The Asiatic Vespers:

Ethnic Cleansing in the Roman Province of Asia

Andrew Ground

HIST 417A: Roman Republic

Professor Jonathan Markley

Fall 2021

Word Count: 2821

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As Cicero once remarked, ‘“...the Roman name is held in loathing, and Roman tributes,

tithes, and taxes are instruments of death.”1 The case of the Asiatic Vespers is a compelling

example as to how unpopular Roman rule was, especially in Asia. 2 The Italics and Romans were

an influential, wealthy minority in these overseas provinces at a time when the Social War(91 -

87 B.C.) came to a head due to the difference of rights between the Romans and their Italic allies.

But to those overseas provincials, they appeared to be similar enough to warrant the same

treatment. For all intents and purposes, the case of the Asiatic Vespers can be classified as a case

of ethnic cleansing. Mithridates VI intentionally targeted the Italian speaking population of Asia

Minor in order to solidify his control over his new territory in an attempt to push Roman

influence out of the eastern Mediterranean. The Asiatic Vespers has been referenced by the

authors of antiquity for its nature as an atrocity, and an astounding one at that. In a time where it

is to be expected that an army descending upon a city may sack it or even massacre the

population, that may say something. In this can be noted a situation of genocide derived ethnic

tensions and great levels of power disparity. It was an instance where a civilian population and

not a military force performed the killing based on those ethnic identities and their alignment

with the Roman state.

The geographic region of modern-day Turkey has been known by different names.

Anatolia, as well as Asia Minor has been used to reference the region. The latter of these terms

will be the most common way of referring to rough areas. Asia Minor had become a Roman

province in 129 B.C. The territory had been one inherited from their client subjects. Typically,

they were the local allies that had aided the Roman state in their conquests. Such was an example

1
Mayor, Adrienne 19
2
Mayor, Adrienne 14

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with Pergamon, the Pergamonenese contributed an army of 30,000 to the Romans against a force

of 72,000. King Eumenes of Pergamon shared joint command with the Romans at the battle of

Magnesia. The Pergamenese benefited greatly from the 2nd Macedonian War by receiving land

from the Dardanelles to Mt. Taurus that had previously afforded the Seleucids access to the

Aegean.3 The ruling dynasty of Pergamon would be extinguished on the death of Attalus III in

133. When he left no heirs except for Rome, he stipulated the conditions in his will. While the

Greek cities in his realm were to be exempt from tribute, Rome would be left the crownlands.4

The city of Pergamon would be regarded as one of the ‘principal cities’ of Asia. 5

The regimes successive to Alexander, the Antigonids and Selucids appeared to continue

the policy of tribute in exchange for autonomy as implemented by Alexander. 6 Subject cities

were differentiated from the free by the obligation to pay tribute and the right of the king to

interfere with their relations with other states. Aside from this obligation, they maintained the

ability to determine their internal affairs.7 The Romans would even for a time leave the cities to

their municipal autonomy in exchange for tribute.8

Autonomy, liberty, and freedom were gifts given by the conqueror, distinguishing it from

being a right innate to the newly governed population. However, autonomy was reliant on the

goodwill of the Roman senate. In the Third Macedonian War, Pergamon lost standing with

Rome; they suspected Eumenes of trying to peacefully intervene between them and Perseus

before the battle of Pydna. In 167, Rome tried to manipulate the succession of Pergamon

regarding Eumenes’ brother Attalus. When Eumenes went to Rome to plead his case, he was

3
Cary and Scullard 163
4
Cary and Scullard 166
5
Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World 83
6
Hansen, Esther 168
7
Hansen, Esther 169
8
Hansen, Esther 169

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refused to land in Italy.9 However, despite this, Pergamon was still allowed a level of autonomy

whenever affairs did not attract the attention of the Roman senate.10

The royal estates had been enlarged substantially during the reign of Pergamanese kings

by means of indebting Greek colonists.11 While no longer strictly free following their debt, they

did become tied to the land. They became tenant farmers who lived in villages and whenever the

land passed onto the next owner by any means, they also inherited these farmers. Serfdom is

typically associated with the Medieval period of European history, despite this, these

agriculturists could likely qualify. While these serfs owned their homes, farming implements,

and flocks of livestock, they still belonged to the land itself in addition to owing tribute to their

owner.12

While Attalus III left Pergamon heirless, that did not remove the pretenders from

attempting to claim the throne. An illegitimate son by the name of Aristonicus, son Eumenes,

brother of Attalus, rose up following the death of Attalus. 13 While Aristonicus largely failed to

appeal to the Greek cities, he did have some success in creating unrest among the serfs and

slaves of the Pergamense crownlands. The cities he was able to attract, the discontent of the

crownlands, and a band of mercenaries were enough to create a foundation for his revolt. The

revolt resulted in an army and even the creation of a city that was proclaimed to be a utopia. The

City of the Sun, also known as Heliopolis, was based on the founding principles of equality and

freedom for all men. The Roman campaign against this revolt resulted in the death of P. Licinsius

9
Cary and Scullard 165
10
Cary and Scullard 166
11
Hansen, Esther 184
12
Hansen, Esther 184
13
Livius 59. 3

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Crassus in 131.14 His successor, M. Perperna was able to complete the campaign in 130,

defeating Aristocronus. 15

The financial regulations for the province of Asia sponsored by Gaius Graachus changed

whatever original intentions the Senate may have had for the former subjects of Pergamon.16 The

taxation for the province of Asia would be sold to publicani for five year terms.17 Excluding a

few favored towns, the original exemption from tribute originally accorded to them from the will

of Attalus III was nullified. 18 Led by the Equites, lucrative financial operations within the

province would be set up and Asia would become a place for Latins and Italics to seek their

fortunes under an exploitative tax system.19

The Roman provinces were not managed under a system of uniform administration.20

The task of collecting tribute and taxes was delegated to Roman financers known as the

publicani. From spoils of war, Rome had amassed a large concentration of silver and gold into

the hands of their citizens. This supply gave Roman moneylenders and tax farmers an advantage

over their competitors to where they represented a monopoly.21 These monopolies were typically

associated with a certain property class of Rome; the Equites.22 Within the 2nd century B.C., the

class had begun to take upon certain elements of a bourgeois class.23 Unlike the aristocratic

senators of Rome who largely saw commerce to be beneath the dignity of their station and

family,.24 Despite this, the wealth of equites retained their social prominence. They also formed

14
Livius 59. 4
15
Cary and Scullard 166
16
Cary and Scullard 208
17
Classical Dictionary 627
18
Cary and Scullard 208
19
Cary and Scullard 230 & 231
20
Classical Dictionary 626
21
Cary and Scullard 189
22
Cary and Scullard 230
23
Cary and Scullard 190
24
Cary and Scullard 190

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the background that officers and commanders may be selected from.25 From the class of equites

are publicani, as well as negotiatores, who were aliken to capitalists originating from modest

backgrounds who sought to cover up their unlanded backgrounds by quickly acquiring estates.26

As anachronistic as it may be, terms like capitalist may be accurate in relating how

groups such as publicani and negotiatores functioned. They could be considered similar to a

modern stock company.27 Their activities included tax farming as well as the construction of

public buildings, and developing provincial mines.28 With many small shares being contributed,

the active partner who would bid for a tax, make agreement with the censors, and proceed to

have it in writing. Then a body of freemen and slaves would gather the tax revenue under the

supervision of a manager who would note their progress and efficiency. These companies went

so far as to have an intelligence service to measure the potential for tax revenue. The

resemblance it had with a corporation goes so far that the companies created by the publicani

that survived the death or retirement of any individual.29

Meanwhile, the Roman governor was not so much of a civilian authority, so much as a

military one. Accompanied in his term by friends, military and civilian attendants, as well as

officers. Many of them would be young with serving a governor being their first experience in

public service.30 The governor’s authority could not be challenged during his tenure, he held the

ability to protect any of his cohor, as well as negotiatores and publicani by means of his office.31

While complaints regarding the publicani were common, governors typically had more to gain

from siding with the tax-farmers than protecting provincials.32 Governors may be worse

25
Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World 266
26
Cary and Scullard 190
27
Cary and Scullard 189
28
Cary and Scullard 189
29
Cary and Scullard 189
30
Classical Dictionary 627
31
Classical Dictionary 627
32
Classical Dictionary 632

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offenders of exploitation than the private tax collectors may be.33 This lucrative relationship

between governor and publicani often had negative side effects on the governed population.

Crushing taxes forced the wealthy into debt and the less wealthy to sell members of their

family.34 Rome’s high demand for slaves won it few favors with it’s provincials. Since slaves

were always high in demand in the Roman empire, slavers were not above raiding the coasts of

Asia and the Black Sea in order to meet the demands.35 Roman elites could have several hundred

slaves, while a craftsmen may only have a couple. The temple of Artemis in Ephesia was a

common place for runnaway slaves to flee to, as well as Ascelpius. Some would even pray for

the tattoos on their foreheads to be healed, a mark of their state as Roman property.36 The

exploitive governorship and tax-system of Roman Asia produced conditions that were waiting

for someone to take advantage of it. That person was Mithridates the Great.

In the rebellion of Aristocronus, the Romans received assistance from Mithridates V, king

of Pontus.37 The king would be assassinated in 120 B.C., leaving the throne to his adolescent son

and same of his name, Mithridates VI. Only 12 years of age and brought up at Sinope, he likely

received a Greek education.38 In mind, body, and charisma he exhibited an ability for military

campaigns that saw the shores of the Black Sea come under the influence of Pontus.39 For these

abilities and accomplishments, as well as his wars against the Romans, he is often heralded as the

‘the Great’.

However, unlike kingdoms of Kolchis and Bosporus, Bithynia and Cappadocia could not

be conquered without Roman involvement.40 Over these two kingdoms, Rome and Pontus came

33
Classical Dictionary 632
34
Mayor, Adrienne 20
35
Mayor, Adrienne 20
36
Mayor, Adrienne 20
37
Smith, William 192
38
Smith, William 193
39
Smith, William 193
40
Smith, William 193

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to compete for influence and control over Anatolia, and even Greece. In 93 B.C. Mithridates

attempted to place one of his nephews onto the throne of Cappadocia, but the Romans resisted

and instead placed a Cappadocian by the name of Ariobarzanes. This was accepted by

Mithridates until the death of the Bithynian king, Nicomedes II. It was an instance where

Mithridates supported his claimant to the throne with an army. Cappadocia was invaded too,

resulting in Nicomedes III of Bithynia as well as Ariobarzaens being forced to flee. 41

The militias of the Greek towns in Asia served only unwillingly in the army of M.

Aquilius in 88 BCE when he was sent to reinstate the kings of Cappadocia and Brythinya.42 This

switch to Mithridates was not limited to the overtaxed, abused cities of the Asian coast.

Mercenaries serving under Roman officers and sailors crewing Roman ships deserted or joined

the cause of the Pontic king.43 He appointed satraps over his new territories and marched on

places often to the celebration of their inhabitants, such as Mitylene44 and the isle of Cos,45 in

Ephesia, they overthrew the statues of the Romans that had been erected in their cities.46 As for

the fate of M. Aquilius, Mithridates had him bound and put on an embarrassing display. 47 At

Pergamon, Mithridates had molten gold poured down his throat. Appian, a historian of the 2nd

century A.D., cites that Mithridates had this done for all the ‘bribe takings’ of the Romans. 48

The Pontic king wrote to his satrapies and magistrates.49 On the thirtieth day he arranged

that all Romans and Italians, their wives and children, and even slaves of Italic descent be killed

41
Smith, William 193
42
Cary and Scullard 231
43
Mayor, Adrienne 21
44
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 21
45
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 23
46
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 21
47
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 21
48
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 21
49
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 21

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and possessions confiscated.50 Although many cities obeyed the orders because of their hatred for

the Romans, they did so also as a result of their fear of Mithridates.51 The ordered massacre of all

Italic residents in his newly conquered domain would be conducted in Anatolia as well as isles in

the Aegean. 52

When Mithridates swept Aquilius out of Asia, the Greek towns joined the Pontic king on

the promise of a tax relief for half a decade.53 Those who owed a debt to Roman moneylenders

would have it be forgotten, the property would be confiscated, and bounties would be offered to

informers and those who could find Romans and Italics.54 The hate that the residents of Asia felt

for the Romans and Italics was enough to violate a sacred taboo. Asylia, also known as the right

of asylum, all those who sought refuge at religious sanctuaries.55 Any attempt by a pursuer to

commit murder inside tht refuge would be considered to have commited sacrilage of murder

before the Gods.56 Assur records that the Ephesians slew the Romans who sought refuge in

temple of Artemis, that the Pergamenes shot those who fled to the temple of Aesculapius, and the

Caunii killed those who tried to seek safety in the senate house by the statue of Vesta.57 The

citizens of Tralles attempted to avoid the appearance of blood-guilt and hired a man by the name

of Theophilus of Paphlagonia to do it for them.58

50
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 21 “...and he wrote secretly to all his satraps and magistrates that on the
thirtieth day thereafter they should set upon all Romans and Italians in their towns, and upon their wives
and children and their domestics of Italian birth, kill them and throw their bodies out unburied, and share
their goods with himself. He threatened to punish any who should bury the dead or conceal the living, and
offered rewards to informers and to those who should kill persons in hiding, and freedom to slaves for
betraying their masters. To debtors for killing money-lenders he offered release from one half of their
obligations.”
51
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 23
52
Mayor, Adrienne 14
53
Cary and Scullard 231
54
Mayor, Adrienne 14
55
Mayor, Adrienne 16
56
Mayor, Adrienne 16
57
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 22
58
Mayor, Adrienne 14

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Rhodes was one of the only cities which did not defect to the cause of Mithridates.59 The

city became a point where the Italics who were able to escape made their way to, including the

governor of Asia, proconsul Lucius Cassius. The city was not entirely alone in their loyalty to

Rome, having received some support from the cities of Telmessus and Lycia.60 When Sulla

arrived in Asia and defeated Mithridates, he would reward the cities that stayed loyal to Rome.

Illium, Rhodes, Lycia, Magnesia, and Chios were each afforded the status ‘Friend of Rome’.61

Eventually though, the Romans would return in the form of Cornelius Sulla.62 The

campaign of 86 and 85 saw C. Flavius Fimbria and his forces plunder the Greek cities of Asia

and were able to expel Mithridates from his residence at Pergamon.63 Meanwhile, the Peace of

Dardanus saw the king of Pontus surrender, but he was allowed by Sulla to retire on the

condition he become a client king of Rome.64 The cities that sided with Mithridates were

punished for their disloyalty and their involvement with the ‘Asiatic Vespers’. Cities like

Pergamon lost their allied status with Rome.65 In addition, they were subject to regular taxation,

increased loss in autonomy, and also made to pay the cost of the war. Those slaves who were

freed by Mithridates would be mandated by Sulla to return to their masters.66 The publicani were

to resume collecting taxes and in order to pay their taxes, provincials would need to borrow from

Roman money-lenders.67 Those who still remained in the realm of Mithradates VI were not much

better off, the Pontic king broke his word in regards to the tax breaks. In their stead, taxes were

59
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 22
60
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 24
61
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 13. 61
62
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 5. 23
63
Cary and Scullard 232
64
Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World 47
65
Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World 548
66
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 13. 61
67
Cary and Scullard 232, Sulla demanded 20,000 talents from the province. The total of five years of
taxation, as well as the cost of the war.

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increased as well as laws instituting conscription.68 This mixed treatment fact was touched upon

by Sulla when he was addressing the Ephesians,69 even as he remarked that the Romans would

never conceive of a barbarist act as the Asiatic Vespers. 70

The ethnic tensions found between the population in provincial Asia was not woven from

the thin air on that day in 88 B.C. where Mithridates wrote to his satraps. It was the culmination

from the decades of Roman practice of rule. The publicani, the system of tax farming, as well as

the governors whose chief goal was to acquire wealth created issues. In this there is an

exploitative power structure heavily in the favor of those who have the means to achieve power,

the Italics and Latins. The dispensation of citizenship had grown rare in the 2nd century B.C., be

it with the grant of the vote or without it.71 As it was, citizenship had only substantially expanded

to Latins and Italics in 90 B.C. following the Social War. While Flamininus had announced that

all Greeks were to be regarded as free amici in 198 B.C. at the Isthmian Games, this was dropped

once it was decided that the Asiatic Greeks would become subject to Pergamon and Rhodes

following the Macedonian Wars.72 Having rights and status the Asiatic province likely did not

have, they represented a disparity in power even though most were not likely abusive in their

power or culpable in the system of Roman governance. This relationship can be witnessed in the

case of the Roman state and it’s governance of provinces during the republic; their consequences

68
Cary and Scullard 232
69
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 13. 62: “Most infamous of all, you obeyed the order he gave to kill all the
Italians in your communities, including women and children, in one day. You did not even spare those who
fled to the temples dedicated to your own gods. You have received some punishment for this crime from
Mithridates himself, who broke faith with you and gave you your fill of rapine and slaughter, redistributed
your lands, canceled debts, freed your slaves, appointed tyrants over some of you, and committed
robberies everywhere by land and sea; so that you learned immediately by experiment and comparison
what kind of defender you chose instead of your former ones. The instigators of these crimes paid some
penalty to us also. It is necessary, too, that some penalty should be inflicted upon you in common, as you
have been guilty in common, and something corresponding to your deserts.”
70
Apian, Mithridatic Wars 13. 62: “But may the Romans never even conceive of impious slaughter,
indiscriminate confiscation, servile insurrections, or other acts of barbarism.”
71
Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World 151
72
Cary and Scullard 170

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personified in the case of Asiatic Vespers.

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Bibliography:

Ancient Sources:

Appian of Alexandira, Translation by Horace White, notes by Jona Lendering

https://www.livius.org/sources/content/appian/appian-the-mithridatic-wars/appian-the-mithridati

c-wars-5/

Titus Livy, Translation by Jona Lendering

https://www.livius.org/sources/content/livy/livy-periochae-56-60/

Modern Sources:

Cary, M. (Max), and H. H. Scullard. A History of Rome down to the Reign of Constantine 3d

ed. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975.

Hansen, Esther V. The Attalids of Pergamon. 2nd ed. Vol. 36. Cornell University Press, 1971.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.cttq4444.

Roberts, J. W. The Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World Oxford: Oxford University Press,

2007.

Mayor, Adrienne. The Poison King: The Life and Legend of Mithradates, Rome’s Deadliest

Enemy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.

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Smith, William. History of Rome. Luton: Andrews UK Ltd., 2010. Accessed November 6, 2021.

ProQuest Ebook Central.

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