need for the operating personnel to visit the sub-
station for collecting the information on the disturbance. The remote communication feature
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can be used to simulate the display on the relay at the remote terminal. Thus the information
is available at a central station and a decision can be taken about the expertise needed for
conducting the mainte-nance work.
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COMMUNICATION IN PROTECTION RELAYS
The most common transmission medium is the RS 232 link, which allows communication
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from one relay to a monitor PC. It is also possible to make the system multi-terminal. wherein
up to 32 relays can be connected to a central computer by using suitable i 'ICC( face
equipment.This interface standard is RS 485. which use, only one pair of lines to connect up
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to a distance of I km. RS 485 is a balanced interface and is less susceptible to common mode
interference. Another method of interconnection is through fibre optics. which are capable of
high data rates and very good noise immunity. However, they arc expensive and require
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special purpose transmittertheceivers. Hence their use is restricted to transmission lines.

Optical fibres are very fine strands of glass or plastic with the ability to transmit light. They
are made up of a glass core inside a glass adding. The refractive index of the glass cadding is
lower than that of the core. When a ray of light is incident on the junction of the core and the
cadding. total internal reflection occurs if the angle of incidence exceeds the Okla angle. If
the diameter of the core is quite large with respect to the wavelength of the light, there will be
a multitude of light ray paths down which the light ray will pass. The input electrical signals
are converted into light signals by using suitable transmitters. Optical fibres arc usually of
core diameters of 50 microns with a cladding diameter of 125 microns.
INFORMATION HANDLING WITH SUB-STATION MONITORING SYSTEM (SMS)
Numerical protection and control terminals have a high functionality and contain huge
amounts of information.,' number of parameters need to be set for deriving benefit from the
flexibility of the terminals. The SMS is a tool for structured handling of information. It cats
be used for setting parameters, monitoring service values and self-supervision status and
event handling, and the collection and evaluation of disturbance information. The functions
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can be implemented locally at the station or remotely in a central office via a public telephone
network or a standard "civil' network. With direct access to selected information, the data
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stored in the numerical devices can be utilised in a much more efficient way. This is shown in
Fig. 6.2. The use of suitable software facilitates the clubbing of a number of protection
functions in one relay. NT
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UNIT - 5
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STATIC OVER CURRENT, TIMER AND VOLTAGE RELAYS: Instantaneous over current
Relay, Definite time lag relay, inverse time over current relay, static timer relay, Basic relay
circuits, monostable delay circuits Single phase Instantaneous over voltage and under voltage
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relays, instantaneous over voltage relay using Op-amp.

10 Hours
Introduction
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Overcurrent relays fall under the categories of instantaneous and time-overcurrent relays. It
will he realized that in the development of static relays, the first relays to be converted to the
static form were the high speed differential and distance relays, while the directional relay
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came next and the time-overcurrent relay the last in the developmental series. The reasons for
the simplest relay to be taken up last are not far to seek. The distance, directional and
differential relays are based on mathemati-cal analysis and It is easy to build a mathematical
model or the circuit. On the other hand the time•overcurrent relays built through induction
disc elements gave characteristics which are not amenable to simple mathematical analysis. In
fact the inverse definite minimum Vine (IDMT) characteristic has been evolved because o f
the induction disc element, the stopc of the curve being determined by the saturation pro -
perties of the magnetic core of the electromagnet. The four points specified by the Ind ian
Standards Institution (1.5.1 I and the British Standards Institution (13.51) have been entirely
due to the above curve being accepted in practice Moreover, from the systems authorities,
there was no demand for a static time overcurrent relay as the induction disc element
presented a rugged type or relay needing very little attention or adjustments. Similarly, the
hinged armature unit offered a rugged type for the instantaneous overcurrent relay. Static
circuits are on the other hand more complicated especially in the case of time-overcurrert
relays giving the hitherto accepted types of characteristics (e g. 'MIT, very inverse, extremely
inverse) as the circuit elements have to be manipulated to produce these characteristics as will
be shown in this chapter. Althou-gh complicated in circuit construction, static overcurrent
relays offer the advantages of ,vw CT. burdens (about 1.10th of those for induction disc
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relays; anti reduced space on the Nee atIdtt:On to the general It is, however, felt that for some
years it is unlikely that all electro-magnetic overcurrent relays will be replaced by static ones
till such time that a digital computer is universally employed for relay setting and introduction
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of automatic test methods bv the manufacturers.
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

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The circuit is indicated in Fig 6.1. The input from the main C.T. is fed to an auxiliary C.T.
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(preferably a transactor to 'convert current to a voltage) with a tapped secondary winding. The
secondary current is fed to a full-wave bridge rectifier which is protected from transient
overvoltage Spikes by means of the 125-C1 filter. The bridge output is then fed to the base of
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transistor T. The output is developed across the resistor R,

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Fir.6.I Instantaneous °vacuum War and is smoothed by the capacitor C,. The transistor T, (et-
p-n) and T, ( p-np) a-.r normally cut oft When the base voltage of T, exceeds the pick-up
value set by the potentiometer P., the transistor T, conducts leading to the switching on of
transistor T, and the trip relay TR. Thermistor Thin the collector T, is for temperature
compensation, and diode D is for the protection of the trip relay coil. The current pick-up
adjustment is made by means of the auxiliary transformer taps and the Potentiometer P,. In
the case of instantaneous relays there is a tendency for OVCISCASiii• vity under transient
fault currents with D.C. components. This can be prevented by making the auxiliary
transformer saturate just above the pick-up value. The transient filter described above well
also reduce this tendency Fast reset is usually not necessary in overcurrent relays since the
setting value is much higher than the rated current, unlike voltage relays whose settings are
near to rated values and hence need fast reset features.
Improved Version of the Relay An improved commercial version of the static instantaneous
over current relay is given in block diagram form in Fig. 6.2(a) and in detailed circuit form in
Fig. 6.2(b).
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voltage is then compared against a pre-set pick-up value and if it exceeds it a signal is given
to the output transistor through an amplifier. The output transistor is then driven to saturation
energizing the output relay (trip relay). The circuit design is such that no d.e. biasing voltage
is necessary separately for the circuit operation. The detailed circuit shows the current from
the main C.T. being given to the primary of the transactor which produces a proportional ac.
voltage. The ratio of primary current to secondary voltage of the transactor is made adjustable
by providing taps on its secondary so as to obtain different current settings. This voltage is
then rectified through a bridge rectifier and smoothed partially. Partial filtering only is used
to maintain high speed of operation. A zener diode ZD, acts as a limiter of the rectified
voltage to spfe values even when the input current is very high under fault conditions. A
fixed portion of the rectified voltage (through a potential divider) is compared against the
breakdown voltage of another zener diode ZDI. If the rectified voltage is greater than the
reference voltage, output transistor T2 is driven to conduction through the amplifier stage TI-
R2, whereupon the trip relay is energized. Reverse-biased DI protects the output transistor T2
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from high reverse voltages induced when the inductive output circuit is opened.
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application is the differential protection of transformers to present maloperation during

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magnetization in rush currents. Also, this is used as back-up relays for differential and
distance schemes. Definite time feature when used with inverse characteristic is more useful
and gists inserse with definite time characteristic. An example IT protection of induction
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motors against overloads using extremely inverse curve (n 2L In such cases it is desirable to
base an instantaneous or definite time operation at current levels corresponding to blocked
rotor operation. Definite time is pre-ferred to instantaneous to serve as A check against short
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MC asymmetrical currents. (b) Very inverse Ore 1) This is generally employed in eases
where the source impedance is much smaller than the line impedance. Because of the steep
nature of the curve, they permit the use of the same time multiplier setting for several relays
in series. This reduces time errors and OveltraVel so that time margin for grading can te
reduced They are more suitable for earth fault protection as there is n greater variation of zero
sequence currents with distance than with phase faults. (c) Extremely inverse (nw, 2) Fuse
coordination and thermal protec-tion of transformers and induction motors require such
characte-ristic. They are useful, in conjunction with negative sequence filters to protect
against unbalanced operation of generators. The occurrence of an outage resulting in a
complete stsridsull of refrigerator Motors, factory equipments and lighting load and
subsequent restoration is another situation where this characteris-tic is useful -after an outage,
if power is switched on suddenly, there is a sudden inrush of current as the impedance during
hot conditions is 10 times the impedance during cold conditions. Extremely inverse relays
can distinguish between this condition and fault condition, since the former decays very fast
(d) Third power Inverse relay (a —31 This can be used advantage-ously for coordination of
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H V. fuses, In such eases, the slope 3 characteristic provides greater selectivity on load pick-
up than slope 3.
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(e) Octal invent relay (n-8) One application of this is for the protection of mercury arc
rectifiers. A general expression for the operating time of a time-current relay is KM I^ -- I*,
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where / is the multiple of tap current, l, is the multiple of tap current at which pick-up occurs,
K is design constant, and M is the time multiplier setting. If the relay picks up at tap value of
current, the above equation is simplified as follows:
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KM — Fry As already mentioned, because of the nonlinear design factors ol induction disc
relays, the time characteristics that have been accepted in India and the U.K. are as follows in
approximate mathematical form (for conversion to static form). Type Approximate
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mathematical form 0.14 (a) IDMT t aye-cry 13.3 (b) Very inverse I w (/— I) 130 (4)
Extremely inverse (P-1) The definite-time characteristic needs no equation as the time of
operation becomes constant after pick-up. IDMT curses accepted in the USA. are somewhat
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less inverse at the low current end than the above. Initially there will be a tendency for power
system authorities to have SIMI< overturrent relays with time-current characteristics to match
the existing induction disc relays. Howeser, in future, the characteristics will be of the form r
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= giving a straight line on a log- r —log I graph. Since this curve will no longer be
asymptotic to the pick-up value of current, the pick-up will be controlled by a separate unit.
(In fact this is the practice even with static relays giving the conventional time-current
characteristics). The IDMT curve may be altogether eliminated and the definite time portion
will then be provided by a separate unit. Such simplified time-current curves will save
considerable time in the calcula-tion of relay settings and computers could be employed for
the purpose. This will also facilitate automatic gang testing of relays with a master relay.
(c) Octal inver.u relay (n =B) One application of this is for the
protection of mercury arc rectifiers.
A general expression for the operating time of a time-current relay is
KM
I = /"-/•
•
where I is the multiple of tap current, 1.is the multiple of tap current at
which pick-up occurs. K is design constant, and M is the time multipfiu
setting. If the relay picks up at tap value of current. the above equation is
simplified as follows:
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KM
t = J•-1
As already mentioned, because of the nonlinear design factors of
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induction disc relays, the time characteristics t bat have been accepted in
India and tbe U.K, are as foHows in approximate mathematical form (for
conversion to static form).
Type
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mathematical form
(a) IDMT t C::::: _c0.1_4 ._

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(]11•01. 1)
13.5
(b) Very inverse I = (/-1)
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(c) Extremely inverse t = ([2-1)
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The definit·e-time characteris-tic needs no equation as the time of

operation becomes constant after pick·up. IDMT curves accepted in the
USA.. are somewhat Jess inverse at the low current end than the
above.
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Initially there wHI be a tendency for power system authorities to have

static overcurrent relay.s with time urrent characteristics to match the
existing induction disc relays. However, in future, the characteristics will
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be of the form t = {. giving a straight line on a log- t - log I graph.
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Fia. 14.17 Monostable multivibrator
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Fie. 14.18 lC monostable circuit
Overvoltage and Undervoltage Relays

Instantaneous relays of the overvoltage and undervoltage type can be
built ou t of the ba ic Schmitt trigger or level detector ci rcuit . These are
shown in Fig. 4.JO(a) and {b).
ln the case of the overvoltage relay, the em i tter bjas voltage across R
keeps the ransistor.T1 off wh le T2 is condu ting. When the voltage i npu
a t the bndge rcc t1fier V," mcreases the preset magnitude, producing a
voltage ncross resistor R 1 , it overcomes the emitter bias voltage and makes
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T 1 conduct turni ng off T:!. When T!! is turned off, An output voltage V.,
is produced ncross the co11ector ofTt·
In the case of the undervoltage relay, the input bias voltage across R,
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tries to keep the transistor T 1 conducti ng, while the voltage input V,.
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both cases. capacitor C is used for smoothing the input voltage Yin after full-wave
rectification. The relays described are of the instantaneous type. In case delays are required
these could he incorporated by R-C delay circuits as discussed under timer relays. In the case
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of instantaneous overvoltage/undervoltage relays, it is important that the circuit should hase a

high reset ratio (i.e. drop-out/ nick-up).
Over-and Under-Voltage Relay (a) Single phase—Two types of circuits are taken. In Fig
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4.11(a) the relay ha :3 a polarity protection diode (for d.c. input voltages) against incorrect
polarity. The voltage supplied to the relay is fed to a voltage divider and compared with a
reference voltage. Depending on the difference voltage the level detector and the amplifier
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(IC) are operated and the em. output relay picks up. Operating values are set by altering the
resistance of the voltage divider with a potentiometer. Since the reference voltage is obtained
from the supply voltage, no separate auxiliary voltage is necessary. Resetting ratios are : Over
voltage: > 97%; and undervoltage: < 1037„. In Fig. 4 .11( b) it is a combined over/under
voltage relay. There are voltage level sensing transistor circuits. The circuit uses the so called
7:- stabilized zener diode chains. Auxiliary 24V d.c. is necessary. Other things are as follows.
Setting range-under: 80-95%. over: 105-120; operating time 160 ms; resetting ratio—over :
98-997-0', under: 101-102%; accuracy + 1% for ambient temperature variation between 4- 5

C and -1- 50°C and auxiliary voltage between 20V to 30V. Power consumption—measuring
circuit: 0.2VA at 220V or 380V; and auxiliary voltage: 3.8W, 24V d.c. (h) Three-phase--In
Fig. 4.II(c) it is a three phase relay—operating both for symmetrical and asymmetrical
decreases or increases in the voltage and for phase open circuit. The three-phase voltages are
rectified and smoothed and they are applied to a diode circuit which acts as an OR circuit at
operation and as an AND circuit at reset; at operation of overvoltage relay it senses the
highest of the three voltages; while at reset all three voltages must be lower than the set value.
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The undervoltage relay has the opposite function. The two voltages obtained after the diode
circuits are appled to level sensing circuits which actuate em. output relays. The values of
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various parameters involved are as inlInws
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Fia. 4.11 OveJ·and under voltagerelays (a} and (b) si ngle phase: a nd (c) three phase.
Separate auxiliary : 24V d .c. is necessary
Setting ranges
Resetting ratio
: Overvohage:
Undervoltage:
: Overvoltage:
105-120%
70-90%
95-97%
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Undervoltage: 107-110%
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Power consumption : Measuring circuit: 0.4 VA per phase at rated
voltage
Auxiliary circuit: 4.2W
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Operating time Overvoltage c;; 70 ms

Undervoltage <
200 ms
Operating value deviates by·Jess than ± 1% when ambient temperature
varies between - 5 and + S5°C and auxiliary voltage varies between 20
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and JIV.
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UNIT - 6 & 7
DISTANCE RELAY: General Principle of operation, Zone discrimination, Fault area on
impedance diagram, Basic measuring elements, Different characteristics used in distance
relaying- Impedance, Reactance, Admittance. Ohm, Distance relay settings, Distance
measurement Problems.
10 Hours
General Principle of operation:
In electrical engineering, a protective relay is an electromechanical apparatus, often with more
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than one coil, designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit
breakers when a fault is detected. Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually ill-
defined operating voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays have well-
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established, selectable, time/current (or other operating parameter) operating characteristics.
Protection relays may use arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole magnets, operating and
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restraint coils, solenoid-type operators, telephone-relay contacts, and phase-shifting networks.
Protection relays respond to such conditions as over-current, over-voltage,
reverse power flow, over- and under- frequency. Distance relays trip for faults up to a certain
distance away from a substation but not beyond that point. An important transmission line or
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generator unit will have cubicles dedicated to protection, with many individual
electromechanical devices. The various protective functions available on a given relay are
denoted by standard ANSI Device Numbers. For example, a relay including function 51
would be a timed overcurrent protective relay.
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Electromechanical protective relays at ahydroelectric generating plant. The relays are in

round glass cases. The rectangular devices are test connection blocks, used for testing and
isolation of instrument transformer circuits.
The theory and application of these protective devices is an important part of the education of
an electrical engineer who specializes in power systems. In new installations, these devices
are nearly entirely replaced with microprocessor-based digital protective relays (numerical
relays) that emulate their electromechanical ancestors with great precision and convenience
in application. By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital
cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays. However, due to their very long life
span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels" are still protecting transmission lines and
electrical apparatus all over the world.
Operation principles
Electromechanical protective relays operate by either magnetic attraction, or magnetic

induction.
"Armature"-type relays have a pivoted lever supported on a hinge or knife-edge pivot, which
carries a moving contact. These relays may work on either alternating or direct current, but
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for alternating current, a shading coil on the pole is used to maintain contact force throughout
the alternating current cycle. Because the air gap between the fixed coil and the moving
armature becomes much smaller when the relay has operated, the current required to maintain
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the relay closed is much smaller than the current to first operate it. The "returning ratio" or
"differential" is the measure of how much the current must be reduced to reset the relay.
A variant application of the attraction principle is the plunger-type or solenoid operator.
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A reed relay is another example of the attraction principle.
"Moving coil" meters use a loop of wire turns in a stationary magnet, similar to
a galvanometer but with a contact lever instead of a pointer. These can be made with very
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high sensitivity. Another type of moving coil suspends the coil from two conductive
ligaments, allowing very long travel of the coil.
"Induction" disk meters work by inducing currents in a disk that is free to rotate; the rotary
motion of the disk operates a contact. Induction relays require alternating current; if two or
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more coils are used, they must be at the same frequency otherwise no net operating force is
produced.
Protective relays can also be classified by the type of measurement they make. A protective
relay may respond to the magnitude of a quantity such as voltage or current. Induction types
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of relay can respond to the product of two quantities in two field coils, which could for
example represent the power in a circuit. Although an electromechanical relay calculating the
ratio of two quantities is not practical, the same effect can be obtained by a balance between
two operating coils, which can be arranged to effectively give the same result.
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Several operating coils can be used to provide "bias" to the relay, allowing the sensitivity o f
response in one circuit to be controlled by another. Various combinations of "operate torque"
and "restraint torque" can be produced in the relay.
By use of a permanent magnet in the magnetic circuit, a relay can be made to respond
differently to current in one direction than in another. Such polarized relays are used on
direct-current circuits to detect, for example, reverse current into a generator. These relays
can be made bistable, maintaining a contact closed with no coil current and requiring reverse
current to reset. For AC circuits, the principle is extended with a polarizing winding
connected to a reference voltage source.
Light weight contacts make for sensitive relays that operate quickly, but small contacts can't
carry or break heavy currents. Often auxiliary telephone-type armature relays are triggered by
the measuring relay.
In a large installation of electromechanical relays, it would be difficult to determine which
device originated the signal that tripped the circuit. This information is useful to operating
personnel to determine the likely cause of the fault and to prevent its re-occurrence. Relays
may be fitted with a "target" or "flag" unit, which is released when the relay operates, to
display a distinctive colored signal when the relay has tripped.
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Lfllt trap flldacttlllet • l()()v.H: N'•pfl111cqtJ£ itor • 10()() pF
Band Mldba11d f"qt urry Btlltdwldth

kHr kHz
75., 7 11
2 17.S I0-9S
J 99.5 90-100
.. 112 JOG-125
s 125
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0 138 12 H8
7 HI 130·175
I 179 15 214
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The fourth closing side of the characteristic is obtained by the zone differentiating circuit as
shown in Fig. 10.17. For faults within zone I reach, zone I—AND gate opens at the arrival of
the fart pulse and goes to the output stage via the OR gate. For faults within zone 2 and zone 3
reach, the respective gates open after required time delays. The block diagrams of the
complete relay circuits arc shown in Fig. 10.18 (a) and (b). Two alternatives have been given
for zone 2 and zone 3 discrimination.
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Wramt I Fig. 10.18(01 A -• Pulse circuit B - Buffer amplifier CWel swing detector I (to be
described later) ••• Power swing blocking E - Phase comparator F VT G - Phase splatter and
rectifier H'- RC terser I - Threshold detector timer ••, PAT - Pulse amplifier and thyristor sou
Lit 2 If tg. 10.13 (b)I Significance of various blocks are the 411Tte as in whew I except the
following: •- Monostable timer I. — Backward monmlable circuit Some of the detailed
circuits are shown in Fig. 10.19. In Fig.10.19(a) the input circuits are shown. The auxiliary
VT has six secondary wind. rigs. One of them has two taps K. and K, for zone land zone 3
measure -roans. Phase splitting network with diodes is shown in Fig. 10.19 (b) for obtaining
direct voltages with loss ripple content. Pulse shaping and phase detector circuits arc shown in
Fig. 10.19 (c). Under normal no fault conditions T, and T, are conducting and the pulse
arriving at the collector cf T, is shorted. When a fault occurs inside tripping,' area, input
voltages V. VI. -5C' and (h R VI) ha-Come positive simultane-ously when the sampling pulse
is present. Transistors T, and T. stop conduction, allowing the pulse logo through. Power
swing Mocking-Here either rate of rive of current or blinders can be used for detection o f
power swings. In the method using blinders, the sampling tuts: hta is taken through another
gate with control Input positive 'and' of (Vt + leR.) and (leR, - Vt) and the NAND of a the
phase detector. The output from this gate feeds the monostable multisibrator which blocks the
phase detector (transistor T,) for a preset time. Now, R, is taken larger than the maximum
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setting of R (for the phase detector). Steady lamp ind•c+- lion or continuous alarm for
uncleared faults in the non-tripping dire-ction of the relay or when a power swing is in the
buffer area without receding or passing through the trip area of the relay, can be ptosided as
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shown This is shown in Fig. 10.19(d). In the rate of rise current detection, normally the phase
detector AND gate is closed by the nrgato es bias provided by the flip-lop circuit. In the tvert
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of a fault, the high value of dIrMr produces • pulse of height proportional to Wadi thioughing
the flip-flop into another state of stability and brings the relay into operation This is shown in
Fig. 10.19(e).
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Zone differentiator—Zone I AND gate is an instantaneous amplitude comparator—the output

from this triggers a thyristor sia an OR gate and a pulse amplifier.
Zone 2 and Zone 3 time delays are provided by means of (i) RC circuit or (ii) by moncstable
circuit. In the RC timing method, a level detector is used to measure the voltage across the
capacitor, while in the monos-table circuit method, delay is obtained by it s setting. A
backward mono-stable circuit is used with an AND gate to prevent the output of the
monostable circuit from unwanted triggering of the thyristor, in case the fault is cleared by the
earlier zone units. TYPE 2: In this type of multi-input comparator two phase detectors are
used one for zone I and the other for zone 2 and zone 3. Zone
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Zone I operation : Angle 8, of Z., is made equal to fine angle 8, Ye is converted to a negative
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pulse at its zero point. The sampling pulse will appear at the output only if all the inputs S„
.S'„ and S, are simul-taneously positive when the pulse appears. The angular limit of the
phase comparison p -- 8,). Operating criterion is sin (I, + • —4) Ze < and sin,
tripping limits are 8,<4<8, The trip area is controlled by ft and', For the case of 90° shift, the
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operating criterion is Ze<Zat, cos (8, Oland el<4<e, Thus for the same value of 5, the trip area
as compared with that for r 90'. can be increased or decreased by adjusting r< or ....90° ; the
maximum value being (180' —8,), respectively. Zone 2 and :one 3 operation The inputs are
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•=ii fare, (pulse) S. (hR — Ye) S, — S.— —90* This comparator is exactly similar to the one
in type I previously discussed and hence needs no further discussion. Zone differentiation is
provided as before. Complete Relay Circuit--The complete relay circuit in block form is
shown in Fig. 10.21. The AND gates are normally blocked by the nega-tive bias provided by
the flip-flop circuit. The sudden collapse of Ye under a fault triggers the flip-flop thereby
removing the blocking—this prevents false operation when voltage is first applied or when it
recovers after the clearing of a nearby fault. For Zone I fault, AND gates of comparator D and
M, open at the arrival of sampling pulse Vt. This finally triggers the thyristor. SCR can be
reset by the auxiliary contact on the CB. A chain of flip-flop circuits (F) arranged for negative
triggering is used to provide time delay T, for zone 2 —the time delay can be counted in
terms of the number of cycles since the sampling pulse is produced once every cycle. The
delay provided by a chain of three flipiflop circuits is 8 cycles. For zone 3 time delay, a
monostablc circuit is used. A backward monostablc circuit is used as in type I for preventing
unwanted triggering nf SCR In Fir,. 10-71. the vannut hIneka are as. (Allows :
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The relay makes measurement Once every cycle at the appearance of the sampling pulse, i.e.
when Pc passes from positive to negative. The time required for operation depends only on
the angle after 180° at which the fault occurs. Faults which occur just before 180° have nearly
zero operating time while fault occurring just after 180° have a one cycle operating time. The
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operating time can be reduced to half-cycle by duplicating the circuitry for the other polarity
so that phase angle measurement is made on both half cycles. With 100% d.c. transient, the
range of the relay could reach a value of about 50 and the transient overreach less than 10%.
(iii) 4 AloOed Technique for Quadrilateral Distance Relay The principle of this method is
illustrated in Fig. I0.22(a) and (b). If a point P, is defined by the phasor Zr, and the
quadrilateral ch•racte.istic is defined by the extremsties of the phasors 4, Z., and Z,, then the
relaying inputs are
S, — Zi. a la, — kit — S. et Z. - Zt liZ, — Vt. 5, a Zt. hZ0 — S, — — where Vi. hZt It can be
stated that whenever the point P, is in the restraining region, all the relaying inputs are
confined to 180° phase angle margin, while if the same point is in the trip region [as Pt in Fig.
10.22 (b)) all the relaying
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inputs are conned to more than ISO' phase angle margin as shown in the figure. There will be
finite coincidence period in the restraining region governed by two extreme phasors, while in
the tripping region there is no coincidence period. The above is realized by circuits shown in
Fig. 10.23. Fig. 10.23(a) shows the block diagram. The relay input* are derived by the help of
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replica impedance Z., Z., 4 and an auxiliary V.T. as shown in Fig. 10.23 (b). These inputs are
fcd to a coincidence gate, which delivers output pulses periodically, every 20 ms based on a
power frequency of SO Ile for 7,e in the restraining region. The pulse stretcher, which is a 20
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ms monostable triggering on the leading edge of the input pulses, delivers continuous output
to energize is slave relay having normally closed con-tacts. The contacts are thus kept open
for the restraining region. When Ze falls in the operating region, the coincidence gate and the
pulse stretcher deliver no output resulting in the drop-out of the slave relay—closing its
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contacts. Fig. 10.23(c) shows the transistor circuitry consis. ring of four clippers, and NAND
gate. a monostable gate as a 20 ms pulse stretcher and the slave reed relay. It is claimed that
this technique require: only 4 inputs, has an accuracy of I0Ø up to a range of 30 with a
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maximum transient overreach of 7%. The VA burdens have been claimed to be very low e.g
0.4 VA and 0.5 VA on the V.T. and CT.. respectively. It may be noticed that the circuits
stated above are more complicated. In Western Europe, where the quadrilateral re/ay has
gained popularity, the normal practice is to separate the direction and distance measure-ments
by having two restricted directional characteristics looking in opposite directions (these are
AND compounded). This permits the use of sound phase voltages for directional
measurements resulting in the following advantages (i) Unlimited directional sensitivity in the
esent of as)numerical faults.
(i) Unl imited di recti onal ensitivity in the event of asymmetrical

faults.
PhOM
Sl!lflinv
8
5-limf!\otion
(ill
IN
S.
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Fig. 10.2J Cireu it1 (or quadrilateral diMance rday: (a) blOC>)( drarrom·
Cb) dc:rivnt ion of relay in puts; and fc) del:lied circuli. '
IN
S.
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Here Io Zr produces a negative pulse at its zero point and is applied to a phase detector AND
circuit. This pulse will appear at the output if Vo L90' is positive at the same time—this gate
operates a directional element. The pulse is then applied to a zone differentiation circuit—
these gates arc controlled by rectified voltage I I KV:. I —I (IL + 3Kqe. VA for amplitude
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comparison. The characteristic obtained is also shown in the same figure.

TS
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UNIT - 8
DIGITAL RELAYS: Block Schematic approach of microprocessor based relays, over current
relay Protection, Transformer differential protection, Directional relay scheme, Impedance
relay scheme.
6
Hours
Over Current Relays: An over current relay is the simplest form of protective relay which
operates when the current in any circuit exceeds a certain predetermined value, ie the pickup
IN
value. It is extensively used for the protection of distribution lines, industrial motors and
equipment. Using a multiplexer, the micro processor can sense the fault currents of a number
of circuits. If the fault current in any circuit exceeds the pickup value, the microprocessor
S.
sends a tripping signal to the circuit breaker of the faulty circuits. As the microprocessor
accepts signals in voltage form, the current signal derived from the current transformer is
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converted into a proportional voltage signal using a current to voltage converter. The ac
voltage proportional to the load current is converted into dc using a precision rectifier. Thus
the microprocessor accepts dc voltage proportional to the load current.
The bloack schematic diagram of the relay is shown in fig. The output of the rectifier is fed to
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the multiplexer. The microcomputer sends a command to switch on the desired channel of the
multiplexer to obtain the rectifier voltage proportional to the current in a particular circuit.
The output of the mux is fed to the A/D converter to obtain the signal in digital for.
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microcomputer reads the end of conversion signal to examine whether the conversion is over
or not. As soon as the conversion is over, the microcomputer reads the current signal in digital
form and then compares it with the pick-up value. In the case of a definite time ovcrcurrent
relay, the microcomputer sends the tripping signal to the circuit breaker after a predctumined
time delay if the fault current exceeds the pick-up value. In case of instantaneous overcurrent
relay there is no intentional time delay. In order to obtain inverse-time charac-teristics, the
operating times for different values of currents are noted for a particular characteristic. These
values are stored in the memory in tabular form. The microcomputer first dettsmints the
magnitude of the fault current and then selects the corresponding time of operation from the
IN
look-up table. A delay subroutine is started and the trip signal is sent after the desired delay.
Using the same program, any characteristic such as IDMT, very inverse or extremely inverse
can be realised by simply changing the data of the look-up delay subroutine is started and the
S.
trip signal is sent after the desired delay. Using the same program, any characteristic such as
IDMT, very inverse or extremely inverse can be realised by simply changing the data of the
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look-up table according to the desired characteristic to be realised. The microcomputer
continuously measures the current and moves in a loop and if the measured current exceeds
the pick-up value, it compares the measured value of the current with the digital values of
current given in the look-up table in order to select the corresponding count for a time delay.
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Then it goes in delay subrou-tine and sends a trip signal to the circuit breaker after the
predetermined time delay. The program flowchart is shown in Fig. 8.1(b) and the program is
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as follows.
IN
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Memory Machine Label Mnemonics Operands Comments

Address Oxles
201E 21,00,22 LXJ H,2200
2021 46 MOV B,M Count for lookup table
in reg. B.
2022 23 SEEK lNX H M
2023 BE CMP AHEAD
2024 D2-.2E,20 JNC B
2027 OS OCR SEEK
2028 C2A20 JNZ MESH
202-B CA,04,20 JZ H
202E 24 AHFAD [NR B,M Count for delay in B.
IN
202F 46 MOV C.FF
2030 OE,FF BBHlNO MVl D,FF
2032 16.FF CHAIN MVl D
2034 15 MOVE DCR MOVE
S.
2035 C2,34,20 JNZ c
2038 OD OCR CHAIN
2039 C2,32,20 JNZ B
OCR
203C
2030
2040
2042
05
C2,30,20
3E,Ol
DJ,Ol
JNZ
MVl
OUT
BEHIND
A.Ol
01
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Send trip signal.
2044 76 HLT
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Look-up Table
Memory Digital Values Memory Count for Delay Delay Time

Address of Current Address in Register B ins
2200 OC(a:>UNl)
7F'
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2201 2301 3 0.19

2202 7A 2302 5 0.32
2203 60 230.3 9 0.51
2204 66 2304 OB 0.70
2205 60 2305 OD 0.&3
2206 SA 2306 tO 1.00
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2207 53 2307 16 .1.40

2208 40 2308 lE 1.90
2209 46 2309 2D 2.90
220A 4(1 230A 50 5.10
2208 3A 2308 7D
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8.00
220C 33 230C DB 14.00
In order to llvoid false tripping of an overcurrcnt relay due to transicniS the
program can he modincd slightly.When the fault current exceeds the pick-up
value., the fault current i.s measured once again by the microprocessor to
confirm wbetber it is a rault current or tran.'iient. ln case of any ttan,.!cai of
sbort dumtion, the mea.orurcd currcntabovcpickwup valuewillool appear in the
secund measwement. But if lhete is an actual fault, it wiII again appear in the
second measurement also, and then the microproc.e&'>Or will issue a tripping
signal to disconnect the faulty pan of lhe system.1be program flowchart is
shown 1n Fig. 8.2 and the program is given below.
IN
S.
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Transformer Differential Protection:
Generally Differential protection is provided in the electrical power transformer rated

more than 5MVA. The Differential Protection of Transformer has many advantages
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over other schemes of protection.
1) The faults occur in the transformer inside the insulating oil can be detected by
Buchholz relay. But if any fault occurs in the transformer but not in oil then it can not
be detected by Buchholz relay. Any flash over at the bushings are not adequately
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covered by Buchholz relay. Differential relays can detect such type of faults.
Moreover Buchholz relay is provided in transformer for detecting any internal fault in
the transformer but Differential Protection scheme detects the same in more faster
way.
2) The differential relays normally response to those faults which occur in side the
differential protection zone of transformer.
Differential Protection Scheme in a Power Transformer
Principle of Differential Protection
Principle of Differential Protection scheme is one simple conceptual technique. The

differential relay actually compares between primary current and secondary current of
power transformer, if any unbalance found in between primary and secondary currents
the relay will actuate and inter trip both the primary and secondary circuit breaker o f
the transformer.
Suppose you have one transformer which has primary rated current I p and secondary
IN
current Is. If you install CT of ratio Ip/1A at primary side and similarly, CT of ratio
Is/1A at secondary side of the transformer. The secondaries of these both CTs are
connected together in such a manner that secondary currents of both CTs will oppose
S.
each other. In other words, the secondaries of both CTs should be connected to same
current coil of differential relay in such a opposite manner that there will be no
resultant current in that coil in normal working condition of the transformer. But if any
major fault occurs inside the transformer due to which the normal ratio of the
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transformer disturbed then the secondary current of both transformer will not remain
the same and one resultant current will flow through the current coil of the differential
relay, which will actuate the relay and inter trip both the primary and secondary circuit
breakers. To correct phase shift of current because of star - delta connection of
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transformer winding in case of three phase transformer, the current transformer
secondaries should be connected in delta and star as shown
here.
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At maximum through fault current, the spill output produced by the small percentage
unbalance may be substantial. Therefore, differential protection of transformer should
be provided with a proportional bias of an amount which exceeds in effect the
maximum ratio deviation.
Directional Over Current Relay:
The classic electromechanical and solid state relay, as well as some common numeric
relays, determines the direction to fault by comparing the phase angle relationship of
phase currents to phase voltages. If only per phase watt flow (32 element) is to be
considered, the basic concept would be that if IPh is in phase with VPh-N (0°, ±90°),
then power flow on that phase is indicated as forward (or reverse, depending on one’s
perspective). However, for a phase to ground fault, the VPh-Nmay collapse to 0, and I
may be highly lagging, so that VPh-N x IPh may be mostly VAR flow, and thus
prevent the relay from making a correct directional decision. To resolve the low
voltage issue, quadrature voltages (i.e., VBC vs. IA) are commonly used. To resolve
IN
the issue that fault current is typically highly lagging, the relay current vs. voltage
detection algorithm is skewed so that the relay is optimized to detect lagging current
conditions rather then 1.0 power factor conditions. One approach, seen in Fig. 1, is to
phase shift the voltage signal so that the relay’s internal voltage signal (VPolarity,
S.
abbreviated as VPol) is in phase with current when current lags the 1.0 power factor
condition by some setting, typically between 300 and 900.
NT
The angle setting is commonly referred to as the maximum torque angle, MTA. In
some designs of this concept, the current signal is skewed rather than the voltage
signal. In some designs, other phase voltages are used. For instance, IA could be
compared to VAB, VCA, VBN, or VCN, and the detection algorithm would work,
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though the quadrature voltage VBC gives the most independence of the voltage signal
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from the effects of an A-N, A-B, or A-C fault.
IN
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OVERCURRENT AND DIRECTIONAL ELEMENT NAMES AND CONTROL

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One needs to understand which directional decision controls which overcurrent

element. There is no standard way to name all of the overcurrent elements that are
involved. Assume for the discussion that there are 67/51P (phase), 67/51G (ground)
and 67/51Q (negative sequence) elements and similar 67/50 elements, and that each
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has a forward or reverse looking mode with different settings for each direction. There
are three directional elements called the 67POS (positive sequence), 67NEG (negative
sequence), and 67ZERO (zero sequence) that control the 67/51 and 67/50 elements.
The protective elements and their directional controls are:
A given relay may have more than one copy, or no copy, of the indicated element, and
a given relay may or may not give the user direct access to 67POS, 67NEG, and
67ZERO.
IMPEDANCE RELAY SCHEME
Impedance relays are used whenever overcurrent relays do not provide adequate protection.
They function even if the short circuit current is relatively low. The speed of operation is
independent of current magnitude.
Impedance relays monitor the impedance between the relay location and the fault. If the
impedance falls within the relay setting, the relay will operate. The basic construction for
impedance relays on which the principle of operation is easily explained is the balanced
beam.
IN
S.
Figure: Principle of Impedance Relay
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The relay consists of a balanced beam. At each end of the balanced beam is a coil that exerts
a force on the beam at that end. One coil is connected to a current from a current transformer,
the other coil is connected to a potential transformer. The voltage coil functions as a
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restraining coil, the current coil functions as an operating coil. Under normal conditions, the
contact of the relay is kept open. During a fault, the voltage drops, and the current rises. The
torque due to the current coil overpowers the torque due to the voltage coil, and the relay
closes its contact.
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The torque caused by the current through the current coil is
where Ki is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction

TS
The torque caused by the voltage coil is
where Kv is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction

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When the torques are balanced,
The ratio of voltage and current is the impedance the relay detects at the point of its
connection.
To close its contacts,
The contacts will close anytime the impedance the relay sees is less than a preset value given
IN
by
This can be represented on an impedance graph X vs R
S.
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Figure: Operating Diagram of an Impedance Relay

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This type of impedance relay is not directional. It will detect a fault in any direction. If it is
used, it is used together with a directional relay that eliminates half of its characteristic.
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Figure: Operating Diagram of an Impedance Relay with a Directional Unit
OFFSET IMPEDANCE RELAY
Offset impedance relay is also known under names ADMITTANCE RELAY or MHO
RELAY
IN
S.
Phasor Diagram
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The torque of the watt element is

TS
where Kw is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay

construction
The torque caused by the voltage coil is

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where Kv is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction
Relay operates if
The phase angle q depends on impedance Zs . Zs can be chosen so that q = 0. Also, both
voltage coils are connected to the same voltage V. ( )
It follows that
Similarly as for the impedance relay, this impedance can be represented by an X vs R graph.
This time the circle is offset from the center.
IN
S.
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Figure: Operating Diagram for an Offset Impedance Relay with Characteristic Angle equal to
0
If impedance Zs is chosen so that q ¹ 0, the circle shifts:

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Figure: Operating Diagram for an Offset Impedance Relay with Characteristic Angle
Different from 0
For impedance relays detecting short circuits on transmission lines, impedance Z s is chosen
so that q is the same as the impedance angle of the line. This relay will detect a fault in only
one direction.
RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE RELAYS
IN
S.
The torque of the watt element is
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where Kw is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction
The torque caused by the current coil is

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where Ki is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction
Relay operates if
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The phase angle q depends on impedance Zs . Zs can be chosen so that q = 0. Also, both
current coils are connected to the same current I.
It follows that
The operating characteristic of this relay is a straight line
Figure: Operating Diagram for a Resistance Relay
IN
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Figure: Operating Diagram for a Reactance Relay

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All distance relays are connected to the power system through instrument transformers. The
relay monitors the impedance in secondary ohms. Secondary ohms are related to the primary
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ohms by the equation
where CTR is the current transformer ratio

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PTR is the potential transformer ratio
Zones of Protection
In general, distance protection includes three steps of protection, with each step reaching a
fixed preset distance and operating in a preset time.
Zone 1 reaches 80 - 90% of the protected line. The tripping is instantaneous.
Zone 2 extends beyond the protected line up to about 50% of the adjacent line. The tripping
has a time delay, usually set to a value between 0.3 s to 0.5 s.
Zone 3 covers the protected line, the adjacent line, and up to 25% of the line next to the
IN
adjacent line. Tripping is delayed between 0.6 s to 1.0 s.
S.
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Eee Viii Modern Power System Protection 06ee831 Notes

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Modern Power System Protection 06EE831

Subject Code : 06EE831 IA Marks : 25

COMPARATORS: Replica impedance, Mixing Transformers, General equation of phase

1 UNIT - 1: STATIC RELAYS 4-28

Introduction, Basic construction, Classification.

Basic Circuits, Smoothing Circuits.

Voltage regulation, square wave Generator.

Summation device, Sampling Circuits.

2 UNIT – 2 & 3 COMPARATORS

General equation of phase and Amplitude, Comparators.

Duality principle, Static amplifier comparator – Rectifier

bridge circulations current type, sampling comparator.

static phase comparator coincidence circuits type Rectifier

phase comparator, Block split comparator.

Zener diode phase comparator.

3 UNIT - 4 PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL/ NUMERICAL 45-50

Definition of Numerical Protection System.

Advantages of Numerical relays, Block diagram of Numerical

Non machines Interface.

Communication in protective relays.

Information handling with substation monitoring system.

4 UNIT – 5 STATIC OVER CURRENT, TIMER AND 51-62

Instantaneous over current Relay.

Definite time lag relay.

Static timer relay, Basic relay circuits.

Single phase Instantaneous over /under voltage relays.

5 UNIT – 6 & 7 DISTANCE RELAY 63-75

Fault area on impedance diagram.

Basic measuring elements.

Different characteristics used in distance relaying- Impedance,

Reactance, Ohm, Distance relay settings.

Distance measurement Problems.

6 UNIT - 8 DIGITAL RELAYS 76-90

Block Schematic approach of microprocessor based relays.

Over current relay Protection.

Transformer differential protection.

Directional relay scheme.

Impedance relay scheme.

1.2. Application of Electronic Relays to Protection

(c) Incorrect operation under transient conditions.

1.4 Advantages of Static Relays

Table 1.1-Comparison of Burdens of Static and Electromechanical Relays.

Definite time delay relay - A.C. 110V - A.C. 110V

Biased differential relay Operating Coil 0.33 VA

Bias Coil 0.4

(d) Damage due to overloading-this is eliminated by careful circuit design.

be discussed in detail later.

1.5 What Are Static Relays?

parts. According to a recent decision of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC),

1.6. Basic Construction of Static Protective Relays

1. Measuring Circuit 2. Measuring Signals 3. Converter Element 4. Measuring Element 5.

the feed-back resistors are combined into one.

Fig 1.3 Basic voltage comparison-three inputs

1.6.2 Measuring Element

1.6.3 Output Element

1.6.4. Feed Element

being detected by a suitable fault detector.

1.7 Complete Electronic Protective Relays

1.7.1 Overcurrent Relays

1.7.3. Busbar Protection

I C.T. Connections, V V.T. Connections, CD Circuit Breaker, ES De-excitation switch Fig.

1.6 Electronic protection of generator-transformer unit N K=External voltage supply

1.8. Complete System of Protection