Similarities between the borrowing of Latin and Greek scientific words into English and the

coinage of new scientific words and meanings in Physics in Modern English

1. Introduction
Language and science are closely related, as one shapes the other. It is the language,
with which we can express our thoughts on science. We use it to publish our research papers
and to write formulas. These languages throughout history since the Greek philosophers were
Greek, Latin, and French (, and mathematics). Of course, these languages aren’t independent
either. Each of them was influenced by others throughout history in some way. As years
passed, not only languages evolved but science, Physics as well. There were times when
scientific publications were written in Latin since it was stable and nonchanging. This was
necessary since independent discoveries and theories were rare up until electricity, quantum
mechanics, and particle physics. The topics listed previously were completely new and could
not have been expressed with Latin or Greek words. In this research paper, I am seeking to
discover any similarities between how words with direct Latin and Greek roots were used in
the field of Physics, and how the coinage of new terms in nowadays’ Physics happened.

2. Historical Background
The first person ever to deal with science – according to relics – is Aristotle (384-322
BC). Nowadays, we would not call him a scientist, but sure he had something to do with
natural sciences. He did experiments but usually came to false conclusions because he was
speculating. His language was Greek, and he wrote his papers in Greek as well. He did not
publish his papers, since the first ever written research papers were published in 1665 (The
Royal Society Journals Archive).
Aristotle’s approach to physics became popular in Europe and remained the accepted
view of the Earth up until the works of Galileo and Newton. Since it became very popular, the
main language scientists wrote about physics was Greek. The scientific significance of Greece
declined mainly due to the Roman empire. Romans were not fond of independent research;
they looked at science as a form of entertainment, rather than a form of education.
However, from the 7th century, there was a big shift from the Greeks to the Middle
East in the field of Physics. Works of the Greeks remained, and the Arabs translated them into
Persian (the leading spoken language of the Middle East at that time).
Around this time Indian and Chinese physicists started to research astronomy as well,
and they were interested in the theory of atomism as well. (Maharishi Kanada, Dharmakīrti,
Dignāga, to name a few)
Between the 7th and 15th centuries all the works of Indians, Chinese and Greeks were
translated into Arabic (Francis, 1996). In this Arab-speaking Muslim world science and
religion went hand in hand. As Mitchell et.al. wrote in their essay: “Muslims frequently
described science and their religion as related, rather than separate, concepts. They often said
that their holy text, the Quran, contains many elements of science. The Muslims interviewed
also said that Islam and science are often trying to describe similar things.” (2022)
The spread of Christianity however did not support scientific research, but it did not
deny it either. For example, Copernicus worked for the Church, and his books were even
taught in some universities (Rabin, 2008). On the other hand, Protestants did care about –
amongst others – Copernicus’ writings and started to argue against them, since they
contradicted the scripture (Singham, 2007). The Catholic Church seeing Protestants judging
 Copernicus’ work, prohibited publishing any sort of scientific paper contradicting the Bible,
thus the works of Galileo as well in the 16 th-17th century. These papers – prohibited or not –
were mainly written in Latin, as Latin translations in the 12 th century blossomed. During the
European Renaissance, scholars idealized classical Latin. This and the spread of the catholic
church contributed to the popularity of the usage of spoken and written Latin (Wood, 2019).
Although the effect of Latin on the English language started before the common era, its effect
on science was negligible. It mainly consisted of names of planets, animals, minerals, and
astronomical and geographical terms (Wood, 2019). It was during the Renaissance and
Medieval times when Latin had a huge influence on scientific language, but mainly on the
English scientific language (Curtius, 1953).
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the importance of Latin became huge and irreversible
with the huge corpus of biological descriptions (e.g. botany). Just to name one example:
Historia Naturalis went through 190 Latin editions between 1469 and 1799 (Wood, 2019).
Which was obviously because of the new discoveries and improving science. Even though
Latin had such a huge effect, scientists – starting with Galileo Galilei – started to publish their
works in their native language. Latin was not spoken; it was a written language that mainly
scientists and theologists used. Galileo Galilei wrote one of his first works in Latin (Sidereus
Nuncius in 1610), but his further works were published in Italian. In the same way, Newton
published in Latin, but English as well. This way mainly because of their target audience
(Haselby, 2015).
After the 17th century, there became a huge, exponentially growing shift from Latin to
other languages. As Haselby wrote in his essay: “By the end of 18 th century works in
chemistry, physics, physiology, and botany appeared increasingly in English, French, and
German, but also in Italian, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, and other languages” (2015). By the 19 th
century, new discoveries were made in various fields of science, this led to the question of
“Which languages or languages to choose?” since most scientists have started to publish in
their native tongues. Thus, readers had to learn at least 5-6 languages to read publications. In
1850, most of the papers were written in English, German, and French (Haselby, 2015). After
the First World War, German research centres, researchers, and their publications were not
looked for, to say the least, thus, the usage of German diminished as well (e.g. In many US
states the German language was prohibited at all levels (Haselby, 2015)). Thanks to this, the
three languages of science were reduced to two. Thanks to the scientific revolution, many new
French scientists came around and started to use English to be cited by leading publishers.
This is how science turned out to be a monoglot system from a polyglot one, which it
used to be for hundreds of years. It is important to have at least a vague clue of how the world
of science and language changed over time hand-in-hand. Only after this can we talk about
the flow of scientific words (restricted to Physics) from Latin (directly or indirectly) into
English. And only after this can we understand, from which point in time can we talk about
the inner changes of these words within English.

3. Hypothesis
Since words of science went through a long process in time and have transferred into
other languages as well, it is hard to track and efficiently identify the source where words
came from. As we could read in the historical background, everything started with Greek,
then there seemed to be a shift towards Latin and Arabic languages, to European languages,
 and then English. Borrowings of words, new discoveries, religion, and wars all contributed to
the emergence of new words and new meanings to already existing words (Gregorio, 2022).
As we could see in the example of botany as well, new discoveries changed the
vocabulary of the language. Not just discoveries, but religion and encounters with other
nations shaped the vocabulary, and it is no different with English in the field of science either.
Thus, my hypothesis is that,
There will be a significant number of similarities in the process of the coinage of new
words and meaning changes in the field of Physics throughout the development of English.

4. Analysis of examples

4.1. The borrowing of Latin and Greek Physics related words into English
The earliest contribution of Latin (and thus Greek) language to English was
around the 1st century before the common era (Kavtaria, 2016). The Germanic tribes
lived together with the Romans, and the former was not as developed and
sophisticated as the latter. Thus, many new products, techniques, and thus words came
along to the Germanic tribes for Latin. Most of their new words from Latin were
connected to food products, fruits, and vegetables. Based on Germanic tribal
languages, the English language began to develop and brought about these borrowings
as well (Kavtaria, 2016). Throughout the 5th century, the Germanic tribes (Angles,
Saxons, Jutes) started to migrate to the British Isles. The local inhabitants of the aisles
were Celts who managed to defend their home, however, they retreated to the territory
of nowadays’ Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall. These tribes thanks to the Celts,
acquired many new Latin words. In the 6 th century, with the formation of the Roman
Catholic seat at Canterbury, the Church’s language – Latin – became widely used. As
a consequence, many loanwords from this period are ecclesiastic. However, in nature
these were different. Previously, the borrowings came with the help of oral
communication, unlike these. Also, those were usually about objects, however, the
words coming into today’s English from Latin were about persons, and ideas
associated with religion.
With religion, schools started to emerge as well, since most of the time
churches were built together with schools. For example, by the time of 529, it became
popular to open schools (Ryan et. al., 1912). Thus, not just religious but education-
related words are transferred into the language. To name some examples from
educational terms with Latin origin: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil.
During the 11th century, we would expect that the effect of the Norman
Conquest is the spread of French. However, it did not happen since French was not the
language of poor, lower-class people who were the majority of the population in most
nations. Still, many French words (that originated in Latin) made it into English.
As I have mentioned before, with Renaissance not just science (and art,
architecture, politics, etc.) but language started to change for the better too.
Renaissance was a wave of philosophy that entered almost all fields of society.
Therefore, it is no surprise, that words from French, Italian, etc. entered the English
language (Waswo, 1987). Even though the focus from Latin turned to other languages,
English was not considered to be “done” as Hiscock wrote in his study: “Latin was the
international language of scholarship and intellectual dialogue. Among the living
languages, Italian and French were infinitely more useful than English for traders and
travellers overseas” (2008). The old Arabic, Greek, and Latin papers needed to be
 translated into English, but translators ran into problems, since – as written above –
English did not have sufficient vocabulary. This was especially true in the fields of
law, medicine, theology, science, and literature. To name a few belonging to physics:
Magnify, mechanical, project, solar, subdivide, zenith
All the above-listed words are said to be direct borrowings from Latin. However, in
many cases, words came from Latin through other languages, such as French and Italian.
As we could see, most of the borrowings were due to exposure to other nations’ languages,
and new discoveries, new encounters. New words usually bring new meanings with them, but
it is not always the case. New words, sometimes add a new shade to an already existing word.
We call them synonyms. The exposure to other nations’ languages isn’t as straightforward as
it may seem either. It has many variables on social levels, the relationship of these nations,
their religion, a form of rule, etc. Based on these, the meaning, form, and other attributes of
the words may change (Kavtaria, 2016).
It would make a long list to list all the science or physics-related words, so I rather list
here Greek and Latin affixes that are present in today’s scientific world as well:
-Ion, -tion, -ute, -ct, -dis, chloro-, chrono-, geo-, helio-, hydro-, litho-, logo-, neuro-, physio-.
And the list goes on. Most of the words with these affixes were taken into English without
change both in meaning and form.
4.1.1. Analysis
Since currently there is no available glossary of Physics on the internet that
would identify the origin of the word, I had to look for the etymology of arbitrary
words that would shed a light on the way they made it into English. For this, I used
etymonline.com. To get relevant information to this topic, I chose words that are
related to the then-researched scientific fields, which were mainly optics,
mechanics, magnetism, and astronomy as you can see in the historical background.
The borderline for science is the point in time from when we can talk about
Modern English, and according to most of the researchers it is around 1550. Thus,
I can draw a line in the scientific era as well, this is why electricity was excluded
from the list. You can see the words below in a table along with their meaning and
the way they made it into English.

Language of
Word Meaning today Comments
Origin
Kinematics
Goes back to the 14th century, the
act or condition of Ad (Latin) + celer roots of “celerity” goes back to the
acceleration
going faster (Latin) Old High German times (scelo
“stallion”)
Earlier form of speed came from
rapidity of Old English Proto-Germanic (spodiz), and went
speed movement, spowan through a meaning change in 1200
quickness, swiftness “prosperity” where it got its meaning we use
today.
distance the amount of space Distantia (Latin) Probably came to the language
between two places through Old French in the 13th
 century in the form of distance.
Then, it meant disagreement, strife.
the part of existence
From Proto-
that is measured in
Germanic timon
minutes, days, years, To Old English Old Norse was a
“time” to Old
time etc., or this process source as well timi “time, proper
English tima
considered as a time” and Swedish time “an hour”
“limited space of
whole
time”
From Latin Comes from the early 15th century,
the speed at which an
velocity velocitatem velocitatem came from velox but its
object is traveling
“swiftness, speed” origin is unclear.
Directly from From Latin through Old French as
Change of place,
Latin motionem “a well, mocion “movement, change,
motion continuous variation
moving, a motion, alteration”
of position
an emotion” From late 14th century.
From Latin
Uniform (as the same; not uniformis “having Came through French in the 14th
a form of changing or different only one form or century uniforme. Got into English
motion) in any way: shape” (uni “one” in the 1530s.
+ forma “form”)
 Astronomy
A process by which
the atmosphere
From Latin Strong connection with the ab-
melts away and
Ablation ablationem “a affix from Latin (from PIE). Was
removes the surface
taking away” used in the early 15th century
material of an
incoming meteorite.
The angular distance From Latin For the astronomical meaning of
Altitude of an object above altitudinem height, it was used already in the
the horizon “height, altitude” late 14th century.
The size of the From Latin
opening through apertura “an
In optics it was used from the
which light passes in opening” (PIE
Aperture 1660s, but it was already used in
an optical instrument roots: apo “off,
the early 15th century.
such as a camera or away” + wer “to
telescope. cover”.
The point in the Johannes Kepler
The word is a reflection on
orbit of a planet or coined the term
apogaeum (Ptolemaic view) since
Aphelion other celestial body based on Greek
it’s constructed like: apo- + hēliou
where it is farthest apo hēliou "away
Used from the 1650s.
from the Sun. from the sun”.
From the Latin
From Latin it got into Romance
Pertaining to the sky caelestis
languages, thus it entered English
Celestial or the visible “heavenly,
through Old French in the late 14th
heavens pertaining to the
century.
sky”
A grouping of stars From Latin
It entered English through Old
Constellatio that make an constellatus (con-
French from Latin in the early 14th
n imaginary picture in “with, together” +
century.
the sky. stellare “star”)
Optics
Entered English through Old
The return of light From Latin French in the late 14th century
from a surface with reflexionem “a when it meant of “the action of
Reflection
no change in its reflection, a throwing back light or heat”. It
wavelength(s). bending back”. got it’s current meaning in the
1580s.
The change in
Directly from Late
direction of a wave
Latin refractionem According to Century dictionary it
passing from one
Refraction “a breaking up” was used almost exclusively in
medium to another
from re- “back” + Physics. Emerged in the 1570s.
caused by its change
frangere “to break”
in speed
From the Latin
Denoting a convexus “vaulted,
spherically shaped arched” (com- Entered English through French in
Convex
surface; curved “together” + the 1570s with convexe.
outward. vehere “to bring,
convey”)
Lens Glass to regulate From Latin lens “a From the 1690s directly from
 Latin, on the analogy of the shape
light rays lentil”
of a lentil (double-convex shape).
Entered the language from Old
The point at which From Late Latin French incidence in the 15th
Incidence the light hits the incidentia “to century with the meaning of
surface happen, befall” “incidental matter”. It got its
current meaning in the 1620s.
Table 1

The above-listed words are each used to express the very basic concepts of
their categories. These words were chosen so that it can be well seen that when the
first experiments, encounters, and discoveries were made, scientists used words
originating in Latin. The common thing about these words is that almost all of
them entered the language either through French (or Old French) or directly from
Latin. Exceptions are the words that were already present in the language but had a
different meaning like incidence, reflection, celestial (originally meant heavenly),
and aperture. Another similarity is that the necessity of these words became
relevant because of the new discoveries.
The amount of basic terminology reflects the advancement of the certain
field of Physics. For example, scientists could not grasp the nature of magnetism,
and could only describe its behaviour and name it, thus, from the 14 th century only
the word “magnet” is listed.
Another common feature of these words is that they are usually made
up of other words, or combined with affixes, that are somehow related to
features or objects the word is describing. For example, in the case of “lens” it
is the shape that the word is reflecting; in the case of “aphelion,” it is a reference
to an already existing word, copying its form and use.
In the case of velocity, there is an unclear source of meaning. This might
be mainly because the difference between today’s speed and velocity is that the
former refers only to the magnitude of the change of distance in a time of an
object, whereas the latter refers to the direction as well. This is what we call a
vector in mathematics (vector representation), however, the idea of vectors did not
exist until the late 19th century. This means, that there was no particular difference
in the use of speed and velocity in Physics.
Based on the above analysis of Table 1, we can conclude the followings:
- The words entered English through one mediator language or directly
from Latin or Greek
- The words became needed because of new discoveries
- They are usually combined from bits of the source language
(compound words, affixes, etc)
- Parts of the words are relating to the thing it is describing (shape, idea,
place, etc)

4.2. The coinage of new scientific words in Physics in Modern English

In this section, those words are going to be listed and analysed that are
connected to all the other fields of Physics that were not discussed in the previous
section. In the timeline it is the time after around 1550, thus the words coming from
the improvement in the fields of magnetism and astronomy, and the words of new
 discoveries in electricity, dynamics, thermodynamics, quantum physics, atom physics,
and all the recent fields of physics.
Again, no available glossary or word list of new, coined physics terms was
found on the internet, thus, I selected words from each fields of physics from the
1550s. These words were selected with intention to find words that are related to new
discoveries, to describe events, objects, phenomena that were not observed before.
Word Meaning today Language of origin Comments
Latin fortis “strong” Entered English in the 13th century
an influence that can  Old Spanish forzo and went through a meaning
Force change the motion of  Old French force change in the 1660s when it got its
an object. “force, strength, current meaning
courage”
Magnetism
Greek ho Magnes
lithos “the
A body having the
Magnesian stone” From the discovery of magnetic
property of attracting
Latin magnetum materials in Thessaly, it entered
Magnet iron and producing a
“lodestone” Old todays form and meaning in the late
magnetic field
French magnete 14th century.
external to itself
“magnetite,
lodestone”
The production of Latin inductionem
magnetic properties “introduction, Entered English in the 14th century
in a magnetizable admission” Old but got its current meaning
Induction
substance when French induction (referring to electrical influence) in
placed in a magnetic “formal installation 1801.
field. of a clergyman”
Directly from Latin, in 1865 it was
From Latin ferreus
Pertaining to or already used in chemistry. (e.g.,
Ferrous “made of iron”
containing iron Ferromagnetism (was used in 1840
(ferrum “iron”)
already)
Coerce entered English in the mid-
From Latin
15th century but got its physical
coercitive (coerce
Having powers to meaning c. 1600. It was not even
Coercive “to control, restrain”
coerce used between the late 15th and mid-
+ -ive “pertaining
17th centuries.
to”)
Thermodynamics
A physical quantity
Entered English in mid-15th
that expresses From Latin
century but got its current meaning
quantitatively the temperature “a
Temperature in 1670 firstly used by Boyle. He
perceptions of tempering,
defined it as “degree of heat or
hotness and moderation”
cold”
coldness.
Thermometer A device that From Latin The French thermometer was
measures thermoscopium coined by Jean Leuréchon in the
temperature or a (Galileo’s air- 1620s. Galileo had a thermoscope
temperature gradient thermometer c. as well, but he referred to it as
1597) flusso e refiusso “flux and reflux”,
 Also from Greek
thermos “hot” +
referring to how his device worked.
metron “measure”
(Ariotti, 1974)
French
thermomètre
From
thermodynamic
The study of the Thermodynamic as an adjective
(1849) from thermo-
relations between was already in use in 1849, but
“hot, heat,
Thermodynamics heat, work, thermodynamics as a word
temperature” +
temperature, and referring to the study was used first
dynamic “pertaining
energy in 1854.
to mechanical forces,
not in equilibrium”
First used in 1909 in English.
H=U + pV , where
Coined by Dutch physicist Heike
U is the internal
Kamerlingh Onnes in the same
energy, p pressure, From Greek
year. He did not give any
and V volume. Its enthalpein “to warm
Enthalpy explanation for this. Enthalpy does
change gives the in” (en “in” +
have a relevance to heat but nothing
heat at constant thalpein “to heat”)
more could explain the word choice
pressure when there
according to meaning. (Howard,
is no other work.
2002)

A thermodynamic
quantity that From Greek
expresses the degree entropia “a turning
of disorder or toward” (en- “in” + Was coined by the German
randomness in a trope “a turning, a Rudolph Clausius in his works on
Entropy
system at the transformation” the laws of thermodynamics in
molecular level German entropie 1865.
δq “measure of the
dS= rev . disorder of a system”
T

Electrodynamics – Electromagnetism
Came about c. 1200, and got its
physics-related meaning in 1767.
A physical property Benjamin Franklin coined the term
From Latin carrus
of matter that causes in his work “Experiments and
“two-wheeled
charged matter to Observations on Electricity Made at
Charge wagon” Old
experience a force Philadelphia” where he did not
French charge “load,
when placed in an define it but used it according to the
burden”
electromagnetic field old understanding, that it is an
“electrical fire” in a form of a
liquid.
Battery A container From Latin battuere Entered English as battery in the
consisting of one or “to beat” Old 1530 but got its current use in
 French baterie
“beating, thrashing,
more cells, in which assault” French
chemical energy is batterie “The physics in 1748 from Benjamin
converted into unlawful beating of Franklin. He did not explain his
electricity and used another”  meaning choice.
as a source of power. changed from
bombardment to
“unit of artillery”
Greek ēlektron
“amber”Latin
electrum “amber”
A stable subatomic Modern Latin Was coined by Irish physicist
particle with a electricus Geroge J. Stoney in 1891. He did
Electron
charge of negative “resembling amber” not support his choice
electricity.  English electron linguistically. (Stoney, 1894)
= electric + -on (as
in ion from Greek
ion “go”)

The term ‘proton’ was coined by

British scientist Ernest Rutherford
A stable subatomic form the Greek word in 1920,
particle with a From Greek proton supposedly because hydrogen (the
Proton
charge of positive “first” nucleus of which, in its commonest
electricity. form, consists of one proton) was
hypothesized as a constituent of all
the elements. (etymonline)

Quantum physics, Atom physics

From the name of
Was coined by Paul Dirac in 1956
Boson Subatomic particle Satyendra Nath Bose
to celebrate Bose’s contribution.
+ -on suffix
Max Planck used it first in the
Minimum amount of sense of its current meaning in
Quantum a quantity which can Directly from Latin 1900. Originally it entered English
exist in the 1610s with the meaning
“sum, amount” from Latin quantum
Photon Unit of From Greek photo- Using the same analogy as proton.
electromagnetic (from phōs) “light” + It was coined by Gilbert Lewis in
radiation on (from Greek ion 1926. He does not argue for his
“go”) choice, but explains its meaning
and what he intends to express with
it: "… we are dealing here with a
 new type of atom (…) which acts
as the carrier of radiant energy (…)
I therefore take the liberty of
proposing for this hypothetical new
atom, which is not light but plays
an essential part in every process of
radiation, the name photon…”
(Lewis, 1926)
Murray Gell-Man used it for a then
Subatomic particle hypothetical particle that is the
From Greek tyros
having a fractional building block of particles like
“cheese” Old
electric charge electron and proton. He was
Quark Church Slavonic
(“smaller” than reading James Joyce’s ‘Finnegans
tvarogu “curds,
electrons, protons, Wake’ and from the line ‘Three
cottage cheese”
etc.) quarks for Muster Mark’ he got the
inspiration to use the name quark.
Entered English through Old
French form Latin in c. 1300. In
quantum physics, it is the 4th type
From Latin carmen
of quark (up-down, strange, etc.).
“song, cerse,
Sheldon L. Glashow writes in his
enchantment”  Old
Incantation, magic book ‘The Charm of Physics’: “In
Charm French charme
charm 1964, soon after quarks were
“magic charm,
invented, James Bjorken and I
magic spell
argued that there should exist a
incantation”
fourth kind of quark. We called our
conjectured” fourth quark ‘the
charmed quark’”. (Glashow, 1991)
Table 2

All the motives that were present in Table 1 are present here as well. There are a couple of
examples below from Table 2 with the categories belonging to Table 1:
 The words entered English through one mediator language or directly from Latin or
Greek
 Charm, Photon, Quantum, etc (all of them with the exception of Quark)
 The words became needed because of new discoveries
 Quark, Boson, Charge, Battery
 They are usually combined from bits of the source language (compound words,
affixes, etc)
 All of them
4. Parts of the words are relating to the thing it is describing (shape, idea, place, etc)
 Photon, Magnet, Electron

We rarely know the exact story, and reason behind the coinage of new terms in
physics. It is one lucky example in the case of quark where we get the whole story of the
naming process. It is unique in its meaning as well, since it was made from a non-existent
onomatopoeic word. As we can see, all the categories were present here as well, thus the
 process of naming new discoveries and describing them, is no different from how it was
before the completion of the English language. The list of the categories only expanded since
now there are terms of which stories we know.

5. Discussion
Taking a look at the two tables, we can see similarities in the column of ‘Comments’.
It is usually that the word came from Greek, entered Latin, and then some mediator language,
most of the times (Old) French. There were only a few occasions when – during the less
conservative times and places – new terms came around with the intention of maybe humour,
some kind of feeling. We do not know exactly, since in very few cases the naming process is
explained.
From the above-listed words, we can conclude, that people before the 15th century
aimed to refer to objects, phenomena, etc. so that they share something in common. They
either refer to the object's shape (lens), the place it was discovered (magnet), the name of the
person who discovered it (Boson), or based on similar concept (electron-proton-neutron). Not
just the people before the 15th century, but those after is as well: connected to the touchable
representation of the concept (photon), referring to the material it is usually made of (ferrous),
etc.
The way how people name concepts, objects, people, etc. are thanks to numerous
varieties that this paper does not seek to find out. However, the similarities between coining
new terms, using already existing words in another sense, and how people before the 15th
century did it is inevitably significant. Since in this paper, not all the words from physics were
discovered, it is not possible currently to quantify the relation of similarities and differences.
For this purpose, further research is needed.
 References

Ariotti, P. E. (1974). An overlooked autograph letter of Galileo on the thermometer.

Annals of Science, 31(5), 457–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/00033797400200381
Curtius, Ernst Robert. 1953. European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages. Trans.
Willard R. Trask. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Glashow, S. L. (1991). Charm of physics: Collected essays of Sheldon Glashow. Simon &
Schuster.
Gregório Jorge Gonçalves, Elias Alfredo Chichango. The Main Factors Underlying
English and Language Changes and Real-world Effects, English Language,
Literature & Culture. Volume 7, Issue 1, March 2022 , pp. 42-52. doi:
10.11648/j.ellc.20220701.17
Haselby, S. (2023, January 6). How did science come to speak only English?: Aeon
Essays. Aeon. Retrieved January 6, 2023, from https://aeon.co/essays/how-did-
science-come-to-speak-only-english
Hiscock, Andrew. “The Renaissance, 1485-1660”. English Literature in Context. Paul
Poplawski .4th ed. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press,2008. 140-181. Print.
Howard, I. K. (2002). H is for enthalpy, thanks to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Alfred W.
Porter. Journal of Chemical Education, 79(6), 697.
https://doi.org/10.1021/ed079p697
Kavtaria, M. (2016, November 11). Greek and Latin loan words in English language
(tendencies of evolution. Academia.edu. Retrieved January 6, 2023, from
https://www.academia.edu/29804035/GREEK_AND_LATIN_LOAN_WORDS_I
N_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_TENDENCIES_OF_EVOLUTION
Lewis, Gilbert N. The conservation of photons Nature 118, 1926. P. 874–875;
Mitchell, T. (2022, April 1). On the intersection of science and religion. Pew Research
Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved January 6, 2023, from
https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2020/08/26/on-the-intersection-of-science-
and-religion/
Rabin, Sheila (2008). Nicolaus Copernicus. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Robinson, Francis, ed. (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 228–229.
Singham, M. (2007). The Copernican myths. Physics Today, 60(12), 48–52.
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2825071
Stoney, G. J. (1894). XLIX. of the “electron,” or atom of electricity. The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 38(233),
418–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786449408620653
Waswo, Richard. Language and Meaning in the Renaissance, Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1987. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400858545
Wood, B. (2019). Latinus scientificus: The history and culture of Scientific Latin. Journal
of Big History, 3(2), 25–38. https://doi.org/10.22339/jbh.v3i2.3230