Unit-2 Subject : Environmental Sc.

Ecosystem
Structure and Functions, Concept
of Productivity, Restoration

Dr. Geetika Sonkar

Assistant Professor
Department of Environmental Science
Kalindi College, University of Delhi,
New Delhi 110008, India
 Lesson overview
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the non living
components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system.
Learning objectives
• Everything in the natural world is connected.
• To understand plants and animals within an area interact with
each other and with the non-living elements of the area, such
as climate, water, soil and so on.
• To learn the concept of Ecosystem,Structure of ecosystem and
Functions of Ecosystem: and Biogeochemical cycle food
chains, food web, ecological succession),nutrient cycling
processes. Concepts of productivity, ecological pyramids and
homeostasis
Keywords
Ecology,Ecosystem,Biotic,abiotic,Environment, forest,population, Plants,
Algae, ,ph osphorus,nirogen, Carbon dioxide, Water, Sunlight, Energy,
Oxygen,,biogeochemical cycle,succession
References:
1.Odum, E.P., Odum, H.T., and Andrews, J. (1971). Fundamentals of
Ecology. Saunders, Philadelphia, USA.
2. Raven, P.H, Hassenzahl, D.M., Hager, M.C, Gift, N.Y., and Berg, L.R. (2015).
Environment, 9th Edition. Wiley Publishing, USA
3. Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P., and Gupta, S.R. (2017). Ecology, Environmental
Science and Conservation. S. Chand Publishing, New Delhi.
4. Kaushik, Anubha and Kaushik, C.P. (2018)Perspectives in Environmental
Studies
5. Bharucha, Erach Textbook of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate
Courses(2018)
6. Sharma, P.D. Fundamentals Of Ecology
7. Biology Book 12th NCERT
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_ecosystem
 Ecology
• What is it?
• Ecology is a branch of biology
• Definition: The study of how living things
interact with each other and their
environment.
• Derived from greek words:
OIKOS(Home)+LOGOS(Study)
• Term Coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869.
• So, Ecology is the scientific study of the
distribution and abundance of living
organisms and relationships with each
other and with their natural environment.
• The study of ecosystems is called Ecology.
What living/non-living things do you
see in this picture?

All of these factors create ecosystems!

 What is an ecosystem
• Ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of
ecology.
• Term ecosystem is given by A.G.Tansley in 1935.
• An ecosystem, short for 'ecological system', is a
community of living and non-living things that
work together.
• An ecosystem is a community of living
organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in
conjunction with the non-living components of
their environment (things like air, water and
mineral soil), interacting as a system.
• There is a great variety of ecosystems in
existence, all of them are characterized by
general structural and functional attributes.
Ecosystem
Defined
• The interactions between all living
(biotic) and non-living (abiotic) factors
in a defined area.
 Biotic Factors
• The biotic factors are the
living and once-living
components of an
ecosystem.
• This also includes the role
the living organisms play
within the ecosystem.
(i.e. producers, consumers,
predators, prey)

What does biotic factor mean?

 Abiotic Factors
• The abiotic factors are the non-
living components of an ecosystem.
• These factors directly affect living
organisms and their ability to
survive and reproduce.

What does abiotic factor mean?

 Example:
Levels of Organization Black-Tailed Prairie Dog Species

• To help understand the

interactions of biotic and
abiotic factors, ecosystems are
organized into levels.
• This allows scientists to study All members of one
individual organisms, a single living thing species in a particular area
interactions among organisms
of the same species, and
interactions among organisms
of different species, as well as
the effects of abiotic factors on
interacting species.

All the different populations that live together in an area.

 Organism
• individual living thing
• made up of cells
• uses energy
• reproduces
• grows and develops
• responds to its
environment.

Why would sunlight not be considered an organism?

 Population
• A population
Would is a group
this fox and of be considered a population?
this frog
Why
organisms, all of the sameor why not?
species, which interbreed
and live in the same place
at the same time.
 Community
• A community consists of
all the populations of
different species that live
in the same place at the
same time.
 Levels of Organization
In order from the least complex to the most complex, the level
of organization is…

Organism Population Community Ecosystem

 Structure of Ecosystem
• The community of organisms that live in a particular area, along with their nonliving
surroundings.
• Living components are called Biotic factors
• Nonliving components are called Abiotic factors.
Photo autotrophs and Chemoautotrophs
Herbivores

Producers

Carnivores

Living/ Biotic Components Consumers

Ecosystem

Omnivores
Decomposers

Detritivores

Sunlight, water, air,

temperature, rainfall, soil
Physical components
texture, wind speed and
direction,, etc.
Non-Living/ Abiotic
Components
Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
Chemical Components hydrogen, iron, copper, zinc,
etc.
Components of an ecosystem
Biotic components
• Producers (Autotrophs):
• All green plants. They use solar energy, chlorophyll, inorganic
nutrients and water to produce their own food. (Photosynthesis)
• Consumers:
• They consume the organic compounds in plant and animal tissues
by eating.
• Herbivores (plant feeders) Primary consumers
• Carnivores (meat eaters) Secondary consumers
• Omnivores (general feeders)
• Decomposers
• They are tiny organisms includes bacteria and fungi, which turn
organic compounds in dead plants and animals into inorganic
materials.
• They cause the continual recirculation of chemicals within
ecosystem (nutrient cycle)
Autotrophs v. Heterotrophs
• Autotrophs: [Auto- = self, -troph = food]
• An organism capable of synthesizing its own food from
inorganic substances (light or chemical energy).
• E.g. Green plants, Algae, certain Bacteria

• Heterotrophs: [Hetero- = other, -troph = food]

• An organism that cannot manufacture its own food and
instead obtains its food and energy by taking in organic
substances.
• E.g. Fungi, Protozoans, most Bacteria, all Animals
 Autotrophs
• “Producers” because they produce complex organic
compounds (e.g. sugars, fats, proteins) from simple inorganic
matter (minerals, nutrients, etc.)
• They do not need a living source of energy:
• They do not need a living source of Carbon:
• they can “fix” it from atmospheric sources

Photosynthesis: Obtain energy from light (generally sunlight).

Chemosynthesis: Obtain energy from chemical compounds.

 Heterotrophs Herbivores:
Eat only
• “Consumers” because they plants
cannot synthesize their own
food and must consume
other organisms to get
organic Carbon.

Omnivores: Eat both plants & meat

Carnivores: Eat mostly meat
Heterotrophs
Some consumers are organisms which feed on
detritus (biotic waste or dead organic matter)

Detritivores:
• Typically invertebrates like
earthworms, wood lice, slugs,
crabs, etc.
• Use enzymes to break down
detritus on tissue scale as
source of energy, nutrients,
and Carbon.
• increases surface area for
decomposers.
Decomposers:
• Generally Fungi &
Bacteria
• Use enzymes to break down
detritus on molecular scale
as source of energy,
nutrients, and Carbon.
• Release inorganic
ions (mineralization)
Producers
• Most important components of ecosystem.
• Producers are organisms which are able to manufacture organic
compounds from inorganic substances from their environment.
• Food is produced both for themselves and for other organisms.
• They depend directly on the abiotic component for their
survival and production of nutrients.
• Producers are also known as autotrophs (derived from Greek
words: “autos” meaning self and “trophe” meaning
nourishment)
• They induce into the ecosystem, the energy required for its
biological processes.
Producers
• Producers extract nutrients from soil or ocean and manufacture their own
food using photosynthesis, in the presence of carbon dioxide and sunlight
and so energy from sun powers the base of food chain. Producers are also,
thus known as primary producers.

• An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems where there is

no sunlight. Here, the primary producers manufacture food through a
process called chemosynthesis.

• Chemosynthesis is a process certain organisms use to produce energy, akin

to photosynthesis, but without the utilization of sunlight. The energy comes
from the oxidization (burning) of chemicals which seep up from the Earth's
crust.
• So, producers are either photo-autotrophs or chemo-autotrophs.
Consumers
• Consumers are organisms that obtain nutrients by consuming
other organisms.
• These organisms are formally referred to as heterotrophs
(derived from Greek words “heteros” meaning another/
different and “trophe” meaning nourishment.
• A heterotroph is an organism that cannot synthesize their own
food and must obtain it ready made.
• They can be herbivores, carnivores, omnivores or detritivores.
 Herbivores
• Animals who derive their required energy
directly from consuming the plants and plants
only.
• Also known as primary consumers.
• Herbivores have special digestive systems that let
them digest all kinds of plants, including grasses.
• Eg. Rabbit, cattle, horse, sheep, insects, etc.
Carnivores
• Animals that feed on other animals.
• Carnivores generally eat herbivores (secondary Predators
consumers), but occasionally eat other carnivores Carnivores
also (tertiary consumers). Scavengers
• Eg: lion, tiger, cats, birds of prey, sharks, frogs, etc.
Predators Scavengers
• A predator is an organism• Scavengers eat the food that has
that hunts and kills other been killed and left behind by
organisms for food. predators.
• Eg: lions, tigers, sharks, • Eg: vultures, racoons, hyena,etc.
wolves, snakes, etc. • Scavengers play an important
Carnivourous plant-pitcher role in the ecosystem by
plant consuming the carcass of of
animals that have been left to
decompose. Decomposers and
detritivores complete this
process, by consuming the
remains left by scavengers.
Omnivores
• Animals that feed on both plants and animals.
• Omnivores often are opportunistic, general feeders with neither
carnivore nor herbivore specializations for acquiring or processing
food, and are capable of consuming and do consume both animal
protein and vegetation.
• Many omnivores depend on a suitable mix of animal and plant
food for long-term good health and reproduction.
• Eg, humans, bear, etc.
Detritivores
• They feed on dead plant and animal matter, but perform an
additional function which is to return essential nutrients back to
the ecosystem in the process.
• Detritivores actually eat organic matter.
• They are essential for recycling of nutrients: without them dead
plant material would not be returned to the soil for new growth
• Eg: worms, millipedes, sea stars, crabs, dung flies.
 Decomposers/ Saprobes
• These are micro-organisms which break-down organic matter into
inorganic compounds and derive their nutrition in the process.
Decomposers break down complex compound into simpler
compounds without eating them.
• For example, fungi can grow on organic matter, such as a dead tree
trunk or a piece of bread, and breaks it down and absorbing the
nutrients without eating the wood or the bread.
• These are organisms that aid in decomposition of already dead or
dying organisms.
• Decomposers secrete enzymes to digest organic matter and then
absorb resulting molecules.
• Eg: bacteria, fungi, etc.
 Abiotic Components of Ecosystem
• The nonliving materials in an ecosystem, such as minerals, gases,
liquids and chemicals are referred to as abiotic or non-biotic factors.
• Abiotic, meaning not alive, are nonliving factors that affect living
organisms. Environmental factors such habitat (pond, lake, ocean,
desert, mountain) or weather such as temperature, cloud cover, rain,
snow, hurricanes, etc. are abiotic factors.
• They form the environment and determine the type / structure of
ecosystem.
• Sunlight (temperature)
• Nutrients
• Rainfall, minerals, carbon, nitrogen,…..
Functions of Ecosystem

Nutrient cycling, energy flow and structure

 Three major principles of ecosystem
• Nutrient cycling:
• Movement of chemical elements from the
environment into living organisms and from them
back into the environment through organisms live,
grow, die and decompose. Nutrient cycling

• Energy flow:
• Energy is required to transform inorganic nutrients
into organic tissues of an organism.
• Energy is the driving force to the work of
ecosystem. Energy flow
• Structure
• It refers to the particular pattern of inter-
relationships that exists between organisms in an
ecosystem.

Structure
Movement of energy and nutrients
• Food chain
• Food webs
• Trophic level, biomass
 Food Chain
• The particular pathway of nutrient and energy movement depends on which
organism feeds on another.
• Every living organism/ thing requires energy to
survive, whether it be plants, animals or humans.
• Energy is required by living beings to grow.
• Plants get their energy from photosynthesis.
• Animals get energy from the food they consume.

Decomposers
 Food chain
• A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a
biological community (an ecosystem) to obtain
nutrition.
• A food chain shows how each living thing gets food,
and how nutrients and energy are passed from
creature to creature.
• A simple food chain can be seen below:
 Food Chain
• A food chain starts with the primary energy source and end with top
predators,animals that have little or no natural enemies.
• When any organism dies, it is eventually eaten by detrivores (like
vultures, worms and crabs) and broken down by decomposers (mostly
bacteria and fungi), and the exchange of energy continues.
 Types of Food Chain
All ecosystems require a method to recycle material from dead organisms; all
grazing food webs have an associated detrital food web.

•
Food Chains

Predatory food
chains
Grazing food chains
Parasitic food
chains
Detritus/ saprophytic
food chains

Grazing Food Chain

 Photosyntheticorganisms at its base, followed by
herbivores and various carnivores.
Detrital Food chain
 Organisms that feed on decaying organic matter (dead
organisms) at base.
Grazing food chains
• Start with green plants and culminate with carnivores.
(a)Predatory food chain – begins with plants and
proceeds from small to large animals.
E.g.- crops - field mice – owls
(b) Parasitic food chain – Begins with plants and
proceeds from large to small animals.
E.g.- producers - herbivores– parasites
Detritus/ saprophytic food chains
• They start with dead organic matter.
• Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus
food chain.
• Eg: leaf litter in a forest – fungi – bacteria
• Bacteria and fungi, however, are eaten by organisms
and they in turn are eaten by other organisms. Since
the source of energy is not the sun but detritus, this
linear feeding relationship is called a detritus food
chain.
FOOD CHAINS & FOOD WEBS

• Food Web: All feeding connections between

organisms in a biotic community.
• Both energy and nutrients flow through a food
web, moving through organisms as they are
consumed by an organism above them in the
food web.
• Food Chain: A single path of energy flow (a
linear path through a food web)
Food Web
• In nature, food chain relationships are not isolated; rather they are
complex, because one organism may form the food source of many
organisms.
• Thus, instead of a simple linear food chain, there is a web like
structure formed by these interlinked food chains.
• Such interconnected matrix of food chains is called 'food web'.
• Food webs are indispensable in ecosystems as they allow an
organism to obtain its food from more than one type of organism of
the lower trophic level.
• Food Web a system of interlocking and interdependent food
chains in a given area.
• A food web is several food chains connected together.
• A food web is many food chains linked together to show a
more accurate model of all possible feeding relationships of
organisms in an ecosystem.
FOOD WEB
Food web in Forest
Food web in grassland
 TROPHIC LEVELS *Trophic: Relating to
feeding or nutrition
• Trophic Level: a particular position occupied
by a group of organisms in a food chain or
food web.
A trophic level means a feeding level.
• These are the various steps in a food chain or food
web.
• Level1: producers (autotrophs)
• Level2: primary consumers (herbivores)
• Level3: secondary consumers (carnivores/omnivores)
• Level4: tertiary consumers (top carnivores)
• So on “Apex Consumer”
 TROPHIC LEVELS
• At each trophic level, most of the energy gained by
eating is lost through biological processes such
as respiration, finding food, or reproduction.
• Only the energy that is directly assimilated into
an animal's consumable mass will be transferred
to the next level when that animal is eaten.
• However, only 5% to 20% energy and nutrients are
transferred into higher trophic level successfully.
• For this reason, first trophic level has the largest
number of organisms, and second trophic level is
less than first one; the third level is less than second
level, and so on.

NOTE: Although energy is lost, nutrients are recycled

through waste or decomposition.
 Ecological pyramids
• An ecological pyramid is an
illustration of the reduction in
energy as you move through
each feeding level in an
ecosystem.
• Each feeding level of the
ecosystem is called trophic
level.
• Producers form the base of the
pyramid.
• Consumers form the upper
layers.
Ecological pyramids
• Diagram that shows the relative amount of energy or organisms
contained within each trophic level of a food chain or web.
Ecological pyramids
• Ecological pyramids are graphs • Less Energy
which illustrate the trophic
levels in a community.
• Most ecological pyramids are
large at the base and narrow
at the top.

• More energy
Ecological pyramids
• An ecological pyramid is a diagram that shows the
amounts of energy or matter contained within each
trophic level in a food web or food chain.

Ecological pyramids

Pyramid of Pyramid of Pyramid of

numbers biomass energy
Pyramid of numbers
• A pyramid of numbers is a graphical representation of the
numbers of individuals in each population in a food chain.
• The pyramid of numbers represents the number of organisms
in each trophic level.
• Pyramid of numbers can be used to examine how the
population of a certain species affects another.
• Often, the autotrophic level in a pyramid of numbers is much
larger than any of the higher trophic levels, and the numbers
decreases upon ascending the pyramid. There are exceptions,
however. For example, in a tree community, a single tree could
support many different populations of larger numbers.
Pyramid of Numbers
Pyramid of biomass
• The total amount of matter present in organisms of
an ecosystem at each trophic level is biomass.
• In other words, the total amount of living or organic
matter in an ecosystem at any time is called 'Biomass'.
• Biomass means the mass of living material at a stage
in a food chain. The biomass at each stage goes down
as you go from one stage to the next, just like the
amount of energy.
Pyramid of biomass
• Pyramid of biomass is the graphic representation of biomass
present per unit area of different trophic levels, with producers
at the base and top carnivores at the top.
• Pyramid of biomass records the total dry organic matter of
organisms at each trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem.
• A pyramid of biomass is a chart, drawn to scale, that shows the
biomass at each stage in a food chain. The bars become
narrower as you reach the top.
• Typical units for a biomass pyramid could be grams per meter2
or calories per meter2.
 Pyramid of biomass
• This demonstrates the amount of matter lost between
trophic levels.
• There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright and
inverted.
• An upright pyramid is one where the combined weight of
producers is larger than the combined weight of
consumers. An example is a forest ecosystem.
• An inverted pyramid is one where the combined weight
of producers is smaller than the combined weight of
consumers. An example is an aquatic ecosystem.
Pyramid of biomass
• In a terrestrial ecosystem,
the maximum biomass
occurs in producers, and
there is progressive decrease
in biomass from lower to
higher trophic levels. Thus,
the pyramid of biomass in a
terrestrial ecosystem is
upright.
Pyramid of biomass
• In an aquatic habitat the
pyramid of biomass is inverted or
spindle shaped where the
biomass of trophic level depends
upon the reproductive potential
and longivity of the member.
 Pyramid of energy
• The pyramid of energy represents the
total amount of energy consumed by each
trophic level.
• An energy pyramid is always upright as
the total amount of energy available for
utilization in the layers above is less than
the energy available in the lower levels.
This happens because during energy
transfer from lower to higher levels, some
energy is always lost.
• Measured in joules or calories.
 Pyramid of energy
• 10% Rule: only about 10% of the
energy of one level will be
transmitted to the next, higher level.
• The 10% passed on is what the
organism used for growth.
• The other 90% is lost as heat (during
respiration, movement, reproduction)
or as biotic waste.
Ecological Pyramid
Biomass and productivity
• Biomass means the total combined weight of any specified group of
organisms.
• The biomass of the first trophic level is the total weight of all the
producers in a given area.
• Biomass decreases at higher trophic levels.
Primary Productivity
Primary productivity is a term used to describe the rate at which plants and other photosynthetic
organisms produce organic compounds in an ecosystem. There are two aspects of primary
productivity:
•Gross productivity = the entire photosynthetic production of organic compounds in an ecosystem.
•Net productivity = the organic materials that remain after photosynthetic organisms in the
ecosystem have used some of these compounds for their cellular energy needs (cellular respiration).
Trophic Level
(Food Pyramid)
Ecological succession
• Ecosystem is not static, its dynamic and changing constantly.
• Its structure and function change over time.
• These changes are in order and are capable of being predicted.
• One type of community gets totally replaced with another type of
community over a period of time and this causes several changes.
• This is ecological succession.
Ecological succession
• It is the slow and gradual process, by which ecosystems change
and develop over time.
• Ecological succession is the changing sequence of communities
that live in an ecosystem during a given time period.
Ecological succession
• In simple words, it is the gradual replacement of one
community by another through natural processes over
time.
• It refers to the natural gradual changes in the types of
species that live in an area.
• Ecological succession is the gradual process by which
ecosystems tend to change and develop over a period
of time.
• For example, a bare patch of ground will not stay
bare. It will rapidly be colonized by a variety of plants.
• It is the transition that takes place when one biotic
community gives way to another biotic community.
Why succession takes place
• Succession takes place because through the processes
of living, growing and reproducing, organisms interact
with and affect the environment within an area,
gradually changing it.
• Each species is adapted to thrive and compete best
against other species under a very specific set of
environmental conditions. If these conditions change,
then the existing species will be outcompeted by a
different set of species which are better adapted to
the new conditions.
Pioneer Organisms
• It is the first organism formed on the lifeless ground.
• A pioneer organism is an organism that populates a region
after a natural disaster or any other event that may have
caused most life in that area to disappear.
• Over time, dead material from pioneer species forms humus,
and the soil which results is colonized by other species.
• Common pioneer organisms include lichens and algae.
• A pioneer species are the species dominating a community in
the first stage of succession.
Features of Pioneer Species
• High growth rate
• Small size
• Wide dispersal
• Fast population growth
Climax Community
• An ecological community in which populations of plants or animals
remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their
environment.
• A climax community is the final stage of succession, remaining
relatively unchanged until destroyed by an event such as fire or
human interference.
• A stable, mature and final community that undergoes little or no
succession, when left undisturbed.
Features of Climax Community
• Slower growth rate
• Larger size
• Lower rates of dispersal
• Lower rates of colonization
• Longer lives
Stages of Ecological Succession
• Process begins with establishment of few pioneer
species which get replaced by species of increasing
complexity.
• Establishment of pioneer species at a bare site causes
changes in soil structure and nutrient content,
followed by changes in physical environment.
• Existing species get replaced by new species due to
changed physical factors.
Stages of Ecological Succession
• These changes are often accompanied by
introduction of animal species into the area.
• This cyclic process ends after reaching a stabilized
community called climax community.
• At this stage ecosystem is in a state of balance, until
disturbed by external factors.
• Disturbances destroy existing climax community and
then process of succession starts anew.
 Clement’s Theory of Succession/ Classical
ecological theory
• Published by Frederic Clements in 1916.
• According to Clements, succession is a process involving several
phases:
 Nudation: development of a bare site, uninhabited by any
organisms, as a result of disturbances.
 Invasion/Migration: arrival of seeds, spores and other reproductive
propagules for establishment of species.
 Clement’s Theory of Succession/ Classical
ecological theory
 Ecesis/ colonization: It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.
Dependent on soil structure. This is the stage where pioneer species survive.
 Aggregation: Increase in the population of established species.
 Competition: As vegetation became well established, grew, and spread, various
species began to compete for space, light and nutrients. This also happens for
animal species.
 Clement’s Theory of Succession/ Classical
ecological theory
Reaction: Environmental conditions get modified by the action of
species occupying the habitat and this triggers displacement and
replacement of one species by another.
Stabilization: Process by which climax community gets established.
Reaction phase leads to development of a climax community, which is
mature, self-sustaining and stable. It is the final stage of succession.
Climax community continues until another disturbance steps in.
Types of Ecological Succession

Primary Secondary
Succession Succession
Primary Succession
• Primary succession is the series of community
changes which occur on an entirely new habitat which
has never been colonized before.
• Primary succession occurs in essentially life-less areas
where no ecosystem existed before.
• It begins on a barren surface.
• For example: on new islands created by volcanic
eruptions, bare rocks, rocks exposed by glacier
retreats, etc.
Primary Succession
• In primary succession pioneer species like lichen, algae
and fungus as well as other abiotic factors like wind and
water start to "normalize" the habitat.
• The primary succession is important in pioneering the
area to create conditions favorable for the growth of
other forms of plants and animals.
• Pedogenesis or the formation of soil is the most
important process.
• http://youtu.be/vNHnwHaSolA
Primary Succession
Secondary Succession
• Secondary succession is the series of community
changes which take place on a previously colonized,
but disturbed or damaged habitat.
• For example: after felling trees in a woodland, land
clearance or a fire.
• Secondary succession begins in an area that already
has soil.
 Process of secondary succession is much
faster……why????
• Secondary succession is usually faster than primary succession as:
Soil is already present, so there is no need for pioneer species;
Seeds, roots and underground vegetative organs of plants may still
survive in the soil.
Secondary Succession
 Secondary Succession

• An example of Secondary Succession by stages:

1. A stable deciduous forest community
2. A disturbance, such as a wild fire, destroys the forest
3. The fire burns the forest to the ground
4. The fire leaves behind empty, but not destroyed, soil
5. Grasses and other herbaceous plants grow back first
6. Small bushes and trees begin to colonize the area
7. Fast growing evergreen trees develop to their fullest, while shade-tolerant trees develop
in the understory
8. The short-lived and shade intolerant evergreen trees die as the larger deciduous trees
overtop them. The ecosystem is now back to a similar state to where it began.
 Biogeochemical Cycles
What is a Biogeochemical Cycle?
“Biogeochemical cycles mainly refer to the movement of nutrients and other elements
between biotic and abiotic factors.”
The term biogeochemical is derived from “bio” meaning biosphere, “geo” meaning
the geological components and “chemical” meaning the elements that move through a cycle.

• The earth obtains energy from the sun which is radiated back as heat, rest all other elements are
present in a closed system. The major elements include: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen Oxygen,
Phosphorus, Sulphur.

• These elements are recycled through the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem. The
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere are the abiotic components of the ecosystem.

Types of Biogeochemical Cycles -Biogeochemical cycles are basically divided into two types:

•Gaseous cycles – Includes Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and the Water cycle.

•Sedimentary cycles – Includes Sulphur, Phosphorus, Rock cycle, etc.

Energy Flows In An Ecosystem: Biogeochemical Cycles
• Flow of energy in an ecosystem is governed by following
cycles:

Water Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Oxygen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
Two Secrets of Survival: Energy Flow and
Matter Recycle

• An ecosystem survives
by a combination of
energy flow and matter
recycling.
 MATTER CYCLING IN ECOSYSTEMS
• Nutrient Cycles: Global Recycling
• Global Cycles recycle nutrients through the earth’s air, land, water, and living organisms.
• Nutrients are the elements and compounds that organisms need to live, grow, and reproduce.
• Biogeochemical cycles move these substances through air, water, soil, rock and living organisms.

• The paths of water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus pass from the nonliving environment to living
organisms; such as trees, and than back to the nonliving environment.
• These paths form closed circuits, or cycles, called biogeochemical cycles.
• In each biogeochemical cycle, a pathway forms when
• a substance enters living organisms such as trees from the atmosphere, water, or soil;
• stays for a time in the living organism, than
• returns to the nonliving environment.
• Ecologists refer to such substances as cycling within an ecosystem between a living reservoir ( an organism
that lives in the ecosystem) and a nonliving reservoir.
• In almost all biogeochemical cycles, there is much less of the substance in the living reservoir than in the
nonliving reservoir
 The Water Cycle:
• Of all the nonliving components of an ecosystem, water has
the greatest influence on the ecosystem’s inhabitants.

• In the nonliving portion of the water cycle, water vapor in

the atmosphere condenses and falls to Earth’s surface as
precipitation as snow or rain.

• Some of this water seeps into Earth’s surface (infiltration)

and becomes part of groundwater, which is water retained
beneath the surface of the Earth. Most of the remaining
water that falls to Earth does not stay on the surface.

• Instead, heated by the sun, it reenters the atmosphere by

evaporation.

• In the living portion of the water cycle, much water is taken

up by the roots of plants.

• After passing through a plant, the water moves into the

atmosphere by evaporating from the leaves, a process
called transpiration.
 The Water Cycle:
• Transpiration is a sun driven process.

• The sun heats the Earth’s atmosphere , creating

wind currents that draw moisture from the tiny
openings in the leaves of plants.

• In aquatic ecosystems (lakes, rivers and oceans) the

nonliving portion of the ecosystem is the most
important.

• In terrestrial ecosystems, the nonliving and living

parts of the water cycle both play important roles.

• In thickly vegetated ecosystems, such as tropical

rainforests, more than 90 percent of the moisture in
the ecosystem passes through plants and is
transpired from their leaves.
 The Water Cycle:
In a rain forest;

• rain falls and infiltrates soil, moisture travels

from soil through plant’s roots,
• out the leaves through transpiration into the
atmosphere, and falls back as rain in a complete
cycle.
 Rain clouds
Condensation

Transpiration Evaporation
Precipitation Transpiration
to land from plants
Precipitation Precipitation
Evaporation
Surface runoff from land Evaporation
Runoff from ocean Precipitation
(rapid)
to ocean

Infiltration and Surface

Percolation runoff
(rapid)
Groundwater movement (slow)
Ocean storage

Fig. 3-26, p. 72
Effects of Human Activities
on Water Cycle
• We alter the water cycle by:
• Withdrawing large amounts of freshwater.
• Clearing vegetation and eroding soils.
• Polluting surface and underground water.
• Contributing to climate change.
 Carbon Cycle
• Carbon also cycles between the nonliving environment and
living organisms.
• Carbon dioxide in the air or dissolved in water is used by
photosynthesizing plants, algae, and bacteria as a raw
material to build organic molecules.
• Carbon atoms may return to the pool of carbon dioxide in
the air and water in three ways
• Respiration
• Combustion
• Erosion

Respiration:
• Nearly all living organisms, including plants, engage in
cellular respiration.
• They use oxygen to oxidize organic molecules during
cellular respiration, and carbon dioxide is a product of Carbon cycle
this reaction.
 Carbon
Combustion:
Cycle

• Carbon also returns to the atmosphere

through combustion, or burning.

• The carbon contained in wood may stay

there for many years, returning to the
atmosphere only when the wood is
burned.

• Sometimes carbon can be locked away

beneath the Earth for millions of years,
as in fossil fuels like oil, coal, and natural
gas. The carbon in these is released
when these fossil fuels are burned. Carbon cycle
 Carbon Cycle
Erosion:

• Marine organisms use carbon dioxide

dissolved in sea water to make calcium
carbonate shells.

• Over millions of years, the shells of dead

organisms form sediments, which form
limestone.

• As the limestone becomes exposed and

erodes, the carbon becomes available to
other organisms.

Carbon cycle
Carbon Cycle and Oxygen Cycle
 Carbon cycle in the lithosphere
• Inorganic: coal, oil,
natural gas, oil shale,
limestone
• Created from
organisms (both plant
and animal) that died
a long time ago and
accumulated on the
bottom of oceans or
lakes
 Carbon cycle in the soil
• Organic: litter,
humic substances
found in soil
 Humans and the Carbon Cycle
• Until recently: none
• Now: 6.5 billion
metric tons of
carbon are
transferred from
fossil fuel storage
pool to the
atmosphere
 Effects of Human Activities
on Carbon Cycle
• We alter the carbon cycle
by adding excess CO2 to
the atmosphere through:
• Burning fossil fuels.
• Clearing vegetation faster
than it is replaced.
 Nitrogen Cycle
• The atmosphere is made up of 79% N gas
• This gas is not useable by living things
• It must be converted to form compounds such as
ammonia (NH4) or nitrate (NO3) which can be
taken up by living things
• There is natural and human fixation of N2
Natural: lightning, bacteria
Human: fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer
manufacturing
 Nitrogen Cycle
• The atmosphere is about 78 percent nitrogen
gasowever, most organisms are unable to use it in
this form.

• The two nitrogen atoms in a molecule of nitrogen

gas are connected by a strong triple covalent bond
that is very difficult to break.
• Organisms cannot use N2
• However, a few bacteria have enzymes that can
break it, and they bind nitrogen atoms to hydrogen
to form ammonia.

Example: Nitrogen fixing

bacteria found in
• Root nodules of legumes
(mutualism)
• Soil
 Nitrogen Cycle
• The process of combining nitrogen
with hydrogen to form ammonia is
called nitrogen fixation.

• Nitrogen fixing bacteria live in the

soil and are also found within
swellings, or nodules, on the roots
of beans, alder trees, and a few
other kinds of plants.
 Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is a complex
process with four stages:
1: Assimilation is the absorption and
incorporation of nitrogen into
organic compounds by plants
2: Ammonification is the production
of ammonia by bacteria during the
decay of organic matter.
3: Nitrification is the production of
nitrate from ammonia.
4: Denitrification is the conversion of
nitrate to nitrogen gas.

Decomposers (bacteria and fungi) carry out many

Important steps in the nitrogen cycle
 Nitrogen Cycle
• The growth of plants in ecosystems
is often limited by the availability of
nitrate and ammonia in the soil.

• Today most of the ammonia and

nitrate that farmers add to soil is
produced chemically in factories,
rather than by bacterial nitrogen
fixation.

• Genetic engineers are trying to

place nitrogen-fixing genes from
bacteria into the chromosomes of
crop plants using genetic
engineering.
 Nitrogen Cycle
• If these attempts by genetic
engineers are successful, the plants
themselves will be able to fix
nitrogen, thus eliminating the need
for nitrogen-supplying fertilizers.

• Some farmers adjust their farming

methods to increase natural
recycling of nitrogen.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Effects of Human Activities on the
Nitrogen Cycle
• We alter the nitrogen cycle by:
• Adding gases that contribute to acid rain.
• Adding nitrous oxide to the atmosphere through farming
practices which can warm the atmosphere and deplete ozone.
• Contaminating ground water from nitrate ions in inorganic
fertilizers.
• Releasing nitrogen into the troposphere through deforestation.
Effects of Human Activities
on the Nitrogen Cycle
• Human activities such
as production of
fertilizers now fix more
nitrogen than all
natural sources
combined.
Nitrogen cycle can be affected by man in
five major ways:
• Fertilizer production (mainly nitrates and ammonium salts) to
grow more food by increasing yields, and replenishing lost
nitrogen from the soil.
• Burning of fossil fuels in cars, power plants, and heating which
puts nitrogen dioxide into the atmosphere.
• Increasing animals wastes (nitrates) from more people and
from livestock and poultry grown in ranches.
• Increased sewage flows from industry and urbanization.
• Increased erosion of and runoff nearby streams, lakes and
rivers from cultivation, irrigation, agricultural wastes, mining,
urbanization and poor land use.
 Phosphorus Cycles:
Phosphorous
•Where does it come from?
-not a gas
-weathers from rock
-reuse from already present phosphorous in detritus
•Why is it important?
-less abundant and available than N
-often the limiting nutrient in freshwater
ecosystems
•Inorganic phosphate in rocks
–Dissolves in water
–Plants take up inorganic phosphate
–FERTILIZERS
•Converted to organic phosphates found in organisms
•Decomposers convert organic waste back to inorganic P in the
soil
Phosphorus Cycles:
• Organisms need nitrogen and
phosphorus to build proteins and
nucleic acids.

• Phosphorus is an essential part of

both ATP and DNA.

• Phosphorus is usually present in soil

and rock as calcium phosphate, which
dissolves in water to form phosphate
ions.

• This phosphate is absorbed by the

roots of plants and used to build
organic molecules.
Phosphorus Cycles:

mining Fertilizer
excretion Guano
agriculture
uptake by weathering uptake by
autotrophs autotrophs
Marine Dissolved leaching, runoff Dissolved Land
Food in Ocean in Soil Water, Food
Webs Water Lakes, Rivers Webs
death, death,
decomposition decomposition
sedimentation settling out weathering
uplifting over
geologic time
Marine Sediments Rocks
Effects of Human Activities on the
Phosphorous Cycle
• We remove large amounts of phosphate from the earth to
make fertilizer.
• We reduce phosphorous in tropical soils by clearing
forests.
• We add excess phosphates to aquatic systems from runoff
of animal wastes and fertilizers.
Eutrophication: excess nutrients stimulate
plant growth (algal bloom); when these plants die,
decomposers use up the available oxygen during
decomposition

Source: http://serc.carleton.edu

Source: www.algae.info
 Types of Ecosystem

Natural
1.Terrestrial ecosystems (grasslands, forests, desert ecosystems)
2.Aquatic ecosystem (Freshwater and Marine)
a.Lentic (Stagnant water) like lake, ponds etc.
b.Lotic (Flowing water) like river, ocean, sea, etc.
Artificial
1.A crop land, garden, aquarium, park, kitchen garden.
Types of Ecosystem
Major Ecosystem Types:
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
a. Tropical Rain forests
b. Tropical deciduous forests
c. Sub-Tropical forests
d. Temperate Rain forests
e. Temperate deciduous forests
f. Evergreen coniferous forests (Boreal Forests)

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS
a. Tropical grasslands (eg Savannas)
b. Temperate grasslands (Pampas, Velds, Steppes)
c. Polar grasslands (Arctic Tundra)

DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
a. Tropical deserts
b. Temperate deserts
c. Cold deserts

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
a. Pond ecosystems
b. Lake ecosystems (Zones: Littoral, Limentic, Profoundal zones)
(organisms: planktons, Nektons, Neustons, Benthos, Periphytons)
(Stratification; Epilimnion, Hypolimnion); (Thermocline layer: a region where there is sharp drop in temperature
(Types: Ologotrophic, Eutrophic, Dystrophic, Endemic, Desert salt lake, Volcanic, Meromictiic, Artificial/impoundments)
c. Streams
d. River Ecosystems
e. Oceans (Coastal zones, Open Sea – Euphotic, Bathyal, Abyssal)
f. Estuary
 Biomes
“the world’s major communities, classified according to the predominant vegetation
and characterized by adaptations of organism to that particular environment”

• Biomes:
• Major life zones characterized by vegetation type (terrestrial biomes) or physical environment (aquatic biomes)
• Climate is very important in determining why terrestrial biomes are found in certain areas
• Climate affects the latitudinal patterns of terrestrial biomes
• Biomes are affected not just by average temperature and precipitation, but also by the pattern of temperature
and precipitation through the year
• Leads to formation of tropical (hot), temperate (moderate) and polar (cold) regions – deserts, grasslands and
forests

• Terrestrial Biomes:
• Often named for major physical or climatic factors and for vegetation
• Characterized by distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants, and animals
• Usually grade into each other, without sharp boundaries which may be wide or narrow
• Climb a tall mountain from its base to the summit, you’ll see changes as you might as you travel from the
equator to the poles
 30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
30°S

Tropical forest Temperate broadleaf forest

Savanna Northern coniferous forest
Desert Tundra
Chaparral High mountains
Temperate grassland Polar ice
Biomes Based on Elevation
Biomes

• Similar characteristics can arise in distant biomes through Convergent Evolution

• For example, cacti in North America and euphorbs in African deserts appear similar but
are from different evolutionary lineages
Tropical Rain Forest

• Tropical Rain Forests:

• Hot temperature, moisture laden air rises resulting in constant rainfall (200 inches per year)
• Temperature is high year-round (25–29C) with little seasonal variation
• High Biodiversity: home to millions of animal species, including an estimated 5–30 million still
unknown species of insects, spiders, and other arthropods
• 2% of the land but ½ of world’s species; single tree can have several thousand insect species
• Dominated by broadleaf evergreen plants; their dense tops block out most of the sun not
reaching the forest floor
• Ground has little vegetation (those that do have large leaves); vines (lianas) grow on trees to
reach the sun
• Little wind because of the dense vegetation; plants depend on bats, birds, bees and other
species for pollination
• Rapid human population growth is now destroying many tropical forests
Tropical Rain Forests
Temperate Rain Forest

• Coastal Coniferous Forest or Temperate Rain

Forests:
• Found in scattered coastal temperate areas
that have ample rainfall or moisture from
dense ocean fogs
• Douglass firs and redwoods
Deserts
• Desert:
• Annual precipitation is low; often scattered unevenly throughout the year
• Heat of day bakes the earth causing evaporation of water from leaves and soil
• Soils have little vegetation and moisture to store the heat so you can roast during the day and freeze
at night

• Tropical Deserts:
• Hot and dry most of the year; few plants and a hard wind blown surface of rocks and some sand

• Temperate Deserts:
• Daytime temperatures are high in the summer and low in winter; more precipitation than in the
topical deserts; drought resistance vegetation - cacti

• Cold Deserts:
• Vegetation is sparse; winters are cold; summers warm or hot and precipitation is low; plants and
animals have adapted to stay cool and get enough water

Fragile Ecosystem: slow plant growth; low species diversity; slow nutrient recycling and lack of water
Deserts
Deserts
Savannah

• Savannah
• Equatorial and subequatorial regions
• Warm temperatures year round with wet and dry seasons
• Precipitation is seasonal
• Temperature averages (24–29C) but is more seasonally variable than in the tropics
• Contains widely scattered clumps of trees (aracia with thorns to prevent being eaten)
• Grasses and make up most of the ground cover; fire-adapted and tolerant of seasonal drought
• Plants have adapted to survive drought and extreme heat
• Grazing animals (grass and herb eating; wildebeest) and browsing animals (twig and leaf
eating; giraffe) along with predators (lion)
Savannah
Chaparral

• Chaparral:
• Occurs in mid-latitude coastal regions on several continents
• Summer is hot (30C+); fall, winter, and spring are cool (10–12C)
• Close to sea provides a slightly longer winter rainy season than nearby temperate deserts
• Precipitation is highly seasonal with rainy winters and dry summers
• Fogs in the spring and fall reducing evaporation
• Consist of dense growth of low growing evergreen shrubs and occasional small trees with
leathery leaves to reduce evaporation
• Dominated by shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs; adapted to fire and drought
• Prone to fires in the dry season
• Many plants produce seeds that only germinated after a wildfire
• Animals include amphibians, birds, reptiles, insects, small mammals, and browsing mammals

• People like to live here because of its moderate, sunny climate with mild wet winters and warm dry
summers; risk losing their homes to frequent fires and mud slides
Chaparral
Chaparral
Temperate Grasslands

• Temperate Grassland
• Found on many continents
• Precipitation is highly seasonal
• Winters are cold (often below –10C) and dry; summers are hot (often near 30C) and dry
• Dominant plants are grasses and adapted to droughts and fire
• Little tree growth
• Large grazers such as bison and wild horses and small burrowers such as prairie dogs
• Most grasslands have been converted to farmland (Midwest)
Temperate Grassland
Mountains

• Mountains:
• Some of the world’s most spectacular environments are high on Mountains, steep or high lands that cover ¼ of the Earth’s
surface; dramatic changes in altitude, slope, climate, soil and vegetation occur in a very short distance
• 1.2 bil people (18% of the world’s population) live on them or their edges; 4 bil (59%) depend on mountain systems for all or
some of their water
• Majority of the world’s forests; habitats for biodiversity and contain endemic species found no where on Earth
• Help regulate the earth’s climate: mountains covered in ice and snow help to reflect solar radiation back into space helping
to cool the plant and offset global warming
• Can affect sea levels: storing or releasing water in glaciers; as the earth warms, water can be released in oceans causing
them to rise
• Major storehouses of water

• Despite their significance, mountain ecosystems are not a high priority for governments and/or environmental groups
Mount Rainier National Park
Forests
Northern Coniferous Forest

• Northern Coniferous Forest or Taiga:

• Spans northern North America and Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth
• Cold forests are often found just south of Artic tundra and above certain altitudes in the High
Sierras or Rockies
• Precipitation varies; some have periodic droughts and others, especially near coasts, are wet
• Winters are cold; summers may be hot (Siberia ranges from –50C to 20C)
• Subarctic climate: winters are long, dry and extremely cold; sunlight may only be available 6-8
hrs; summers are short, with cool to warm temperatures; sun shines 19 hrs
• Plant diversity is low as few species can survive the winters when soil moisture is frozen
• Conifers such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock dominate; conical shape of conifers prevents
too much snow from accumulating and breaking their branches
• Migratory and resident birds; large mammals such as moose, brown bears, and Siberian tigers
Northern Coniferous Forest
Temperate Broadleaf Forest

• Temperate Broadleaf Forest:

• Found at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa,
Australia, and New Zealand
• Significant amounts of precipitation fall during all seasons as rain or snow
• Winters average 0C; summers are hot and humid (near 35C)
• Long warm summers, cold but not severe winters and abundant moisture, often fairly spread
throughout the year
• Dominated by deciduous trees in the Northern Hemisphere; evergreen eucalyptus in Australia
• Broad-leaf trees: oak, hickory, maple and beech; survive cold winters by dropping their leaves
in the fall and becoming dormant; each spring, new leaves form and turn colors in the fall
• Mammals, birds, and insects make use of all vertical layers in the forest
• Eastern US were home to bears, foxes and pumas (many have been killed) and the dominant
mammal often is deer
• In the Northern Hemisphere, many mammals hibernate in the winter
• Impact of human activities: disturbed more than any other for growing of crops, wood or cities;
within 100-200 years after it’s left undistributed, it can return to forest
Temperate Broadleaf Forest
 Tundra

• Tundra:
• Covers expansive areas of the Arctic; alpine tundra exists on high mountaintops at all latitudes
• Precipitation is low in arctic tundra and higher in alpine tundra
• Winters are cold (below –30C); summers are relatively cool (less than 10C)
• Treeless and bitterly cold
• Swept by cold winds and covered by ice and snow
• Winters are long and dark
• Little precipitation
• Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil, prevents water infiltration
• Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs and trees, and lichen) and
supports birds, grazers, and their predators; alpine can be flowers
• Most of the growth occurs in the 7-8 week summer when the sun shines almost 24 hrs
• Mammals include musk oxen, caribou, reindeer, bears, wolves, and foxes; many migratory
bird species nest in the summer
Tundra
Aquatic Biomes
• Aquatic Biomes:
• Account for the largest part of the biosphere in terms of area
• Marine biomes have salt concentrations of about 3%
• Largest marine biome is made of oceans, which cover about 75% of Earth’s surface and have
an enormous impact on the biosphere
• Freshwater biomes have salt concentrations of less than 0.1%
• Freshwater biomes are closely linked to soils and the biotic components of the surrounding
terrestrial biome

• Stratified into Zones or layers defined by light penetration, temperature, and depth:
• Pelagic Zone:
• Photic Zone has sufficient light for photosynthesis; most animals live here
• Aphotic Zone receives little light; extensive with little life
• Deep in the Aphotic Zone lies the Abyssal Zone with a depth of 2,000 to 6,000 m
• Benthic Zone:
• Organic and inorganic sediment at the bottom of all aquatic zones
• Communities of organisms are collectively called the Benthos
• Detritus:
• Dead organic matter, falls from the productive surface water; important source of food
Aquatic Biomes
Figure 52.15

30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30°S

Oceanic pelagic and benthic zones

Intertidal zones
Estuaries
Coral reefs
Rivers
Lakes
Lakes
• Lakes:

• Natural bodies of freshwater formed from precipitation, runoff or groundwater that fill in depressions in
the surface caused by glaciers (Bear Mountain), volcanoes (Crater Lake) or other ways such as
supplied with water from rain (precipitation) or streams
• Size varies from small ponds to very large lakes

• Oligotrophic Lakes:

• Nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich

• Small supply of plant nutrients
• Generally deep with steep banks; fed by glaciers and mountain streams with little sediment; crystal
clear

• Eutrophic Lakes:
• Nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice covered in winter
• Rooted and floating aquatic plants live in shallow and well-lighted area close to shore
• Water is too deep to support rooted aquatic plants; small drifting animals called zooplankton graze on
the phytoplankton
• Invertebrates live in the benthic zone; Fishes live in all zones with sufficient oxygen
Lakes
Lakes
Wetlands
• Surface Water: precipitation that does not sink into the ground or evaporate

• Runoff: precipitation that runs into a stream

• Watershed, Drainage Basin: land that delivers runoff, sediment and dissolved substances into a stream;
small streams form rivers and rivers flow downhill to the ocean

• Aquatic Life Zones:

• Source Zone:
• Headwaters or mountain highland streams; usually shallow, cold, clear and swift flowing;
waterfalls and rapids
• Not productive because of lack of nutrients and producers; food is from decomposition; algae;
fishes
• Transition Zone:
• Middle; become wider, deeper and warmer; slower; more turbid (cloudier)
• Producers; both cold and warm water fish (black bass)
• Floodplain Zone:
• Over time, they shape the land including leveling or cutting through mountains forming canyons;
streams can join others, forming wider and deeper rivers
• Large amount of producers and fish; rivers end in a mouth or delta; absorb the floodwaters and
add nutrient rich land
 Human Activity
Human activities are disrupting and degrading many of the ecological and economic services provided by fresh water rivers, lakes
and wetlands:

• Dams and Canals on rivers fragment about 40% of the world’s 237 large rivers
• Alter or destroy aquatic wildlife habitats by reducing water flow and increasing damage from coastal storms

• Flood Control Levees and Dikes:

• Built along rivers and disconnect the rivers from their floodplains
• Destroy aquatic habitats and alter or reduce the function of nearby wetlands
• Hinders the spawning cycle of fishes and birds and can disrupt food chains; species are lost and the biodiversity is
threatened
• Interrupts sediment flow and distribution

• Pollutants from cities and farms add excess nutrients causing algal explosions (blooms) and depleting the oxygen

• Wetlands have been drained or filled to grow crops or covered to build buildings or roads
Wetlands
Wetlands

• Wetlands
• Habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted
to water-saturated soil
• High organic production and decomposition and have low dissolved oxygen content
• Can develop in shallow basins, along flooded river banks, or on coasts of large lakes and seas
• Wetlands are among the most productive biomes on Earth
• Plants include lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce
• Wetlands are home to diverse invertebrates and birds, as well as otters, frogs, and alligators
• Humans have destroyed up to 90% of wetlands; wetlands purify water and reduce flooding
Wetlands
Restoration of Wetlands
Streams and Rivers

• Streams and Rivers:

• Most prominent physical characteristic of streams and rivers is current
• Headwaters are generally cold, clear, turbulent, swift, and oxygenrich; they are often narrow
and rocky
• Downstream waters form rivers and are generally warmer, more turbid, and more oxygenated;
they are often wide and meandering and have silty bottoms
• May contain phytoplankton or rooted aquatic plants
• Diversity of fishes and invertebrates inhabit unpolluted rivers and streams
• Damming and flood control impair natural functioning of stream and river ecosystems
Streams and Rivers
 Coastal Wetlands
• Estuaries:
• Where rivers meet the sea; partially enclosed bodies of water where sea water mixes with fresh water as well as nutrients from
streams, rivers and runoff from the land

• Coastal Wetlands:
• Coastal land areas covered with water all or part of the year
• Combined with Estuaries, they are some of the Earth’s most productive ecosystems because of nutrients, rapid flow of water and
ample sunlight:

• Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands: include river mouths, inlets, bays, sounds, salt marshes and mangrove forests

• Seagrass Beds:
• Species of plants that grow underwater in shallow marine and estuaries along the coastline
• Highly productive and support a variety of marine species
• Stabilize shorelines and reduce wave impact

• Life is harsh; adapt to daily and seasonal changes in tidal and river flow; water temperatures and salinity; and runoff from the land including
soil sediment and pollutants; because of this, they may have low plant diversity but high productivity
Coastal Wetlands
• Mangrove Forests:
• Found along 70% of gently sloping sandy and silt coastlines in the tropics and sub-tropics
• Grow in salt water and have extensive root systems that can support during changes in water levels

• Coastal Aquatic Systems provide important ecological and economic services:

• Maintain water quality by filtering toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, sediments and absorb other
pollutants
• Provide food, habitats and nursery sites
• Reduce storm damage and coast erosion by absorbing waves and storing excess water produced by
storms and tsunamis
• Provide timber and wood for fuel

• UN estimates that between 1980 and 2005 at least 1/5 of the mangrove forests were lost due mainly to
human coastal development

• Loss of mangroves can lead to polluted drinking water caused by inland intrusion of saltwater into fresh water
aquifers used to supply drinking water
River Delta
Estuaries
Mangrove Trees
Life in Coastal Wetlands
Coastal Shoreline

• Intertidal Zone:
• Area between high and low tides (gravitational pull of the moon and sun)
• Organisms must adapt to movement of water; high tides to drying out at low tides
• Oxygen and nutrient levels are high
• Deal with daily salinity and moisture changes
• Organisms need to “hold on”:

• Rocky Shores:
• Pounded daily by waves
• Numerous pools and other habitats with a great variety of species; marine algae
• Animals have adapted to attach themselves to the hard surface
• Sandy Shores:
• Barrier beaches
• Many organisms are hidden from view by burrowing, digging or tunneling in the sand;
home to shore birds that feed on crustaceans – sea grass and algae
• Barrier Islands:
• Narrow islands that form offshore parallel to the coast
Intertidal Zones
Life Along the Coast
Importance of Sand Dunes

• Importance of Sand Dunes:

• Sand is held in place by plant roots
• 1st line of defense against the sea
• Often removed by developers; and when large storms hit and cause damage, they are incorrectly called “Natural
Disasters”
Oceanic Pelagic Zone

• Oceanic Pelagic Zone:

• Constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents
• Oxygen levels are high
• Turnover in temperate oceans renews nutrients in the photic zones; year-round stratification
in tropical oceans leads to lower nutrient concentrations
• Biome covers approximately 70% of Earth’s surface
• Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms in this biome; also found are
free-swimming animals
• Zooplankton includes protists, worms, copepods, krill, jellies, and invertebrate larvae
• Other animals include squids, fishes, sea turtles, and marine mammals
Oceanic Pelagic Zone
 Coral Reefs

• Coral Reefs:
• World’s oldest, most diverse and most productive ecosystem
• Known as “Natural Wonders”
• Biodiversity – marine equivalent of Tropical Rain Forests
• Formed by tiny animals known as polyps – jellyfish; calcium carbonate
• Occupy only 0.2% of the ocean’s floor
• 15% have been destroyed and another 20% damaged
• They provide important ecological and economic services;
• Moderate atmospheric temperatures
• Act as natural barriers protecting coasts from erosion
• Provide habitats
• Support fishing and tourism businesses
• Provide jobs and building materials
Coral Reefs
Life on a Coral Reef
Death of a Coral Reef
Marine Benthic Zone

• Marine Benthic Zone:

• Consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal zone
• Organisms in the very deep benthic zone are adapted to continuous cold and extremely high
water pressure
• Mainly soft sediments; some areas are rocky
• Shallow areas contain seaweeds and filamentous algae
• Deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic ridges are surrounded by
unique chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, as well as echinoderms and arthropods
• Benthic communities include invertebrates and fishes
Marine Benthic Zone
 The Importance of Ecosystems.
We know that no living organism can live in isolation. We cannot survive without producers in nature. All living
beings depend on other living beings in the biological community. Not only they are dependent on one another,
but also each of them exist in a certain proportion. This creates a complete balance in nature amongst living
organisms. This is evident from the study of food chains which operate between living organisms.

• Ecosystems are communities of living things and the

environmental features that support them.
• Ecosystems are essential to human life, providing us
with innumerable and invaluable services.
• These Ecosystem services are the goods and services
derived from natural and managed ecosystems upon
which human welfare depends, and include
everything from clean air and water to food and fuel.
 Threats to the ecosystem
• The spread of agriculture and other human activities into natural habitats poses a large threat
to ecosystems. Similarly, the disruption of fresh water systems through damming and diversion
by humans can lead to vast habitats becoming dry and barren (empaty)

• Chemical pollution can have devastating effects of the health of ecosystems (as well as
humans) and the release of aerosols into the atmosphere (through activities such as burning
fossil fuels) damages ecosystems in numerous ways.
• The release of aerosols (among other things) can also lead to the depletion of the ozone layer
which threatens to allow harmful solar radiation to cause damage to organisms and
ecosystems.
• Another potential threat to global ecosystems that is the acidification of the oceans due to
increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which can have serious knock-on effects on
important aspects of ocean chemistry.
• There are generally considered to be nine major threats to the stability of ecosystems on Earth.
Climate change and loss of biodiversity are often the most publicised, although there are seven
other factors that may be equally threatening.
Threats to the ecosystem
1.Loss of crop & grazing land
2.Depletion of world's tropical forests
3.Extinction of species
4.Rapid population growth
5.Shortage of fresh water resources
6.Overfishing, habitat destruction, & pollution in the marine
environment
7.Climate change
8.Acid rain
9.Pressures on energy resources
 ECOSYSTEM CONSERVATION
• Forests are important components of our environment. Rapid destruction of this important resource is a
cause of concern.
• Afforestation, preventing reckless cutting of trees and making everyone aware of the need to conserve it will
help forest conservation.
• Nature enjoys ecological balance only if the relative number of species is not disturbed. So, conservation of
wildlife is important for the future.
• National parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves are established to protect and conserve wildlife.
• Such measures would ensure that the wildlife does not become extinct.
• Conservation of aquatic life would be ensured by removal of industries near water bodies.

By Creating Awareness
Awareness about ecosystem conservation can be done by quiz posters,
competitions and by arranging other programmes
 If all mankind were to disappear,
The world would regenerate back to the rich state of equilibrium
That existed ten thousand years ago.
If insects were to vanish,
The environment would collapse into chaos.
- Edward O Wilson

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