Ground

Andrew Ground

Professor M. Mikhail

466A, Thurs 4:00

December 1st 2020

Developments within the Decline of the Abbasids

One of the defining parts of the Middle Period of the Islamic Age is the gradual decline

of the Abbasids as a dynasty between the death of Harun al-Rashid in 809 CE and the sacking of

Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 CE. The Abbasids and how they were able to interact with the

rest of the Islamic world was an important pillar of this period. But it was not the only driving

impetus of this time. The Middle Period saw numerous cultural, political, and religious

developments. Through this and the creation of new institutions and introduction of new ethnic

groups, the Middle Period saw the sphere of Islam expanded. Because of these developments, the

four hundred year period should not be considered one of general decline.

The civil war between al-Rashidun’s sons, al-Amin and al-Mu'mun had different

consequences. It soon became paramount that the caliph limit the ability of any potential

successor to gather allies or followers. A movement was made to secure the stability of the ruling

caliph of the family. The restrictions resulted in preventing individual members of the family

from gaining allies through governorship. The authority of the caliph in the provinces would

solely lay within the cooperation of local governors and interests1 and would not rely on Arab

militias or tribes for the military2. The regime isolated itself and no longer represented the

increasingly expanding Muslim communities. By ceasing to appoint members of the Abbasid

1
Kennedy p. 14, Central Government and Provincial Elites in the Early Abbasid Caliphate
2
Lapidus p. 37

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dynasty in military or civil functions, most Muslims had no direct involvement with the ruling

elite and had no stake in their interests3.

In Egypt, a Turkish soldier by the name of Ahmad ibn Tulun was appointed governor of

Egypt. After establishing himself as autonomous in the governorship, he was able to briefly pass

it on to his son. This would not become a single, one off instance. Governors would use their

tenure to secure a power base by building up local connections. They were also able to attain

military authority from the local militia or the importation of Turkic slave-soldiers4. Between 809

CE and 830 CE, it became clear during the civil war between the death of al-Rashidun. In Mosul,

his death allowed local elites to seize control. In Egypt, the opposite was true and the local elites

would be purged, laying open a power vacuum for Turks to gradually take control later on5.

Khorasan would come into immediate possession of the Tahirids and North Africa under the

Aghlabids6. When Tahirid rule in Khurasan collapsed after 873 CE, the Samanids emerged as

independent rulers. By the tenth century, the Samanids had effectively become rulers of an

independent state in what had been the stronghold of the Abbasid revolution 7.

While Arabs and Muslims were relatively few within the Caliphate up to and during the

Umayyads8, the Abbsaids oversaw the increased cementation of Islam as a religious faith inside

of the populations of modern Middle East. While the religion was succeeding in conversion, this

ran counter to the religious influence of the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. With more people able

to engage spiritually and theologically with the faith there was less need for the Caliph as a

religious authority. In the 11th century political power or legitimacy could be founded in the

3
Kennedy p. 16, Decline of the First Muslim Empire
4
Kennedy p. 3, Central Government of Abbasid Elites
5
Kennedy p. 11, Decline and Fall of the First Muslim Empire
6
Kennedy p. 4, Decline and Fall of the First Muslim Empire
7
Kennedy p. 22, Decline and Fall of the First Muslim Empire
8
Lapidus p. 24

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madrasa for the ulema and khanqah for the sufi9. Even with the supporters of caliph, the

traditionalist Hanbali school cemented in Baghdad in the 11th century, their influence was

negligible in areas outside of Baghdad10. In this way, the Abbasids, Baghdad, and the Hanbali

school became increasingly less important in religious matters and lost influence to the dynasties

of Egypt and Iran.

The authorities that subsumed the caliph could reinforce the legitimacy in which they

ruled as new Sunni regimes would align themselves with the legal institution of the ulema11. The

scholarly profession centered around religious knowledge determined what the sunnah meant

and did this ijma, consensus and representation through a community12. With its basis in

mysticism, Sufism increasingly became affiliated with the ulema and the madrassa, along with

certain legal schools. The increase of popular religion saw the importance of scholars, jurists,

and well-respected mystics in terms of community involvement and representation13. Even as the

Middle East became Arabized and was ruled increasingly by a Turkic elite, new rulers

incorporated sufis and ulema into their rule because of their mutual goal; the maintenance of

order and law14.

Well before the Seljuq invasion, the use of Turks as slave-soldiers had made them

well-sought after15. The Seljuq Sultans in their invasion replaced the Buyids and advanced well

into Byzantine territory at Manzikert. The defeat of the Byzantines there would bring upon a plea

by their emperor to Pope Urban II. The result would be the Crusades16. In the 11th and 12th

centuries, the threat the Crusader invasion presented to the Islamic world also resulted in a

9
Berkey p. 196
10
Berky p. 195
11
Berkey p.136
12
Lapidus p. 30
13
Berkley p. 248
14
Berkley p. 212
15
Kennedy p. 11, Decline and Fall of the First Muslim Empire
16
Lecture 12/10/20 Mikhail

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westward shift of the Muslim collective consciousness around the Levant, Egypt, and especially

Jerusalem17. It revitalized the military interpretation of the jihad and further bonded together the

ruling elite and the institutions of the khanqah and madrassas could be relied upon to support

campaigns to protect the House of Islam18.

Mystical devotion in an Islamic concept was the founding concept behind the sufi orders.

Despite that, they were engaged in different levels of society. In their communal activities they

served as missionaries, were engaged in economic activities, and performed charity work in

addition to becoming a part of military campaigns. They, their orders, and the lodges each order

created became a part of a social network across the Islamic World in the Middle Period19. In this

fashion too, they became important to the inclusion of Turkic groups into the Islamic world. The

mystical foundations of sufism are varied and appealed to many, but to the Turkic princes and

chieftains they represented a mysticism the societies of the steppe were accustomed to.

The Abbasids sought to maintain the stability of their dynasty and elevate up rival

regional dynasties. The importation of Turkic slave-soldiers was meant to create an elite corp

with no ties to power structure. When the Abbasids could not pay them, they revolted. After they

revolted, their ethnicity replaced much of the ruling elite20. Long before the Mongols sacked

Baghdad, Muslims had found political leadership, religious guidance, community, and regional

identities founded on pre-Islamic backgrounds. A four hundred year decline resulted in these

accomplishments at the expense of the authority of one ruling dynasty. For these reasons, this

period should be considered a decline.

17
Berkey p. 198
18
Berkey p. 201
19
Sufism-Rev sl. 4, Lecture 12/10/20 Mikhail
20
Kennedy p. 15, Decline of the First Muslim Empire