Unit 6: Written communication. Different types of written texts.

Structure and formal elements. Rules for written texts.

Routines and formulas

Index
1. Written communication
1.1. General points
1.2. Differences between written and spoken language
1.3. Classroom considerations

2. Different types of written texts

2.1. Classification according to the topic
2.2. Classification according to the situation
2.3. Classification according to the purpose

3. Structure and formal elements

3.1. Graphical resources
3.2. Rhetorical resources

4. Rules for written texts

4.1. Textuality
4.2. Macrorules
4.3. Clear and plain writing

5. Routines and formulas

5.1. Letters
5.2. Academic writing
5.3. Legal writing
5.4. Newspaper language and journalese
5.5. New technologies

6. Relation to the teaching practice

7. Conclusions
 8. References

Introduction
Consider the well-known joke:

A. My dog has no nose

B. How does he smell?
A. Terrible!

This joke shows how written language can be used to entertain and to tease, in
addition to other perhaps more conventional informative purposes. Written
communication is all around us in our everyday lives, from the newspaper we read
when we have breakfast to the “stop” sign at the end of the street.

What is more, written communication is intimately linked with the idea of text, which a
set of ideas and concepts woven together with a myriad of stitches forming the links
between them. In sort, the text is a vital element to our communication which is as
indispensable to us as the clothes we wear.

This unit will start by introducing the general background to written communication. It
will then examine the formal and structural elements of texts. After this, it will focus
on different rules for writing texts, before finishing by looking at some specific
routines and formulas used in everyday writing. Eventually, there is the relation of the
topic with the teaching practice and the conclusions.
 1. Written communication

1.1. General points

Written communication involves the related process of writing and reading. Writing is
a complex process involving encoding a message into a series of graphic symbols
according to the conventions of language to form a text. This text can be decoded by
a reader. However, unlike oral communication, the reader is usually not present in
the act of communication. It is therefore important for the message to be encoded in
such a way that the potential reader can decode it without any help from the writer. In
addition, writing remains in time, and can be re-read and re-consulted.

What is more, the fact that the interlocutor is not present to show how the well the
communication is being conveyed, and the impossibility of using extralinguistic
elements in the text, means that is the language itself which carries the weight of
transmitting the message. So, the writer can use some paralinguistic elements, as for
example, punctuation, underlining, capitalization, etc.

It is evident that writing is a very complex activity, and one which needs to be learned
even in the native language. All children learn to speak naturally, but not all of them
learn to write fluently and well.

1.2. Differences between written and spoken language

Perhaps the main difference between written language and the majority of spoken
language is the lack of feedback caused by the fact that the reader is not present.
As a result, the writer must take care to express the message as clearly as possible.

Davies and Widdowson have identified the following functions in written texts:

1. The Modal function, which shows the attitude of the writer to his message.
This is often achieved through the use of modal verbs.
2. The Metalinguistic function, which shows what the writer intends his/her
terms to mean.
3. The Contact function, which has the purpose of maintaining contact and
communication with the reader by keeping the channel open.

Apart from that, there are obvious formal differences between written and spoken
language. In brief, the grammar of written language tends to be more complex, so
there is more pre-modification, subordination and passives. Also, sentences tend to
be longer, and written language is the final draft to spoken language’s first draft.
Similarly, the vocabulary in written language is more carefully selected and precise.

1.3. Classroom considerations

The role played in contemporary societies by email and text messaging shows the
importance that written communication has. For this reason, students should be
aware of the target readier for whom they are writing, in order to give a sense of
realism to the task. Indeed, many classroom activities are based on an information
gap in which the students must produce written material to fill another student’s gap.

The previous weight of correctness has been replaced by. Appropriateness; minor
non-impeding errors are not considered as important as the ability to transmit the
message successfully and in an appropriate manner. Hence, when assessing, the
teacher’s first priority must be to give credit for the student’s efforts at
communication.

2. Different types of written texts

There are various possible ways of classifying texts, depending on the criteria used.
Nevertheless, the different functions of language may also be included:

Text type Examples

Conative function: directive text A waring sing
Representative function: assertive texts Factual report
Phatic function: expressive texts Congratulations card
Emotive function: commissive texts A promise
Poetic function: literary texts Poems

2.1. Classification according to topic

 Narrative texts
Narrative texts deal with the representation of factual or conceptual events in time.
Their purpose may be to entertain, and to hold the interest of the reader. However,
they can also have the objective of teaching and informing.

Their basic characteristic is that of a sequence of events, often using dynamic verbs
and sequential adverbials (then, next, etc.) to provide the structure of the narrative.
Typical forms of narrative texts are: fairy stories, mysteries to personal experiences
recounted in an email, etc. Their typical structure will involve an initial setting, a
complication and a resolution (the traditional happy ending).
  Descriptive texts
Descriptive texts are concerned with perception of time and space, and are often
intimately linked to narrative texts. They can range from simple sentences to a
complex description. Often, these texts will set the scene for a narrative passage.

Typically, descriptive language relies on adjectives and adverbs, often with

comparisons, similes and metaphors. Sensory terms are also common, which help to
create images and pictures in the minds of the reader. The aim of the writer should
be to transport the reader into the scene. Descriptive texts are found primarily in
literary texts: poems, novels, etc.

 Directive texts
The aim of directive texts is to tell the reader what to do. The clearest examples are
signs, for example, road signs. Other examples can be found in stage directions,
instructions in an operating manual and recipes. Therefore, a directive text can
explain how something works, instruct how to carry out a particular activity or it may
deal with human behaviour.

The language of directive texts tends to be clear and to the point. The second person
is commonly used, combined with verbs in imperative voice.

 Expository texts
The purpose of expository texts is to characterise (often abstract) phenomena. They
have the aim of informing, describing, persuading and explaining. Some examples
are: essays, newspaper articles, etc.

Common features of expository texts can be found in the techniques they use to
explain the information. For instance: sequencing of ideas, comparison and contrast,
enumeration and exemplification. Expository texts will usually be primarily objective.

 Argumentative texts
The purpose of an argumentative text is to influence the reader to some degree, by
stating a position and then attempt to justify it. Good examples would be letters of
complaint, discursive essays, etc.

The texts will usually start with a statement of a position, which is then supported by
evidence and arguments. The text will end with a conclusion, summarising up the
arguments. Furthermore, arguments may be present both for and against a point,
with the conclusion coming down on one side or the other.
Language used in argumentative texts is often the present tense, although past and
future tenses will be used to give evidence, examples or predictions. The text should
be well structured and the use of linkers and conjunctions is common. Repetition and
rhetorical questions are also used.

2.2. Classification according to situation

If we consider the situation, texts can be classified as follows:

 Literary texts

This classification covers all texts where a main purpose of the texts is aesthetic, and
the text seeks to portray a reality distinct from that of the real world. They include
poetry, drama and prose fiction, although it can be extended to autobiographies.
What is more, sometimes in literary texts the relationship between the medium and
the content is not always clear, and the formal features of the text must be
understood in order to appreciate it fully.

 Scientific texts

These texts are concerned with presenting empirical facts. Thus, they show
important elements of intertextuality and the writer shows how the text attempts to fill
a gap in the current body of knowledge about its specific subject.

Scientific texts are normally clearly structured, with general opening comments on
the current ate of research in the field, a statement of hypothesis, a description of an
experiment, analysis of the data and a conclusion. In addition, the language used is
disinterested and objective, trying to present the truth without attempting to persuade
the reader. It may also use technical and highly specialised vocabulary, and
nowadays it is common to find graphical elements (graphs, charts, etc.).

 Didactic texts

Didactic texts have the purpose of providing established knowledge to non-

specialized readers, rather than extending that knowledge. They can be found in
school textbooks, and they are primarily informative and objective.

2.3. Classification according to purpose

Texts can be classified in four types considering their purpose: First, persuasive
texts are related to directive texts, and a typical example is an advertisement, where
the clear intention is to influence the reader into changing their behaviour. Second,
informative texts are primarily expository, so they give information about a particular
issue: newspaper report. Third, an instructive text is similar to a directive text in that
it gives instructions on how to do something: a recipe. The final category,
descriptive texts, is the same as described above.

3. Structure and formal elements

The formal elements of written language rely on linguistic elements, which can be
broadly classified in two different categories:

3.1. Graphological resources

The graphological resources cover primarily orthography and punctuation but also
include other devices such as: headings and subtitles, which allow the writer to
introduce sections and paragraphs; footnotes that can be used to give explanations
of clarifications; and tables and illustrations, which serve to highlight key
information in a more visual form. All these devices can be used by a writer in a text.

 Orthography and spelling

According to Lederer, in English is almost impossible to make a logical connection

between a sound and a graphical representation. As a result, many native speakers
have difficulties spelling correctly. However, it is important for students to be taught
correct spelling, and they should be encouraged to consult dictionaries when
necessary. Slightly incorrect spelling may not impede the transmission of the
message, but the effectiveness of communication will be diminished.

 Punctuation and layout

The punctuation and layout of the text are important in that they signal to the reader
the boundaries of the discourse within the text. The use of punctuation responds to a
set of conventions. For example, readers expect sentences to begin with capital
letters and to end with a full stop, question marks should signal question, etc.

These conventions must be taught to students, as in many cases poor punctuation

can render a text difficult to understand, as it can lead to ambiguities.

3.2. Rhetorical resources

The rhetorical resources of a text are the devices which the writer uses to bind the
text together. It is central to the creation of coherent and cohesive readable texts that
students know the following types of resources:
  Logical devices

They are words or phrases that indicate the logical relationship between ideas and
sentences. Some examples are:

1. Addition: and, besides, furthermore, etc.

2. Contrast: but, however, whereas, etc.
3. Result: so, therefore, thus, etc.
4. Time: before, after, meanwhile, etc.
5. Exemplification: for example, for instance, etc.
6. Summary: in short, to sum up, in conclusion, etc.

 Grammatical devices

These devices refer to the use of grammatical forms which give cohesion to the text,
notably through the anaphoric and cataphoric use of pro-forms and deictic devices.

 Lexical devices

It is to be expected that a text will be lexically cohesive. A text dealing with a given
subject matter will necessary contain words related to that semantic field. Ideas are
often repeated using synonyms or explanations, often in oppositions.

4. Rules for written texts

4.1. Textuality
Textuality refers to the nature in which the text interacts with the reader and the
processes the reader must use to extract the meaning or the message from the text.
To do this, Beaugrande refer to the seven standards of textuality:

1. Cohesion: the way a text is grammatically and lexically linked.

2. Coherence: the way the ideas and concepts in a text are linked.
3. Intentionality: the writer’s intention to produce a coherent and cohesive text.
4. Acceptability: the reader’s response to a text.
5. Informativity: the relation between what is known and unknown, or expected
or unexpected in the content of a text.
6. Situationally: the way in which a text relates to the situation or the context in
which it is placed.
 7. Intertextuality: the fact that a reader’s response to a text will almost always
be coloured by prior experience of other texts.

4.2. Macrorules
Macrorules serve to delate or reduce information, in a sense of make it more
manageable to the reader. Dijk (1978) presented four principal Macrorules:

1. Deletion: non-important or non-essential information should be deleted.

2. Selection: this rule deals with the selection of propositions which are
necessary for the interpterion of another proposition. For instance:
1. Ingrid does not want to study any degree.
2. She wants to be an influencer.

In this instance, the first proposition is necessary to understand that “she”

refers to Ingrid.

3. Generalisation: it consists of grouping concepts together in a “superconcept”

which covers the general meaning of the group of propositions:
One woman was taking pictures. Another was editing the pictures.
These two propositions can be generalised into one: The women were
preparing an Instagram post.
4. Construction: it is the substitution of information contained in various
propositions which have an inherent semantic relationship. The propositions:
He prepared his clothes. He went to the countryside. He sat down and
forced a laugh.

Could be substituted by: He took a candid picture.

4.3. Clear and plain writing

It is believed that writing and written style should be kept as clear as plain as possible
to facilitate communication and comprehensibility. The use of jargon is common in
writing, especially in official and government documents. However, there is a growing
movement to simplify texts, and KISS rule gives the tips and advice to do so:

1. Write short sentences.

2. Avoid the use of jargon or very-specific terms unless absolutely necessary.
3. Use the active voice rather than the passive wherever possible.
 5. Routines and formulas
Routines and formulas are fixed rules which apply to structures that are used in
certain contexts by conventions. Some examples are:

5.1. Letters
Letters, both formal an informal, typically reflect a series of generally accepted
formulas. For instance, the layout of a formal letter follows a routine, with the
recipient’s address and the sender’s address started at the top of the page.

5.2. Academic writing

Academic writing covers articles, essays, theses, etc, which conform to various
established conventions. As every British schoolchild knows. An essay has a
beginning, a middle and an end.

5.3. Legal writing

Legal documents are characterised by the use of conservative language, as it sets a
legal precedent. Therefore, it must be precise. Legal writing is also characterised by
the use of archaic and Latin terms (e.g. habeas corpus). Documents such as
contracts and wills follow strict wordings and formats.

5.4. Newspaper language and journalese

Newspapers contain a variety of types of writing, such as articles, reports, etc., each
with its own specific formats and conventions. Similarly, the term journalese refers to
the slightly exaggerated style of writing often used by journalists, especially in the
tabloid press, to make their writing seem more exciting; as such, it often uses
hyperbole, onomatopoeic language, alliteration, etc.

5.5. New technologies

The formulas used in the written English used in new communication technologies
are changing so fast that it is almost impossible to keep up with them. A clear
example is the type of language used when sending text messages via mobile
phones, which is characterised by using abbreviated forms that can be written
without the need for excessive time of space. A good example of these abbreviations
would be “asap” meaning “as soon as possible”.
6. Relation to the teaching practice

7. Conclusion

8. References