Physics Project File

To study the various factors on which the internal

resistance/emf of a cell depends.

AISSCE 2024

Guided by: Mr. Kunal Kamthana

Submitted by:

NAME: RUDRA PATEL

STD: 12TH
 INDEX
S no. Topics

1. Acknowledgement

2. Introduction
 Resistance

3. Practical Analysis
 Objective
 Apparatus
 Theory
 Circuit Diagram
 Procedure

 Precautions


4. Flowchart & Conclusion

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my gratitude and sincere thanks to
the principal Ms. Vandana Srivastava for her
encouragement and for all that she provided for this
project work. I sincerely appreciate this magnanimity
by taking me to this fold for which I shall remain
indebted to her.
It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude
towards my physics teacher Mr. Kunal Kamthana for
his guidance, support and encouragement throughout
the process. With his motivation and help, successful
completion of this project would not have been
possible.
 INTRODUCTION

There is a great need of batteries in our daily use

electronic appliances and the use is increasing every day.
Thus , the batteries need to be made more powerful so
that their potential can be increased greatly .

Thus , this project report is based on practical analysis

for the factors affecting the internal resistance of a
cell.

In the realm of electrical circuits and power sources,

understanding the internal resistance and
electromotive force (EMF) of cells is crucial for
optimizing the performance of electronic devices. This
project aims to delve into the intricate dynamics that
govern the internal resistance and EMF of cells,
shedding light on the multifaceted factors that
influence these fundamental characteristics.

The internal resistance of a cell, often represented by

the symbol 'r,' is a crucial parameter that plays a
pivotal role in determining the cell's ability to deliver
electrical power to an external circuit. It is influenced
by various factors intrinsic to the cell's design and
composition. Simultaneously, EMF represents the
maximum potential difference that a cell can establish
across its terminals, serving as a fundamental
indicator of its overall efficiency and electrochemical
capabilities.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Internal resistance is the resistance within a

battery, or other voltage sources, that causes a
drop in the source voltage when there is a current.
A cell can be thought of as a source of e.m.f. with a
resistor connected in series. When current flows
through the cell a voltage develops across
the internal resistance.

 Its S.I. unit is Ohm (Ω)

For a cell of e.m.f. (E) and internal resistance
(r), connected to an external resistance (R) such
that (I) is the current flowing through the
circuit,

E = V + Ir

Internal Resistance r = E–V

I
PRACTICAL ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVE
To study the various factors on which the internal
resistance/emf of a cell depends.

APPARATUS
1. A Potentiometer

2. A Battery (or battery eliminator)

3. Two one way keys

4. A Rheostat,

5. A Galvanometer

6. A Resistance Box

7. An Ammeter

8. A Cell (Leclanche cell)

9. A Jockey

10. A Setsquare
 11. Connecting Wires

12. Sand paper.

THEORY
The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered
by its electrolyte to the flow of ions . The internal
resistance of a cell
 is directly proportional to the distance between the
electrodes.
 is inversely proportional to facing surface area of the
electrodes in electrolyte.
 decreases with increase in temperature of electrolyte.
 is inversely proportional to concentration of
electrolyte.
The internal resistance of a cell is given by:

r = (E-V)/I
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with
sand paper and make tight connections according
to the circuit diagram.
2. Tighten the plugs of the resistance box.
3. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and of the cell and
make sure that e.m.f. of the battery is more than that
of the cell, otherwise null or balance point will not
be obtained.
To study variation of internal resistance with distance of
separation
4. Keep both the electrodes at a distance of 16 cm.
5. Take maximum current from the battery, making
rheostat resistance small.
6. Without inserting a plug in key K2, adjust the
rheostat so that a null point is obtained on the last
wire of the potentiometer.
7. Determine the position of the null point accurately
using a set square and measure the balancing length
(l1) between the null point and the end P.
8. Next introduce plugs in both keys K1 and K2. At the
same time, take out a small resistance (1 – 5 W) from
 the shunt resistance box connected in parallel with
the cell.
9. Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire and
obtain the null point.
10. Measure the balancing length (l2) from end P.
Record these observations.
11. Now keep the electrodes 12 cm apart.
12. Then remove the plugs of keys K1 and K2. Wait
for some time and repeat steps 7 to 10.
13. Next, keep the electrodes 9 cm apart to obtain
another set of observations.
To study variation of internal resistance with area of
electrodes
14. Keeping all other factors constant, increase
the area of electrodes in the electrolyte by dipping
them into the electrolyte at different depths for each
observation.
15. Obtain three such observations by
repeating steps 7 to 10. Record your readings.
To study variation of internal resistance with
concentration of electrolyte
 16. Keeping all other factors constant, decrease the
concentration of electrolyte by adding distilled water
for different observations.
17. Obtain three such observations by repeating step
7 to 10. Record your readings.

OBSERVATIONS

S.no. Ammeter Position of null point(cm) Shunt Internal

Reading Resistance Resistance
(A) With R Without R R(Ω) r(Ω)
(l1) (l2)
1. 0.3 660.5 35.5 1 0.94
2. 0.3 660.5 77.2 2 1.77
3. 0.3 660.5 108.3 3 2.51

Table for effect of separation between electrodes

S.no. Separation Balancing Balancing Internal r/d
between point point Resistance
electrodes l1(cm) l2(cm) r(Ω)
d (cm)
1. 1.2 326.6 276.9 0.456 0.38
2. 2.5 320.7 219.1 0.95 0.38
3. 3.7 660.5 350.9 1.406 0.38
Table for effect of temperature
S.no. Temperature l1(cm) l2(cm) Resistance Internal Tr
T (oC) R(Ω) Resistance (ΩK)
r(Ω)

1. 1.2 326.6 276.9 0.456 0.38 301.44

2. 2.5 320.7 219.1 0.95 0.38 291.96
3. 3.7 660.5 350.9 1.406 0.38 283.87

RESULT & INFERENCES

1. The Electromotive Force of the cell is constant
and is equal to E = 0.98 Volt.
2. Internal Resistance vs. Load Resistance: As load
resistance increases, internal resistance may
show a particular trend (e.g., increase or
decrease).Different cell types may exhibit varying
internal resistance behaviors.
3. EMF vs. Temperature: EMF of cells may be
affected by temperature changes.
Different cell types may respond differently to
temperature variations.
4. Internal Resistance:
a. The internal resistance of a cell may vary with
load resistance.
b. Different cell types may have different internal
resistance characteristics.
c. The relationship between load resistance and
internal resistance should be analyzed to draw
conclusions.

5. EMF:
a. EMF of cells may be influenced by
temperature changes.
b. Various cell types may have distinct responses
to temperature variations.
c. A comprehensive analysis of the data will
reveal the impact of temperature on EMF.
 PRECAUTIONS

 Safety Gear:

Wear appropriate safety gear such as safety glasses and lab

coats to protect your eyes and clothing.

 Electrical Safety:

Ensure that all electrical connections are secure and insulated.

Double-check the circuit connections before starting the
experiment.

 Low Voltage:

Use low-voltage sources to avoid electrical shocks. Cells

typically have lower voltages compared to batteries, but it's
important to be cautious.

 Proper Handling of Chemicals:

If your experiment involves different electrolytes, handle

chemicals with care. Follow all safety guidelines and use
protective equipment when working with potentially
hazardous substances.
  Ventilation:

Work in a well-ventilated area or under a fume hood when

dealing with chemicals to prevent inhalation of fumes.

 Temperature Control:

Be cautious when working with temperature-related

experiments. Use appropriate tools for temperature control,
and be aware of the potential for burns or injury.

 Equipment Calibration:

Calibrate all measuring instruments, such as voltmeters and

ammeters, before starting the experiment to ensure accurate
readings.

 Secure Wiring:

Check that all wires are properly insulated and there are no
exposed conductors that could lead to short circuits or
electrical hazards.

 Cell Handling:

Handle cells with care. Avoid short circuits by ensuring that the
positive and negative terminals do not come into contact
unless intended.
  Emergency Procedures:

Familiarize yourself with the location of emergency

equipment, such as fire extinguishers and first aid kits. Know
the emergency procedures in case of accidents.

 Supervision:

If you are conducting the experiment in a school or laboratory

setting, make sure a qualified instructor or supervisor is aware
of and oversees the experiment.

 Labeling and Documentation:

Clearly label all chemicals and solutions. Keep detailed records

of your procedures and results for future reference.

 Dispose of Chemicals Properly:

Follow proper procedures for the disposal of chemicals. Do not

pour chemicals down the drain unless it is explicitly allowed.

 Data Verification:

Double-check your measurements and calculations to ensure

accuracy. If possible, have a peer review your work.
SOURCES OF ERROR
 Measurement Errors:

Instrumental Accuracy: Inaccuracies in the calibration

or accuracy of measuring instruments like voltmeters
and ammeters can lead to measurement errors.

 Parallax Error:
Ensure that readings are taken directly at eye level to
avoid parallax errors, especially when using analog
instruments.

 Temperature Fluctuations:

Changes in temperature can affect the internal

resistance and EMF of a cell. Uncontrolled temperature
variations in the environment can introduce errors.

 Electrical Resistance of Connecting Wires:

The resistance of the connecting wires used in the

circuit may not be negligible. This resistance can
impact the accuracy of your measurements.

 Internal Heating of the Cell:

During prolonged use, the cell may heat up, affecting

its internal resistance and EMF. This internal heating
can introduce errors if not accounted for.
 Load Resistance Variations:

Variations in the resistance of the load (external

resistor) can affect the overall circuit resistance,
influencing the measured current and voltage.

 Cell Aging:

Over time, the internal structure of the cell may

change, leading to alterations in internal resistance
and EMF. This aging effect may not be consistent
across all cells.

 Chemical Reactions:

Chemical reactions within the cell may not always be

perfectly reversible. Irreversible reactions can alter
the chemical composition and influence the cell's
performance.

 Inconsistent Electrode Contact:

Poor or inconsistent contact between the electrodes

and the electrolyte can lead to variations in resistance,
affecting the reliability of the measurements.
 Residual Magnetism:

If magnetic materials are used in the construction of

the cell, residual magnetism may affect the readings,
particularly if magnetic fields are not controlled.

 Human Error:

Mistakes in setting up the experimental apparatus,

taking readings, or recording data can introduce
errors. Double-check all procedures and results to
minimize human error.

 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI):

External electromagnetic fields from nearby electronic

devices or power sources can interfere with the
measurements, especially if the experimental setup is
not properly shielded.

 Duration of Experiments:

Long-duration experiments may be subject to changes

in ambient conditions, equipment drift, or other
factors that can introduce errors over time.
 Cell Contamination:

Contamination of the electrolyte or electrodes over the

course of the experiment can alter the chemical
environment within the cell, affecting its performance.

 Uncertain Load Connection:

If the load resistance is not securely connected or

changes during the experiment, it can lead to
fluctuations in the circuit parameters.

 Non-Ideal Circuit Conditions:

Assumptions made about ideal circuit conditions

may not hold true in practical scenarios, leading to
discrepancies between theoretical predictions and
experimental observations.
 FLOWCHART

Factors Affecting Internal Resistance of a Cell

Area of Conc. of
Electrodes Electrolyte
Inversely Inversely
Proportional Proportional

Distance Temperature
between of
Electrodes Electrolytes
Directly Inversely
Proportional Proportiona
 CONCLUSION
Through the conducted experiments, we anticipate observing
distinctive patterns and trends related to the factors
influencing internal resistance and EMF in cells. The chemical
composition of the electrolyte is likely to impact the
electrochemical reactions within the cell, while temperature
variations may affect the conductivity of the electrolyte. Cell
age and wear are expected to contribute to changes in internal
components, leading to alterations in internal resistance and
EMF. Additionally, cell size and design are likely to play a role
in shaping these electrical characteristics.

Understanding these factors is crucial not only for theoretical

knowledge but also for practical applications. Engineers and
scientists can use this information to design more efficient and
reliable electronic devices by selecting or designing cells based
on specific requirements. This project contributes to our
comprehension of the intricate dynamics within
electrochemical cells, paving the way for advancements in
battery and cell technology.