TEXT TYPES AND LANGUAGE FUNCTION

By
Nurul Chafidzoh, Rahmanur Hidayah, Bilqis Sholikha, Febby Ammelenia Fajar
4th Group / TBI-4C

TEXT TYPE

A. Definition of Text Type

Text be defined as a certain communicative action o f a complex
structure that functions in a specific semantic space and is to fulfill specific
functions, for instance: informative, esthetic, pragmatic function, etc
(Dambska in Karolina, 2011).
According to (Juan, 1994) text types are socially effective, efficient,
and appropriate moods into which the linguistic material available in the
system of a language is recast (Rital, 2020). Remaks that text types developed
as patterns of messages for certain communicative situations. When writing a
specific message, a person first of all thinks about the text type that would be
appropriate for the given occasion as well as for the content of the message,
and only then formulates the message itself. Repetitions of messages in certain
circumstances have created particular expectations and conventions of what is
appropriate for the given occasion. However, the notion of a text type is more
complex than that. Whereas the majority of people associate a text type with a
certain content, for instance film review, police report, recipe, it frequently
happens that the same content may permit a variety of text types
Therefore Goretti, defined text types as a conceptual framework which
enables us to classify texts in terms of communicative intentions serving an
overall rhetorical purpose(Goretti, 2016).
According to the researcher define that text types is the direction to get
things done through language it means the direction to get exchange
information and learn and communicate socially.

B. Why Teach Text Type?

Teaching text types is different from assigning text types. If studentsare to

use text types yo write for different purposes and audience, they need to
understand how each text type work. The structures, features and uses for each

1
text type needsto be modeled via mentor text and teacher talk-alouds. Students
will need to practice through guided writing task,collaborative task and then
independently with frequent feedback from peers and teacher

In addition, writing is identified as an important tool for thinking. Writing

stimulates ideas and helps the author make mental connections that would not
have otherwise occurred to them. In order for students to take full advantage of
these various purposes, they must learn various text types.

C. Kind of text types :

1. Narrative text to entertain through telling a story

2. Recount text to relate past experiences or events, either real or imagined
3. Procedure text to instruct the reader how to make or do something
4. Descriptive text to help the reader create a picture of scenes, events,
people, etc
5. Discussion text to explore more than one side of an issue/To inform and
persuade
6. Explanation text to show how things work and why things happen
7. Argumentative text to persuade the reader to agree with the writer’s
position/opinion
8. Report text to present a record of information after careful observation and
analysis

D. Advantages of text types:

1. It help you understand the purpose of the text: The purpose of an

advertisement, for example is to persuade the reader to buy or do
something. The purpose of e-mail to a friend is often to inform.

2. The purpose of a research article is examine an issues fully and to argue a

particular point with the support of evidence. It helps you locate
information you are searching for more easily because you will be familiar
with how different texts are structured
3. It helps you develop a shared understanding about how to communicate
effectively in different situation.

2
E. Main Characteristic of Text Types

The following sections will include the main characteristics of each text
types respectively informative, expressive and operative By Reiss.

1. Informative (Content-Focused) Text Types

In Reiss‟ text typology, informative (content-focused) texts refer to

texts transferring news, information and knowledge. The purpose of these
kinds of text is to „inform‟. According to Reiss, an informative text is
concerned with content since it focuses on the effective communication and
accuracy of the information. These kind of texts are assessed in terms of their
characteristics of grammar, style and semantic. Reports, directions of use,
operating instructions, official documents, treaties, technical texts, course
books and so on are clearly the examples of content-focused text type. When
the features of informative text types are considered, it is clearly seen that they
are more or less anonymous to some extent and they are designated to provide
information. According to Valdeon, informative texts can be characterized by
the existence of specific information about topics, objects, issues and so on.
Specialized information refers to a specific topic requiring a limited use of
specific lexis. However, this use does not mean that the average text-consumer
does not comprehend the issue. The other feature of informative texts is their
temporary validity. It can vary from text to text. For instance, while
information changes in a few hours in news texts, the change can take years in
a tourist brochure. Informative texts tend to interact with the readers or
listeners. This is the case with instructions. These instructions can be rules
how to play a game, how to register for a position or how to reach a museum
etc. Translation method can be determined if the given text is identified as an
informative text. The translation of this text type deals with the translation of
information rather than with the translation of texts. Content-focused texts
require invariance in transfer of their content. The translator needs to ascertain
whether the text‟s content and information is completely represented in the TL
or not. Therefore, content of the translation needs to be compatible with the
use of the TL. Similarly, the critic also needs to be certain whether the
information and content are completely reflected in the target text or not.

3
2. Expressive (Form-Focused) Text Types

Firstly, prior to discussing the expressive text type, the concept of form
will be clarified in order to understand the form-focused texts. Generally, the
“form” is concerned with how an author expresses himself. Expressive texts
have been designated as “creative composition”. The author of an expressive
text uses the aesthetic dimension of the language. Reiss‟ text typology puts the
expressive texts in a different place since the expressive texts are not only
limited specific words with informative function; they consist of all types of
language dimensions and functions. In these texts, the author uses elements for
a specific purpose. This purpose is to provide aesthetic effects. The author can
create these effects consciously or unconsciously. These effects can have an
influence both over the subject matter and context. The influence created by
special artistic expressions may be produced in the TL only by some
analogous form of expression.

“Therefore, the expressive function of language, which is primary in

form focused texts, must find an analogous form in the translation to create a
corresponding impression, so that the translation can become a true
equivalen.”

In other words, the main requirement is to accomplish a similar form

and effect. In some cases, new forms can be created for achieving these kinds
of effect and form. In these texts, translator will not adhere to the forms of SL,
on the contrary; s/he will generate an analogous form in the TL by inspiring
the source text and language. For this reason, Reiss characterizes form-focused
texts as source language oriented texts. The fictions, biographies, personal
diaries, personal correspondences, short stories, anecdotes and so on can be
given as examples of the expressive (form-focused) texts. All texts belonging
to this type express rather than state. In short, texts called literary works are
considered as expressive texts. Expressive texts have shared universal
characteristics despite the fact that they are different in form and content. They
are as follows:

1) Special Language: An expressive text which is a literary work either prose

or verse, has its own special language which varies apparently different from

4
the everyday use. This special language can create emotional, mental and
imaginary situations which the ordinary language fails to success by using
words, sentence patterns and creating syntactic structures in a different way.

2) Expressive Function: It is obvious that any author or poet is affected by

his/her own experiences and surroundings. These surroundings can play an
important role in the author‟s attitudes, perspectives and conceptions.
Therefore, while the author or poet is producing thoughts, his/her method to
achieve this process is influenced by these elements. There can be a complex
process happening in the author‟s mind and heart. The author gathers all these
elements by composing an „expressive function‟ which gives the opportunity
to arrange his/her ideas.

3) Suggestive power: It can occur when we read an expressive text and admire
it. This is due to our understanding of the text by virtue of its suggestive
power. This power includes from unique arrangements of the words to internal
rhythms and so on. These elements comprise the major part of the text‟s
message.

4) Form: The main concern is to encourage its readers emotionally or

intellectually in expressive texts. This encouragement can be produced with
the style. The author can use stylistic ways to create his own literary work.

Translating an expressive text (mostly literary works) requires a

creative process. Unlike the other text types such as informative texts which
can have a standard language, expressive texts can have a poetic language
which has a feature of foregrounding. The main task for translating expressive
texts is to produce the aesthetic and rhetorical values. Moreover, the form
interlinks with the content in expressive texts. On the other hand, the content
can be detachable from the form in non-expressive texts. Consequently,
translating an expressive text is complicated since it requires attention to many
factors. As the translation is an artistic act for expressive text, there is no
definite translation. Transferring the information of the content is not the only
purpose of translating an expressive text, creating an equivalent aesthetic
effect is the other and important purpose. Translator who engages with

5
expressive texts not only needs to know two languages but also relevant
knowledge (Maloku-Morina in Teczan, 2015). In his article, Hariyanto states:

Translating literary works is, perhaps, always more difficult than

translating other types of text because literary works have specific values
called the aesthetic and expressive values. The aesthetic function of the work
shall emphasize the beauty of the words (diction), figurative language,
metaphors, etc. While the expressive functions shall put forwards the writer's
thought (or process of thought), emotion, etc. and the translator should try, at
his best, to transfer these specific values into the target language (TL). Thus,
the critic can assess the translation whether the translator has achieved in
bringing the reader of an expressive text to the original text or not.

3. Operative (Appeal-Focused) Text Types

Operative text type is the third text type in Reiss‟ text typology. In this
text type, the aim is to transmit contents in a persuasive manner and to
encourage the text‟s receiver to react as the same with text‟s sender. As the
operative text presents its information with a particular purpose, it involves
non-linguistic result (Reiss, 2000: 38). Therefore, the linguistic form of any
information in operative text has secondary position. To achieve the non-
linguistic purpose is more important. The operative text type is encoded at the
level of content and persuasion. These kinds of texts provoke a particular
reaction in the readers. In order to achieve this reaction, the rhetorical function
of the language is used. All the texts using the appeal function of the language
are included in this text type. The advertisements, sermons, propaganda texts,
electoral speeches and so on are examples of appeal-focused text type. The
essential point in this text type is to provide the same effect in the TL reader.
This means that the translator can depart from the source text‟s form and
content. Preserving the appeal function of the text can be considered as fidelity
in operative text type. As stated before, the primary function of operative texts
is to produce a predicted response in the recipient of the message. For
instance, a political text‟s aim is to manipulate the hearer for voting.
According to Reiss, such texts can be conceived as stimuli to action or
reaction on the part of the reader. Furthermore, operative texts can be

6
multifunctional. Publicist and political texts rely on a purposeful arrangement
of information structure as well as on the application of rhetorical strategies
and expressive means of language for manipulating the receiver of the
message . Reiss states that for a text to be assigned to the appeal-focused text
type it should meet Ludwig Rohner‟s qualifications. These are
tendentiousness, extra-literary movement, and concentration on a particular
purpose (Reiss, 2000: 41). During the process of translating operative texts,
the translator needs to consider these qualifications and to preserve the appeal
inherent in the text. Reiss gives such example for translating an operative text:

A commercial advertisement is intended to lead the hearer or reader to

purchasing the product advertised. Not every language group, however, will
have the same response to the same kind of advertisement. While in Germany
orange juice may be advertised effectively with the slogan, “the concentrated
energy of the southern sun”, a literal translation of this slogan would hardly be
as compelling in more southerly countries. Such a translation would be
meaningless for achieving the effect intended.

In religious texts translating, there can be also similar problems. In

some cases, it can be necessary to adapt the specific images to strength the
faith of believers. For instance, translating the Biblical phrase “Lamb of God”
as “Seal of God” into an Eskimo language due to the fact that lambs are
unknown for their culture is a substitution in order to reach the closest
meaning. This strategy refers to Nida‟s dynamic equivalence. In summary, the
critic of an operative text translation needs to examine whether the translator
considers the non-linguistic and non-literary purposes of the text and the
translated work conveys the same appeal as the author intended in the original
text.

Furthermore, in addition to these three text types, Reiss adds a fourth

type of text to her text typology called as audio-medial texts. Within the scope
of this thesis, the audiomedial texts will be excluded from the analysis as
audio-medial texts are analyzed within the scope of audio-visual translation
which becomes a different sub-discipline of the translation studies. (Tezcan,
2015)

7
F. Specific Translation Approaches Considering Text Types

Lastly, Reiss offers specific translation approaches considering text types.

They can be remarked as such:

(1) The TT of an informative text should transmit the full referential or

conceptual content of the ST. The translation should be in „plain prose‟,
without redundancy and with the use of explicitation when required.

(2) The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form
of the ST. The translation should use „identifying‟ method, with the translator
adopting the standpoint of the ST author.

(3) The TT of an operative text should produce the desired response in the TT
receiver. The translation should employ the „adaptive‟ method, creating an
equivalent effect among TT readers.

(4) Audio-medial texts require what Reiss calls the „supplementary‟ method,
supplementing written words with visual images and music (Munday, 2016)

G. Example of Translation Product (Bilingual Text)

In this chapter, there are some example about translation product that is
bilingual text of text types. Bilingual text which comprises a text of the first
language and a corresponding text of the Second language which is not
necessarily aligned Sentence by Sentence.[ CITATION Kaj96 \l 1033 ] . And Argue
by Utsuro, “The process of bilingual text match in 9 consists of two major
steps: sentence alignment and structural matching of bilingual sentences. In
those two steps, we use word correspondence information, which is available
in hand-written bilingual dictionar-ies, or not included in bilingual dictionaries
but esti-mated with statistical techniques”. Kay and Roscheisen proposed a
relaxation method to iteratively align bilingual texts using the word cor-
respondences acquired during the alignment pro-cess. (Kay and Roscheisen in
Haruno and Yamazaki 1993).

8
LANGUAGE FUNCTION

A. Definition of Language Function

Language is used to encourage knowing through the senses, to prompt

knowing that is felt and that has texture. [ CITATION Jen08 \l 1033 ].There have been
many attempts to classify the functions of language. Among the most influential
formulations are those of Bihler, Jacobson and Halliday. [ CITATION Mon01 \l
1033 ]. Bihler's functional theory of language as adapted by Jacobson as the one
that is most usefully applied to translating. According to Bihler, the four main
functions of language are the expressive, the informative - he called it
'representation' - the vocative ('appeal'), and the poetic functions: these are the
main purposes of using language. Language is the words, their pronunciation, and
the methods of combining them used and understood by a community (Meriam-
Webster Dictionary, 2020). According to Oxford Learners Dictionary (2020)
defined that function is a special activity or purpose of a person or thing.
According to Bihler, the four main functions of language are the expressive, the
informative - he called it 'representation' - the vocative ('appeal'), and the poetic
functions: these are the main purposes of using language.
1. Language Functions by Bihler
According to Bihler, the four main functions of language are the
expressive, the informative - he called it 'representation' - the vocative ('appeal'),
and the poetic functions: these are the main purposes of using language.
a. The Expressive Function

The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the
writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his
feelings irrespective of any response.[ CITATION Pet88 \l 1033 ] For the purposes
of translation, I think the characteristic 'expressive' text-types are:

(1). Serious imaginative literature. Of the four principal types - lyrical poetry,
short stories, novels, plays - lyrical poetry is the most intimate expression,
while plays are more evidently addressed to a large audience, which, in the
translation, is entitled to some assistance with cultural expressions.
(2) Authoritative statements. These are texts of any nature which derive their
authority from the high status or the reliability and linguistic competence of
their authors. Such texts have the personal 'stamp' of their authors, although
they are denotative, not connotative. Typical authoritative statements are
political speeches, documents etc., by ministers or party leaders; statutes and

9
 legal documents; scientific, philosophical and 'academic' works written by
acknowledged authorities.
(3) Autobiography, essays, personal correspondence. These are expressive
when they are personal effusions, when the readers are a remote background.

b. The Informative Function

The core of the informative function of language is external situation,

the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or
theories. For the purposes of translation, typical 'informative' texts are
concerned with any topic of knowledge, but texts about literary subjects, as
they often express value-judgments, are apt to lean towards 'expressiveness'.
The format of an informative text is often standard: a textbook, a technical
report, an article in a newspaper or a periodical, a scientific paper, a thesis,
minutes or agenda of a meeting. One normally assumes a modern, non-
regional, non-class, non-idiolectal style, with perhaps four points on a scale of
language varieties:

(1) a formal, non-emotive, technical style for academic papers, characterised

in English by passives, present and perfect tenses, literal language, latinised
vocabulary, jargon, multi-noun compounds with 'empty' verbs, no metaphors.

(2) a neutral or informal style with denned technical terms for textbooks
characterised by first person plurals, present tenses, dynamic active verbs, and
basic conceptual metaphors.

(3) an informal, warm style for popular science or art books (e.g., coffee-table
books), characterised by simple grammatical structures, a wide range of
vocabulary to accommodate definitions and numerous illustrations, and stock
metaphors and a simple vocabulary.

(4) a familiar, racy, non-technical style for popular journalism, characterised

by surprising metaphors, short sentences, Americanese, unconventional
punctuation, adjectives before proper names and colloquialisms. (Note how
metaphors can be a yardstick for the formality of a text.) In my experience,
English is likely to have a greater variety and distinctveness in these styles,
because it is lexically the product of several language groups (Saxon, Norse,
10
 French, Classical), and has been in intimate contact with a wide variety of
other languages; being 'carried' over most of the world, it has become the main
carrier for technology and has had little authoritative pressure exercised on its
growth, apart from a short period in the eighteenth century. However, note two
points: 'informative' texts constitute the vast majority of the staff translator's
work in international organisations, multi-nationals, private companies and
translation agencies. Secondly, a high proportion of such texts are poorly
written and sometimes inaccurate, and it is usually the translator's job to
'correct' their facts and their style (see Chapter 18). Thus, in spite of the hoary
adages ('translation is impossible', etc.), the majority of translations nowadays
are better than their originals - or at least ought to be so.

c.The Vocative Function

The core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the

addressee. the term 'vocative' in the sense of'calling upon' the readership to
act, think or feel, in fact to 'react' in the way intended by the text (the vocative
is the case used for addressing your reader in some inflected languages). This
function of language has been given many other names, including 'conative'
(denoting effort), 'instrumental', 'operative' and 'pragmatic' (in the sense of
used to produce a certain effect on the readership). Note that nowadays
vocative texts are more often addressed to a readership than a reader. For the
purposes of translation, I take notices, instructions, publicity, propaganda,
persuasive writing (requests, cases, theses) and possibly popular fiction, whose
purpose is to sell the book/entertain the reader, as the typical 'vocative' text.
The first factor in all vocative texts is the relationship between the writer and
the readership, which is realised in various types of socially or personally
determined grammatical relations or forms of address: T (tu, du) and V (vous,
Sie, usted) and other variant forms; infinitives, imperatives, subjunctives,
indicatives, impersonal, passives; first and/or family names, titles, hypocoristic
names; tags, such as 'please', all play their part in determining asymmetrical or
symmetrical relationships, relationships of power or equality, csommand,
request or persuasion. The second factor is that these texts must be written in a
language that is immediately comprehensible to the readership. Thus for
translation, the linguistic and cultural level of the SL text has to be reviewed

11
 before it is given a pragmatic impact. Crudely, Gardez-vous d'une blessure
narcissique, 'Take pride in your appearance'. Vocative texts tend to be
characterized by five textual elements: concreteness, evocation,
intensification, tone, and epiphany. [ CITATION Jen08 \l 1033 ]

a) Concreteness

Concreteness refers to the use of specific and particular description that

place a phenomenon concretely in the lifeworld, and helps readers identify
closely with what they are reading.

b) Evocativeness
Evocativeness involves using words to evoke and vividly reveal the
phenomenon.
c) Intensifying
Intensifying the text involves maximizing the full poetic value of
words by choosing words that kindle sensory knowing, by thoughtfully
attending to the arrangement of words, and by developing and using
metaphor.
d) Tone
Tone refers to the way in which readers are addressed.
e) Epiphany
Means creating a text that leaves readers feeling changed by what they
read.

d. The Poetics Function

The poetics function which is orientation toward “message” and “the

focus on the message for its own sake”. This function includes more than
poetry, linguistics cannot limit itself just to the field of poetry. When we say
“John and Margery” instead of “Margery and John” or when we say “Horrible
Harry” instead of “Terrible Harry, dreadful Harry” which have same meaning,
we use the poetic function of language. In utterances where the poetic function
is dominant (e.g. in literary texts), the language tends to be more ‘opaque’ than
conventional prose in emphasizing the signifier and medium (and their
materiality), or the form, style, or code at least as much as any signified,

12
 content, message, or referential meaning. Such as texts foreground the act and
form of expression and undermine any sense of a ‘natural’ of transparent
connection between a signifier and a referent.

Newmark’s. Examples of language function [ CITATION Tet16 \l 1033 ]

 Expressive function, For examples; poetry, short stories, novels, and plays.
 Informative function, For examples; textbook, a technical report, an article
in newspaper, and a thesis.
 Vocative function, For examples; instructions, publicity, and propaganda.
 Poetics function, For example; literary texts.

Few texts are purely expressive, informative or vocative: most include

all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three. However, strictly, the
expressive function has no place in a vocative or informative text - it is there o
nly unconsciously, as 'underlife'. Most informative texts will either have a
vocative thread running through them (it is essential that the translator pick
this up), or the vocative function is restricted to a separate section of
recommendation, opinion, or value-judgment; a text can hardly be purely
informative, i.e. objective. An expressive text will usually carry information;
the degree of its vocative component will vary and is a matter of argument
among critics and translators, depending partly, at least, on its proportion of
'universal' and 'cultural' components. The epithets 'expressive', 'informative'
and 'vocative' are used only to show the emphasis or 'thrust' (Schwerpunki) of
a text.

2. Language Function by Jacobson

According to Jacobson, there are four functions of language that is the

aesthetic, the phatic, the metalingual, and the conative.

a. The Aesthetic Function

This function doesn’t have any particular purpose. Here words and
sentences are considered as linguistic artifacts. This function serves neither as
a request nor as a message. The aesthetic function helps us use words as a tool
of a poetic art, and as certain signs. Here the beauty of chosen words and
phrases is more important than usefulness of this information. For the sake of

13
 such a function, we use different adjectives, such as “gorgeous”, “elegant”,
“stunning”, and so on. Who studied this function of language more than
anyone else, the aesthetic function depends not only on structure, but on
cultural norms as well. He also gives an example of such influence, comparing
poems of Karel Macha, and diaries, as examples of aesthetic functions applied
by different generations.
This is language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual
or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm ,balance
and contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. The sound-
effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhyme, metre,
intonation, stress-some of these play a part in most types of texts: in poetry,
non sense and children's verse and some types of publicity (jingles, TV
commercials) they are essential. In many cases it is not possible to 'translate
'sound-effects unless one transfers the relevant language units: compensation
of some kind is usually possible. In translating expressive texts-inparticular,
poetry-there is often a conflict between the expressive and the aesthetic
function ('truth ' and 'beauty') –the poles of ugly literal translation and
beautiful free translation.

b. The Phatic Function

Second, the phatic function of language is used for maintaining
friendly contact with the addressee rather than for imparting foreign
information. The only purpose of such a function is to maintain social
relationships, and to begin, or continue the conversation. A well-known
example from British culture is a small talk about the weather. Such a kind of
talk doesn’t provide us with any necessary information. It even doesn’t
express our feelings, but it helps us to interact with people. Every time we
meet somebody on the street, we can talk about the weather, or work, or
children, it doesn’t matter. The real reason for such a talk is not our interest,
but simply our desire to talk. Of course, such conversations may also contain
some interesting information, but it’s not necessary.
The phatic function is when language is used for the sake of
conversation or interaction. For example, greetings such as "hello" and chit-
chat about the weather. Apart from tone of voice, it usually occurs in the form
14
 of standard phrases, or 'phaticisms', e.g. in spoken language, therefore, in
dialogue, 'How are you?', 'You know', 'Are you well?', 'Have a good week-
end', 'See you tomorrow', 'Lovely to see you', 'Did you have a good
Christmas?' and, in English, 'Nasty weather we're having', 'What an awful day',
'Isn't it hot today?' (See New mark, 1981.)

c. The Metalingual Function

Third, the metalingual function of language indicates a language's
ability to explain, name, and criticise its own features. This refers to the self-
referential use of language. For example, in the sentence "'snow' has four
letters," language is being used to talk about itself—that is, this is a
metalingual function—as opposed to "snow is white" in which we are actually
talking about snow.
When these are more or less universal (e.g. 'sentence', 'grammar', 'verb'
,etc.) –though they may notyet exist in languages which are only spoken or
have had little contact with others-there is no translation problem. However, if
these items are language-specific, e.g. 'supine', 'ablative', 'illative', 'optative',
they have to be translated in accordance with the various relevant contextual
factors (nature of readership, importance of item in SL, the SL and TL text,
likely recurrences in TL etc.) ranging from detailed explanations, example and
translations down to aculturally-neutral third term.

d. The Conative Function

This is a function of language or, more generally, communication, that
is focused on, and concerned with influencing the behaviour of, the addressee,
and thus concerned with persuasion. The conative function is directed at the
addressee and usually manifests itself in the imperative case ("Do this, John!")
(“Tom! Come inside and eat!”) or the vocative ("Hey John!").

15
References

Al, Kaji. e. (1996). Method of Computer-Based Automatic Extraction of Translation

Pars of Words From A Bilingual Text . United States Patent.

Apriyanti, T. (2016). Translating theory of English into Indonesian and vice-versa.

Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies , 6.

Baker, M. (2001). Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. New York:

Routledge.

Dambska in Karolina, P. (2011). Text Typology and its signficance. Zeszyty Naukow
E Uniwersytetu Rzwszowskiego, 8.

Goretti, H. i. (2016). Medical Brochure as a Textual Genre. Cambridge: Cambridge

Scholars Publishing.

Hariyanto, Sugeng. “Problems in Translating Poetry .” Translation Directory. N.p.,

2013. Web. 24 May 2015. www.translationdirectory.com/article640.htm

Juan, N. i. (1994). Language Engineering and Translation: Consequences of

automation. Amsterdam: Jhon Benjamis Publishing Company.

Masahiko Haruno, T. Y. (1993). High-Performance Bilingual Text Alignment Using

Statistical and Dictionary Information . NTT Communication Science Labs,
131.

Meriam-Webster. (2020). “The definition of language”. Meriam-Webster Dictionary.

www.merriam-webster.com. Accepted on 8 April 2020.
Munday, J. (2016). Introducing Translation Studies. 2 Park Square, Milton Park,
Abingdo: Routledge.
Newmark, P., (1988). A texbook of translation. English: Prentice-Hall International

Nicol, J. J. (2008). Creating vocative texts. The Qualitative Report Volume , 5.

Oxford Learners Dictionaries (2020). “The definition of function”. Oxford University

Press. www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com. Accepted on 8 April 2020

Nicol, J. J. (2008). Creating vocative texts. The Qualitative Report Volume , 5.

16
Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism- the Potentials & Limitations: Categories and
Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment. Trans. Erroll F. Rhodes.
Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 2000.

Rital, S. i. (2020). Significance of Text Types in Translation. Lausanne Urban

Festival.

Tezcan, T. (2015). Applicability of Translation Criticism Approaches to Different

Text Types . Hacettepe University Graduate School Of Social Sciences , 58

Utsuro, T. (n.d.). Bilingual Text, Matching using Bilingual Dictionary and Statistics .
Kyoto University , 1076.

17