“The relationship between potential difference, current, external and

internal resistances”

Course: Physics HL. 11th grade

Made by Yaroslav Kramarenko-Kochubei

Date: 15-16.12.2022

Introduction
The purpose of this laboratory is to define the relationship between current, voltage
(potential difference) and external resistance. Then, knowing the values and
interconnections of them and e.m.f. to determine the internal resistance.
This research is important because it explores a fundamental law of electricity. Another
crucial point which is analysed in this lab work is the concept of an internal resistance which
explains the difference between “theoretical” and “real” values in many cases.

Hypothesis
The most important rule, which is the basis of this work, is that current is directly proportional
to voltage and inversely proportional to external resistance. It can be expressed as:
I=V/R
formula №1

Where I is current (A), V is voltage (V) and R is resistance (Ω) (external). This equation is
known as Ohm’s law.
Another essential formula in our case is:
ε=V+I*r
formula №2

Where V and I are the same as in the previous expression, ε is e.m.f. (V), and r is the
internal resistance of a cell (Ω).
Another way to find internal resistance and thus to recheck the results is to build a graph that
has an equation:
y=-mx+c
formula №3

Where y is V, c is ε, x is I and m is r. It means that r can be defined as the slope of the graph.

Background information
The formulas stated in the hypothesis are relevant because they involve all given variables
and don’t include any additional unknown ones as a consequence of e.m.f. being determined
when the switch is open. Also, all of the equations were discovered many years ago and
regarded to be generically right. There are few exceptions when they can’t be used, but
these irregularities can't be applied in this research.
Research question
To what extent a change in current and external resistance affects the voltage and by
knowing these values what is the magnitude of internal resistance will be?
 Variables
Independent variables: current (A) will be measured by an ammeter, external resistance (Ω)
in order to determine it in the parallel connection the next formula will be used:
1/Rtotal=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3…
formula №4

Dependent variable: voltage (V) will be measured by a voltmeter

Controlled variables: internal resistance (Ω), e.m.f. (V) will be measured in a step 3
Equipment
Type D cell 1.5 V
Switch
Crocodile clips
Connecting wires
Set of resistors
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Method

1. Make a circuit as shown above using the resistor with value 4.7Ω
2. Open the switch
3. Note what the voltmeter demonstrates, it is a value of the e.m.f.
4. Close the switch
5. Record the magnitudes that are shown by the voltmeter and an amperemeter
6. Change the resistor to a new one with a value 12Ω
7. Repeat the steps 4-5
8. Change the resistor to a new one with a value 39Ω
9. Repeat the steps 4-5
10. Make a new circuit as shown below:
11. Change the resistors to the 4.7Ω and 4.7Ω
12. Repeat the steps 4-5
13. Change the resistors to the 4.7Ω and 12Ω
14. Repeat the steps 4-5
15. Change the resistors to the 4.7Ω and 39Ω
16. Repeat the steps 4-5
17. Change the resistors to the 12Ω and 39Ω
18. Repeat the steps 4-5
19. Make a new circuit as shown below:

20. Change the resistors to the 12Ω, 39Ω and 4.7Ω

21. Repeat the steps 4-5
22. Repeat all steps 3 times
 Data collection and processing
The uncertainties of the voltmeter and ammeter are ±0.06.
Table 1. Trial 1. Raw data taken from voltmeter and ammeter.
Important note: the resistance can’t be measured without calculation in the cases with a
*sign
Resistance Ω Voltage1 ±0.06 V Current1 ±0.06 A E.M.F.1 ±0.06 V

1. 3.10* 1.449 0.411 1.5

2. 3.37* 1.442 0.394 1.5

3. 4.19* 1.465 0.339 1.5

4. 4.7 1.435 0.301 1.5

5. 9.18* 1.478 0.161 1.5

6. 12 1.458 0.122 1.5

7. 39 1.473 0.034 1.5

Table 2. Trial 2
Resistance Ω Voltage2 ±0.06 V Current2 ±0.06 A E.M.F.2 ±0.06 V

1. 3.10* 1.454 0.416 1.47

2. 3.37* 1.441 0.390 1.47

3. 4.19* 1.457 0.331 1.47

4. 4.7 1.430 0.293 1.47

5. 9.18* 1.475 0.164 1.47

6. 12 1.463 0.125 1.47

7. 39 1.475 0.038 1.47

Table 3. Trial 3
Resistance Ω Voltage3 ±0.06 V Current3 ±0.06 A E.M.F.3 ±0.06 V

1. 3.10* 1.447 0.413 1.45

2. 3.37* 1.446 0.396 1.45

3. 4.19* 1.461 0.338 1.45

4. 4.7 1.431 0.291 1.45

5. 9.18* 1.475 0.158 1.45

6. 12 1.465 0.122 1.45

7. 39 1.480 0.035 1.45

To calculate the resistance in 1. 2. 3. 5. the formula №4 was used with the next results:
 1. 1/4.7+1/12+1/39=1/R, R=3.10
2. 1/4.7+1/12=1/R, R=3.37
3. 1/4.7+1/39=1/R, R=4.19
5. 1/12+1/39=1/R, R=9.18
To process this data, the average values must be found. They are defined by the next
formulas:
Vavg=(V1+V2+V3)/3
Iavg=(I1+I2+I3)/3
e.m.f.avg=(e.m.f.1+e.m.f.2+e.m.f.3)/3

The next results will be obtained:

Table 4
Resistance Ω Voltageavg ±0.06 V Currentavg ±0.06 A E.M.F.avg ±0.06 V

3.10* 1.450 0.413 1.47

3.37* 1.443 0.395 1.47

4.19* 1.461 0.336 1.47

4.7 1.433 0.295 1.47

9.18* 1.476 0.161 1.47

12 1.462 0.123 1.47

39 1.476 0.036 1.47

the uncertainty of the average values will be the same because:
±0.06+±0.06+±0.06=±0.18
±0.18/3=±0.06

Using a formula 3 the Graph 1 can be drawn by applying linear fit:

The internal resistance is a -m according to the formula, therefore it equals to 0.08 Ω
Conclusion and evaluation
The outcome of this experiment, in general, supports the initial hypotheses. The
voltage-current graph has a linear form and follows Ohm’s rule. However, if the attention is
paid to a certain points, then the observer will see that the points are not placed on the line.
Especially, in terms of middle points that are not in order at all. The reason for such
tremendous difference can be that some of the resistors used have degraded over the time,
and hence don’t give stated resistance values. As a result, calculations about resistance in
parallel connection are not fully right, as well. Also, the voltmeter and ammeter are not that
accurate, so the points could be actually at the right position. Another problem could be that
the ammeter and voltmeter are old too.In contrast, the results of e.m.f. in a circuit are precise
and are almost fully identical to the product of a graph (intersection of Y-axis), but there is an
issue here too. The fact that in 3 different trials e.m.f. getting 3 distinctive results can’t be
truthful because e.m.f. can’t change so much for such a short period of time. Nevertheless,
with applied uncertainties they are the same. Due to the uncertainties, every point reaches a
line fit, therefore it can be said that the research is successful to a certain extent.
Answering the research question, a change in current and external resistance affects the
voltage significantly, almost fully, so this work is another proof of Ohm's law. Also, it lets us
define internal resistance which in this case is equal to 0.08 Ω, but sometimes it doesn’t
follow our product which we would get if we decided to find internal resistance algebraically.
For example, 1.47=1.450+0.413*r; r=0.048Ω. Only due to wide data with 7 different
combinations of external resistance and 3 trials, we could get the internal resistance which is
close to reality. On the other hand, the idea of collecting more data and thus getting even
closer results is right too, and is relevant in cases like this with such huge difference
between specific values.
Different errors
The biggest error that can be made is to use different equipment in different trials because it
can be older/newer, and hence give different results in the same situation. Therefore, to
substitute the ammeter by multimeter if you have already started to measure everything by
the first one is a bad idea. The solution: to use the same equipment when you started and to
the end.
The cell is not charged anymore or will be so during the experiment. Again, then you will
need to swap your cell to another battery, which surely will have a bigger potential difference,
and therefore your previous data will be totally irrelevant. The solution: immediately choose a
powerful cell, check its voltage and if you see that it is already low then ask for a new one.
Don’t give time for the instruments to make the measurements sustainable. If you note the
magnitudes immediately, then there is a big chance that they will be inappropriate because
all tools, especially electronic ones, need some time to ensure that the results are right.
Not to change from mA to A, and vice versa, when it’s correct. It will lead to the fact that
sometimes the arrow of an ammeter will be out of the grid, and as a consequence, you won’t
be able to know exactly what it depicts. The same problem can be with voltmeter. The
solution is just to check if there are any more suitable measurement units that can be used.
The wires can affect the outcome, as well, but it is hard to predict to what extent and anyhow
to solve it.

Bibliography
Muilwijk Ylva. “5.3 Electric cells”. 2022.
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/14jeVM-m8vP90q4kolaq5mei5Hnetu4uozDW2wBoiE
is/edit#slide=id.p5
Muilwijk Ylva. “5.2 Heating effect of electric circuits”. 2022.
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/11CZHNto6DkEJkFBy9LOpYjz9HApgVWQlafhusLD
qgEs/edit#slide=id.p21