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Polymers

Technical Report · December 2022

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19631.61603

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 Polymers
By: Julia Rasul

Advisor: Professor Corby Anderson

1
 Executive Summary
Polymers are made up of two identical monomers that have bonded together. Each polymer is
either a synthetic or natural polymer. Most polymers are made from oil and gas. There are
three types of polymers: thermosets, thermoplastics, and elastomer. Thermoplastics are the
easiest to recycle, while thermosets and polymerization are much harder. These three types of
polymers can be further broken down based on their structure, environmental interaction,
molecular weight, and physical state.

Recycling polymers are important because in 2018 the United States alone used 35.7 million
tons of plastic and 27 million tonns went to landfills. Polymers are used in everything from cars
to medical devices and even clothing. Plastic takes centuries to degrade and is very difficult to
recycle. There are two types of recycling methods: mechanical and chemical. There are three
types of chemical recycling: thermal depolymerization, chemical depolymerization, and solvent
purification.

There are many myths about recycling/reusing polymers. One common myth is that plastic
bottles can be reused safely. This is not true, in fact it’s very hard to reuse plastic bottles
because they make up the perfect environment for colonies of bacteria. Another example is
that bioplastic can be an alternative to other polymers like plastic. For bioplastics to degrade
they must have the perfect conditions to do so. The final myth is that polymers can become a
circular economy. Every time polymers are recycled; their polymers chains get shorter. This
results to a decrease in the performance of the polymer.

Scientists have come up with multiple ways to reuse and breakdown polymers. A few ways
polymers are being used is by being added as reagents in asphalt, and cement blocks. They are
also being used in mulch and bricks. Some ways polymers are being broken down are by using
super enzymes, mushrooms, magnetic nanohybrids, and worms.

Finally, many countries have come up with strategies to fix the increase of polymers in landfill.
This starts by having separate recycling bins to decrease the sorting demand on recycling
facilities. This contuse with working on educate the citizens on how they can recycle their
materials and how to know what product can be recycled. Next, they are making companies
responsible to educate their consumers on how to recycle their product. Finally, they are
getting rid of single use plastics.

2
 Table of content
1) Background of Polymers
a) What are polymers made of? ………………………………………………………………………………………..8
(1) Table 1: Categorizing of Polymers …………………………………………………………………….10
b) How are they classified ………………………………………………………………………………………………..10
(1) Table 2: How to characterize a polymer …………………………………………………………..11
c) Structure of polymers ………………………………………………………………………………………………….11
(1) Figure 1: Linear Chain ………………………………………………………………………………………12
(2) Figure 2: Branch Chain ……………………………………………………………………………………..12
(3) Figure 3: Network Chain …………………………………………………………………………………..13

(4) Figure 4: Statistical Copolymer …………………………………………………………………………14

(5) Figure 5: Alternating Copolymer ………………………………………………………………………14
(6) Figure 6: Block Copolymer ……………………………………………………………………………….14
(7) Figure 7: Graft copolymer ………………………………………………………………………………..15
d) Crystallinity …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15
(1) Table 3: Factors that Affect Crystallinity ………………………………………………………….16
e) Semi-crystalline vs amorphous polymer ………………………………………………………………………16
(1) Table 4: Crystalline Polymer vs Amorphous Polymer ……………………………………….17
f) Transition phases ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….17
(1) Figure 8: Transition Phases ……………………………………………………………………………..18
g) Molecular weight ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….19
(1) Figure 9: Polyethylene ……………………………………………………………………………………19
(2) Equation 1: Degree of Polymerization …………………………………………………………….20
h) Reaction and Interaction with the environment ………………………………………………………….21
i) Stereogularity/ physical state ………………………………………………………………………………………21
(1) Figure 10: Isotactic Stereoregularity ………………………………………………………………..21
(2) Figure 11: Syndiotactic Stereoregularity …………………………………………………………22

3
 (3) Figure 12: Atactic Stereoregularity ………………………………………………………………….22
j) Mechanical properties …………………………………………………………………………………………………23
(1) Figure 13: Polymer vs Stress …………………………………………………………………………….24
(2) Figure 14: Strain vs Stress ………………………………………………………………………………..25

2) Polymers
a) Type of polymers …………………………………………………………………………………………………………26
(1) Table 5: Polymer Names, Structure, and Symbols ……………………………………………26
b) In-depth of some polymers ………………………………………………………………………………………….27
(1) Figure 15: Polystyrene Structure ………………………………………………………………………27
(2) Figure 16: Kevlar ……………………………………………………………………………………………..28

(3) Figure 17: Polylactic Acid …………………………………………………………………………………28

(4) Figure 18: Polydimethylsiloxane ………………………………………………………………………29
c) X – ray diffraction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….30
(1) Equation 2: Density of crystalline region …………………………………………………………30
(2) Figure 19: Peaks of Crystallinity ………………………………………………………………………32
(3) Equation 3: Intensity of crystalline region ………………………………………………………32
(4) Equation 4: Debye Share …………………………………………………………………………………33
d) Hazardous Substance in polymers ………………………………………………………………………………33
(1) Table 6: Hazardous substance list ……………………………………………………………………34

3) Other places where polymers are used

a) Transportation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………36
b) Electronics …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………37
c) Textile …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38
i) Figure 20: Textile Recycling Method 1 …………………………………………………………………..39
ii) Figure 21: Textile Recycling Method 2 …………………………………………………………………..40
d) Medical Plastic ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………40
i) Figure 22: Medical Recycling ………………………………………………………………………………..41
e) Artificial Turf Pitches …………………………………………………………………………………………………42

4
4) Recycling
a) Why recycling polymers is important …………………………………………………………………………43
(1) Figure 23: Plastic Waste Management from 1960 to 2018 Worldwide …………..43

(2) Figure 24: Greenhouse Gases Emitted in 2016 Worldwide …………………………….45

b) From People to factory recycling ………………………………………………………………………………46
(1) Table 7: Common Objects and what Type of Polymer they are ……………………..47
c) What is single use plastic ………………………………………………………………………………………….49
(1) Table 8: Single use Plastic …………………………………………………………………………….49

5) Recycling methods
a) Mechanical Recycling …………………………………………………………………………………………………51
(1) Table 9: Sorting Techniques for Mechanical Recycling ……………………………………51
(2) Table 10: Polymers and Recycling Technologies used …………………………………….53
b) Chemical Recycling ………………………………………………………………………………………………………53
(1) Figure 25: Chemical Recycling Diagram for Polymers ………………………………………54
ii) Solvent Purification ……………………………………………………………………………………………….54
(1) Figure 26: Solvent Processing ………………………………………………………………………….55
iii) Chemical Depolymerization ………………………………………………………………………………….55
(1) Figure 27: Chemical Depolarization …………………………………………………………………56
iv) Thermal depolymerization …………………………………………………………………………………...56
(1) Figure 28: Thermal Depolymerization using Pyrolysis ……………………………………...57
(2) Table 11: Chemical Process and the Polymers used for ……………………………………58
c) Degradation …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………62
i) Thermal-oxidation degradation ……………………………………………………………………………..62
(1) Figure 29: General Mechanism of Thermal-Oxidation Degradation …………………63
ii) Photodegradation …………………………………………………………………………………………………64
(1) Figure 30: General Mechanism of Photodegradation ……………………………………..65
iii) Biodegradation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………66
(1) Table 12: Types of Biodegradations ………………………………………………………………66

5
 d) Quaternary Recycling ………………………………………………………………………………………………….66
(1) Figure 31: Quaternary Recycling Process …………………………………………………………67

6) Recycling myths
a) Polymer vs plastic ………………………………………………………………………………………………………68
(1) Table 13: Polymer vs Plastic ………………………………………………………………………….68
b) Why do we not just reuse PET bottles ………………………………………………………………………69
c) Polymers that sound better for the planet, but arrent ………………………………………………69

7) Polymers being reused

a) Recycling using asphalt ………………………………………………………………………………………………71
b) sustainable building materials ……………………………………………………………………………………72
(1) Figure 32: Bottles in Cement Blocks ………………………………………………………………..72
c) Plastic in paver Blocks …………………………………………………………………………………………………73
(1) Table 14: Types of Aggregates used in Paved Blocks ………………………………………73
(2) Table 15: Slump Sized for Each Case ……………………………………………………………….75
d) Reuse plastic Mulch ……………………………………………………………………………………………………75
(1) Figure 33: Weeds in the Mulch ……………………………………………………………………….76
(2) Table 16: Dead Plant in the Mulch and out of Mulch ……………………………………...77
e) Graphene Nano sheets ………………………………………………………………………………………………77
(1) Figure 34: Graphene Nano Sheet Process ………………………………………………………78

8) New Methods to break down Plastics

a) Super enzymes …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….79
(1) Figure 35: Supper Bacteria Reacting with PET ………………………………………………….79
b) Mushrooms eating plastic ………………………………………………………………………………………….80
c) Magnetic Nanohybrid ………………………………………………………………………………………………..81
d) Worms ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….81
(1) Table 17: Plastic Diet and Worms ……………………………………………………………………82

9) How countries recycle polymer

a) Japan …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………83

6
 (1) Figure 36: Flow of Plastic Waste Amongst Stakeholders ………………………………..83
b) Norway …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…85
c) Bhutan ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….87
(1) Table 18: Waste Recovery Facilities ………………………………………………………………..88
d) Austria …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….88
e) Canada ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………89
(1) Figure 37: Management Hierarchy …………………………………………………………………..90

10) European environment agency (EEA) takes on everything

a) Plastic in Textiles …………………………………………………………………………………………………………91
(1) Figure 38: Environmental Impact of Five Major Textile ……………………………………92
b) Europe fixing plastic crisis……………………………………………………………………………………………93
c) Plastic waste trade………………………………………………………………………………………………………94
(1) Figure 39: Exporting of EU Plastic Waste from 2015 to 2019 …………………………...94
d) Biodegradable and composable plastics………………………………………………………………………95
(1) Figure 40: Biodegradable and Compostable Plastics ……………………………………….96
e) Plastic in the water ………………………………………………………………………………………………………97
(1) Figure 41: Where Waste Material is Found in the Ocean …………………………………98

11) Is Plastic Recycling Possible

a) Why recycling is impossible …………………………………………………………………………………………99
(1) Figure 42: Plastics and Ability to be Recycled …………………………………………………..99
b) Why do we still use plastic …………………………………………………………………………………………100

7
 What is a polymer?

A) How are polymers made?

To make a polymer, you need a molecule that can easily bond to another identical
molecule at two points. There are three types of polymers: thermosets, thermoplastic, and
elastomer. Thermoplastic is a polymer that can be melted and reformed, which makes it
recyclable [1, Ch 1, pp. 1 - 26].

While a thermoset is when polymer changes chemically during the curing process and
cannot be melted down and reformed. A good example of thermosets is polyethylene.

Polyethylene can be converted into a thermoset polymer by introducing cross links [1, Ch 1, pp.
1 - 26]. Maximizes the material strength. Another way to change the strength is by changing
the size of the molecule. If polyethylene can polymerize until there are tens of thousands of
monomers long, then the plastic will be extremely strong and denser [1, Ch 1, pp. 1 - 26]. The
reason is that the long chains will be all knotted up. One of the problems with this is that it

makes the material more viscous when heated and therefore more difficult to process .

Finally, elastomer is the process of adding polymers together in a chemical reaction to

form polymer chain. There are two types of elastomers: anionic and cationic polymerization.
Anionic polymerization requires a monomer to have a group that can stabilize a negative
charge. An example of anionic polymerization is addition polymerization (free radical
polymerization) which is monomers added together and no by products are formed [1, Ch 4,

pp. 83 - 106]. To do this, there must be a free radical.

A free radical is an atom or ion that has a single unpaired electron. When used in
addition polymerization, it attacks the double bond and joins one of the carbons leaving one of
the carbons unpaired. Making the molecule itself a free radical that will attach to another

molecule of ethene to form a radical. This will continue to happen until two radicals meet each

8
other and both free radicals are consumed without producing anything [1, Ch 3, pp. 63 - 81].
However, it is not the only type of polymerization.

Cationic polymerization uses a positive charged cation as an initiator. Results in a

positive charge being transferred to the monomer . Unlike free radical polymerization, two
growing chains do not cause termination of chain growth because both chains are positively
charged [1, Ch 4, pp. 83 - 106]. During this process, the chain undergoes a chain transfer
reaction. An example is condensation polymerization where one of the hydrogens on the
carbon next to the carbocation, which are removed to reform a double bond [1, Ch 4, pp. 83 -
106]. When two hydroxyl groups from one molecule join with hydrogen to form water as a

byproduct. Usually occurs when an amine group with a loose hydrogen meets a carboxylic acid
with a loose helping OH group. Table 1 shows polymers and what type of polymer they are [1].

9
 Table 1: Categorizing of Polymers

Polymer type polymers Recyclability

Thermoset • Epoxy Cannot easily be recycled
• Polyurethane
• Phenolic
• Silicone
• polyester
Thermoplastic • Polyethylene Easily can be recycled
• Polypropylene
• polyvinyl chloride
• Polystyrene
• Polybenzimidazole
• Acrylic
• Nylon
• Teflon
Polymerization • Polythene Recyclability depends on the
• Nylon type of polymer

B) How are they classified

There are four ways that polymers can be classified: structure, reaction/environmental
interaction, molecular weight, and physical state/ stereoregularity. Table 2 shows what is
looked at for each type of classification [1].

10
 Table 2: How to Characterize a Polymer

Type of classification What is looked at

structure • Atomic level
• Molecular level
o Linear branched
o Network
o Secondary structure
o Chain length
o HDM/co - polymer
• Crystallinity
• Phase behavior
reaction/environmental interaction • Thermoplastic
• Thermoset
molecular weight • Number
• Weight
• Viscosity average
• Polydispersity
• Degree of polymerization
physical state/ stereoregularity • Tacticity
• Conformation
• configuration

C) Structure of polymers

When looking at the structure of a polymer, one must look at the atomic and molecular
level. At the atomic level, one can see the chemical bond and what is the repeat unit of the

structure. Atomic structure plays a crucial role in the mechanical property of the material .

11
Then, at the molecular level, the structure of polymer chains is shown [1, Ch 6, pp. 145 - 206].
There are five types of chains: linear, branch, network, secondary structures, and copolymers.

Figure 1 shows a linear chain. A linear chain is a long single chain polymer. They are

often semi crystalline or crystalline polymers since the chain is tightly packed together . This
results in a lot of energy being needed to separate the polymer chains [1, Ch 6, pp. 145 - 206].
An example of linear polymer chains is high density polyethylene .

Figure 1: Linear Chain

Figure 2 shows a branched chain. A branch chain is a chain that has one main backbone
with atoms attached to it. The branches on the chain make it difficult for the molecules to pack

together, making these polymers have less crystallinity than linear chains [1, Ch 6, pp. 145 -
206]. An example of branched chain is low density polyethylene.

Figure 2: Branch Chain

12
 Figure 3 shows a network chain. In network chain there are covalent bonds in between
the chain. Network chains are polymer chains that have been stabilized using cross - linking
agents [1, Ch 6, pp. 145 - 206]. An example of a network bond is a low crosslink density .

Figure 3: Network Chain

Secondary structure is when a chain interacts with different chains, or the different part

of the same chain interacts together. An example of secondary structure is a natural polymer .

Finally, Copolymers are when you have different types of monomers in the polymer .
There are four types of copolymers: statistical copolymer, alternating copolymer, block
copolymer, and graft copolymer. Figure 4 shows a statistical copolymer. A statistical copolymer

is when the different monomers are randomly distributed over the length of the chain [1, Ch 5,
pp. 107 - 143].

13
 Figure 4: Statistical Copolymer

Figure 5 shows alternating copolymer. Alternating copolymer is where the monomer

alternates alone the backbone.

Figure 5: Alternating Copolymer

Figure 6 shows block copolymer. Block copolymer is the alternating of fixed length of monomer .

Figure 6: Block Copolymer

Graft copolymer is when one type of monomer is in the backbone and the other
monomer is the branches, seen below.

14
 Figure 7: Graft Copolymer

Copolymers are decided based on what their reactivity ratios (r1r2) ratios are [2]. The
easiest copolymers to determine by r1r2 are random copolymer and alternating copolymer . A
random copolymer has a r1r2 value of 1, and an alternating copolymer has a ratio of zero [2].

D) Crystallinity

Crystallinity is how densely the chains can be packed in space . This is where zones of the
polymer chain fold into an arrangement that creates something like a lattice arrangement [1]. A
material that has crystalline structure has a melt transition. When no crystallinity can form then
we have an amorphous structure. When this happens there is no preferred direction of order .
This type of structure also has a glass transition.

The crystallinity of the structure depends on five factors : rate of cooling, polarity,
flexibility, sidechains, and regularity of structures. Table 3 shows how each factor affects
crystallinity [1].

15
 Table 3: Factors that Affect Crystallinity

What affects crystallinity What happens

Rate of cooling Cooling the polymers quickly makes it so the molecules do not
have time to rearrange themselves into an energy ideal
configuration. This decreases the amorphous regions in a
polymer.
Polarity Polar molecules are attracted to each other. Meaning the more
polar molecules in the polymer the higher the level of attraction
and the higher crystallinity. Due to the molecules being able to

better bind and compress themselves together.

Flexibility When a polymer is not as flexible the molecules are in a fixed
position and unable to move. Resulting in a more crystalline
structure.
Large sidechains If there is a large sidechain on the polymer this can limit the
mobility. This results in a decrease in flexibility, and a reduction
in the attraction forces between the various polymer chains .
Regularity of the Isotactic polymer can pack polymers closer together. While an
structure atactic polymer cannot rearrange itself into an ideal
configuration to achieve crystallinity

E) Semi - crystalline vs amorphous polymer

Semi - crystalline polymers are densely folded and neatly packed crystals . While an
amorphous polymer is a region where there is no proper structure , it is just random. Table 4
shows how crystalline and amorphous polymers compare [1]. The x in the table shows which
polymer is higher in that region.

16
 Table 4: Crystalline Polymer vs Amorphous Polymer

Crystalline polymer Amorphous polymer

Tensile strength x
Density x
Chemical resistance x
Physical resistance x
Flexibility x
Heat resistance x

F) Transition phases

There are three types of phases: melting point, glass transition, and crystallization, seen
in Figure 8 [65, Fig. 1]. Crystallization is the process by which the crystalline polymer region is
produced upon cooling from liquid melt. This occurs through nucleation and growth processes
[1, Ch 8, pp. 259 –305].

Melting point is the process by which crystalline polymer regions are transformed into
viscous liquid with random molecular structure. This occurs at the melting temperature which
over a range of temperatures. Then the melting temperature depends on the specimen history

(how the polymer was created) [1, Ch 8, pp. 259 –305]. The thicker the crystalline lamella the
higher the temperature [1, Ch 8, pp. 259 –305]. Finally, the impurity in the crystallites
decreases the melting temperature and the heating rate determines the melting temperature.
The higher the heating rate the higher the melting temperature .

Glass transition is the process by which amorphous polymer region forms first a rubbery
material and then finally a rigid solid upon cooling from a liquid melt . The transition from a

rubbery to a rigid solid is called the glass transition temperature [1, Ch 8, pp. 259 –305]. This
process can be reversed in the polymer is heated again.

17
 Figure 8: Transition Phases

For a glassy material as we cool down from a liquid there is no melting temperature. It
becomes increasingly solid and remains amorphous until the glass transition temperature . At
the glass transition temperature there is a change in slope .

For a semicrystalline solid the material is cooling down until the melting temperature. At

the melting temperature there is a step jump. Which then goes into a slop change at the glass
transition temperature. Finally, for glass transition temperature, it is the amorphous regions

18
that are changing not the crystalline regions. With a crystalline solid that is not valid for a
polymer because no polymer will be 100% crystalline [1, Ch 8, pp. 259 –305].

G) Molecular weight

The reason molecular weight is important is that polymers are made of multiple
different types of chain lengths. The molecular weight is the total molar mass of the polymer

chain. The units used for molecular weight is g/mol or Da [1, Ch 4, pp. 83 –106].

Keep in mind that there are two types of molecular weight distribution for polymers :
monodisperse and polydisperse. A monodisperse is not typical for polymers and where all
chains have the same molecular weight. While polydisperse is quite common for polymers
where there is a wide range of molecular weight and many different chains length. Down below

is a picture and detailed steps on how to calculate the molecular weight of Polyethylene.

Figure 9: Polyethylene [3, Fig. 1]

19
 Polyethylene has four hydrogen bonds and two carbon bonds , seen in Figure 9. To find
the molecular weight of the monomer, the amount and weight of the element.

1𝑔 12𝑔 𝑔
Molecular weight for the monomer:4 (𝑚𝑜𝑙) + 2 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)   →  4 + 24  →  28  𝑚𝑜𝑙

To find the molecular weight of the polymer the degree of polymerization must be used.

Degree of polymerization: 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑜 𝑛  →  𝑀𝑜 = 𝑛𝑚. Eq. 1

n= degree of polymerization

m= molecular weight of the monomer

Mo = molecular weight of polymer

So, if there is 1000 degree of polymerization and the molecular weight of the monomer is
𝑔 𝑔
28 𝑚𝑜𝑙. Then the molecular weight of the polymerization is 28000 𝑚𝑜𝑙.

𝑔 𝑔
𝑀𝑜 = 1000 (28 𝑚𝑜𝑙) → 28000 𝑚𝑜𝑙

One thing this method does not account for is the terminating group (at the end of the
repeating bond) and the initiation group (at the beginning of the repeating bond) [1, Ch 4, pp.
83 –106]. The reason that most people still use this method is because usually the terminating
and initiation group are negatable.

20
 H) Reaction and interaction with the environment

Reaction is a structural change of the polymer . In degradation there is a breakdown of

the backbone. Then in photochemical the polymer starts to yellow, and this is because the

polymer is reacting with the UV light from the sun [4]. The sun is breaking the chemical bonds
which causes the yellowing coloring.

There are two types of thermal properties: thermoplastic or thermosets. Thermoplastics

are soft and flow at elevated temperatures and hardens at low temperatures [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410
- 451]. They are also primary linear and branched polymers. While thermosets do not flow at
elevated temperatures and hardening is irreversible. One good thing about thermosets is that
they can be used at high temperatures. These structures are primary network or liquid
crystalline [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410 - 451].

I) Stereogularity/ physical state

The physical state of a polymer depends on the temperature, chain length, structure,

and regularity. Then stereoregularity depends on the chemical groups on the polymer
backbone [1, Ch 1, pp. 1 - 26]. There are three types of stereoregularity: isotactic, syndiotactic,
and atactic. Figure 10 shows an isotactic. Isotactic stereoregularity is when all R groups are on
the same side of the backbone.

Figure 10: Isotactic Stereoregularity

21
 Figure 11 shows a syndiotactic stereoregularity. Syndiotactic is when the R groups
alternate positions on the backbone.

Figure 11: Syndiotactic Stereoregularity

Figure 12 shows an atactic stereoregularity. Atactic is when the r is irregularly

distributed on the backbone. An irregular structure will never crystallize and has a glass

transition [1, Ch 1, pp. 1 - 26].

Figure 12: Atactic Stereoregularity

22
 J) Mechanical properties

There are three main categories for mechanical properties of polymers. These
categories are brittle, plastic, and elastomer polymers.

In brittle it does not exabit a large degree of strain or plastic deformation , seen in Figure
13 [6, Fig. 3]. Brittle polymers are heavily cross linked and network polymers [1, Ch 11, pp. 395
- 465]. When we put stain on the material, the bonds are stretching until the covalent bonds
break apart. The material does have some strength, but very little plastic deformation.

Plastic polymers demonstrate a significant amount of plastic deformation. The material

yields plastic deformation, no linear than fracturing. When we stretch the material, we are
stretching the amorphas region [1, Ch 11, pp. 395 - 465]. The reason the materials fracture is
after the amorphas regions move the crystal regions align and break apart since the amorphas
region cannot separate anymore. When one stretches out these polymers (like wire) it
increases the strength but decreases the ductility [1, Ch 11, pp. 395 - 465].

Polymers that exabit elastomer behavior are materials that do not deform but go back
to their original shape. These are disordered amorphas chains that have some crosslinking . As

one stretches the material the chains start to align, and chains start to align [1, Ch 11, pp. 395 -
465]. Since there is crosslinking in the material if the stretching stops before breakage the
material will go back to its original shape. When elastomers break, they will still go back to their
original shape.

23
 Figure 13: Polymer vs Stress

The effect of temperature plays a key role in polymer mechanics . As temperature

increases it allows for chains to mobilize which increases ductility; however , it will decrease the
strength and modulus of the material [1, Ch 11, pp. 395 - 465]. Another key role in polymer
mechanics is strain rate. As one increases the strain rate the chain motion decreases with
results in a decrease in ductility, while also increase the strength and modulus, seen in Figure
14 [6, Fig. 3].

24
Figure 14: Strain vs Stress

25
 Polymers

A) Type of polymers

There are two types of polymers: synthetic and natural. Synthetic polymers are
polymers created from petroleum oil [1]. While natural polymers can be found in nature and be
extracted from the ground [1]. Table 5 shows a list of some synthetic polymers that will be
discussed [1].

Table 5: Polymer Names, Structure, and Symbols

Polymer name/ classification Symbol

Polystyrene PS
Polyethylene Terephthalate PET
Polyethylene PE
Polyvinyl Chloride PVC
Polyamide PA
Polypropylene PP
Polylactic acid PLA
Poly (methyl methacrylate) PMMA

Polyurethane PU
High Density Polyethylene HDPE
Low - Density Polyethylene LDPE

26
B) In-depth of some polymers

1) Polystyrene

Figure 15: Polystyrene Structure [7, Fig. 1]

Polystyrene is like polyethylene expect it has an aromatic ring instead of one of the
hydrogen atoms in each monomer unit. This aromatic ring creates a barrier that restricts how
much this polymer chain can compact [1]. This causes the material to be transparent and not
crystalline. Since it is not crystalline it goes through a glass transition instead of a melt

transition. This also means that this material cannot be heated over the boiling temperature of
water, or they will start to melt. This also affects the properties of the material [1]. This
material is very ridged and brittle, causing it to crack easily. Some benefits of this structure are
that the material is thermally insulating and electrically insulating .

27
2) Kevlar

Figure 16: Kevlar [8, Fig. 1]

Kevlar is better known as poly (para - phenylene terephthalamide). In this material

there are carbon ring groups directly on the polymer backbone . The properties of the material
are very rigid (rode like structure). As a result, these molecules are extraordinarily strong and
can be spun into strong fibers that have strength like steel [1]. Since Kevlar is so strong, they

are used in bullet proof vests, and sport equipment. Since that material has high strength, but
exceptionally light weight [1].

3) Polylactic acid

Figure 17: Polylactic Acid [9, Fig. 15]

PLA is produced from natural feedstocks and a degradable polymer . The reason its
biodegradable is because of the ester group that is in the polymer allowing the polymer to be

28
able to break down just by being in the environment [1]. Many people are interested in trying
to use this material in single use objects because they can break down after disposal [1].

4) Polydimethylsiloxane

Figure 18: Polydimethylsiloxane [10. Fig. 1]

PDMS is an inorganic polymer since it has silicon and oxygen on its backbone instead of
carbon. This polymer is used to make silicone rubber when crossed linked. The reason for this is
when crossed linked creates a soft material that can withstand elevated temperatures and is
chemically inert and insulating [1]. This material is in cookware (gloves for getting food out
oven), electronics (encapsulation), toys, and adhesives [1].

29
 C) x - ray diffraction

Polymers can have two types of structure amorphous or semi - crystalline. In an

amorphous polymer crystallization of the polymer chains inhibited by steric hindrances ,

presence of cross links or entanglements . These amorphous structures have molecules in a

state of disarray [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410 - 451].

Polymers can also be semi - crystalline with pockets of both amorphous and crystalline
structures. Semi - crystalline polymers can be thermoplastics, thermoplastic elastomers, and
liquid crystalline polymers. The size distribution and orientation of crystallites and lamellae and

the structure of atoms are important characteristics in polymers [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410 - 451].

These conditions are determined by processing conditions. They also affect the
polymer's performance by affecting its mechanical properties and dimensional stability [5, Ch.
14, pp. 410 - 451]. If the densities of the amorphous and crystalline regions of the semi -

crystalline polymer are known, then the degree of crystallinity can be used. Below is the
formula for the degree of crystallinity.

𝑝𝑐 (𝑝−𝑝𝑎 )
𝑥100 Eq. 2
𝑝(𝑝𝑐 −𝑝𝑎 )

𝑝𝑐 = density of crystalline region

𝑝𝑎 = density of amorphous region

𝑝 = density of polymer

The degree of crystallinity increases as the density hardness and stiffness of the material
increases [5, Ch. 14, pp.410 - 451]. However, when crystallinity increases there is a decrease in

toughness [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410 - 451].

30
 X - ray diffraction is a non - destructive technique for analysis and characterization of
the properties and structure of polymers [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410 - 451]. X - ray diffraction can be
used to determine the degree of crystallinity, configuration of molecules, unit cell dimensions,

crystallite size and orientation, phase changes, melting points, elemental composition, and
crystal structure biological samples [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410 - 451]. This is achieved by scattering at
wide, small and ultrasmall angles on the machine to collect information at different length
scales.

Wide angle x - ray diffraction measures electron density variations with distances like
angstroms. Wide angles are used to get information on the inter - atomic distances at a length
scale of one nanometer [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410 - 451]. This is widely used to find the degree of
crystallinity in semi - crystalline polymers. It is also widely used to calculate the disorder found
in crystalline domains by measuring the crystal light sizes and unit cell dimensions [5, Ch. 14,

pp. 410 - 451]. Another reason to use wide angles is for quantitative analysis , phase
identification and structural analysis.

Degree of crystallinity can be found through qualitative and quantitative analysis using
wide angle x - ray diffraction. Qualitatively the degree of crystallinity can be estimated by the
number and sharpness of the diffraction peaks . An amorphous polymer has x - ray patterns that
show only broad diffuse halos. Then semi – crystalline polymers show crystalline diffraction

peaks superimposed on the amorphous halos. As the crystallinity increases in the semi -
crystallin polymer so does the sharpness of the peaks , seen in Figure 19 [5, Fig. 14.1].

31
 Figure 19: Peaks of Crystallinity

Quantitatively the degree of crystallinity can be found by comparing the area under the
crystalline peaks to the total scattering area in a two - phase model [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410 - 451].
Where the intensities of the crystalline and amorphous phases in the polymer are isolated on
one graph. The area under the curve for each phase provides the detected intensity for the
arrangement. Below is the formula to find the Intensity of the amorphous and crystalline
regions.

𝐼𝑐
𝑥100 Eq. 3
𝐼𝑐 +𝐼𝑎

𝐼𝑐 = Intensity of crystalline region

𝐼𝑎 = Intensity of amorphous region

32
 The relative size of the microstructure of polymers can be found . This is found from
plugging in the produced peak patterns, and the relative intensities. Below is the Debye Share
equation.

𝐾⋅𝜆
𝐿 = 𝛽⋅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Eq. 4

𝐾 = Shape factor

𝜆 = Breadth of peak

𝛽 = Bragg angle

Small angle x - ray diffraction measures diffraction intensities with a 2𝜃 value of 0.1 to
10 degrees. [5, Ch. 14, pp. 410 - 451] Small angle x - ray diffraction is useful in analyzing the
lamellar and fibrillar structure of a polymer . Lamellae are regions in the polymer that contain

organized chains. The lamellar can derive the lamellar spacing, thickness diameter, and
misorientation.

D) Hazardous Substance in polymers

The Norwegian government created a list of hazardous substances list. This list is
published and revised every two years [11]. The list is categorized by frequency of occurrence,
toxicity, and potential for human exposure [11]. Many of the substances on this list have been

researched as an additive to polymers to see what type of affect it has. Below is the first 50 on
the list of hazardous substances the Norwegian government created [11, Tab 6]. However, it
should be noted that at one time or another everything on this list has been combined with a
polymer and some of the substances on this list are still used today in everyday life . For
example, vinyl chloride polymer (which is number 4 on the list) or better known as polyvinyl

33
chloride is used for pipes, blood bags, automobiles, etc [12]. Then Trichloropropane (which is
275 on the list) is used in the production of polymers, cleaning supplies, paint, etc [12].

Table 6: Hazardous Substance List

2019 Rank Substance Name

1 ARSENIC
2 LEAD
3 MERCURY
4 VINYL CHLORIDE
5 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
6 BENZENE
7 CADMIUM
8 BENZO(A)PYRENE
9 POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
10 BENZO(B)FLUORANTHENE
11 CHLOROFORM
12 AROCLOR 1260
13 DDT, P, P’ -
14 AROCLOR 1254
15 DIBENZO (A, H) ANTHRACENE
16 TRICHLOROETHYLENE
17 CHROMIUM, HEXAVALENT
18 DIELDRIN
19 PHOSPHORUS, WHITE
20 HEXACHLOROBUTADIENE
21 DDE, P, P’ -
22 CHLORDANE
23 AROCLOR 1242

34
24 COAL TAR CREOSOTE
25 ALDRIN
26 DDD, P, P’ -
27 AROCLOR 1248
28 HEPTACHLOR
29 AROCLOR
30 BENZIDINE
31 ACROLEIN
32 TOXAPHENE
33 TETRACHLOROETHYLENE
34 HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE, GAMMA -
35 CYANIDE
36 HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE, BETA -
37 DISULFOTON
38 BENZO(A)ANTHRACENE
39 1,2 - DIBROMOETHANE
40 ENDRIN
41 DIAZINON
42 HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE, DELTA -
43 BERYLLIUM
44 ENDOSULFAN
45 AROCLOR 1221
46 1,2 - DIBROMO - 3 - CHLOROPROPANE
47 HEPTACHLOR EPOXIDE
48 ENDOSULFAN, ALPHA
49 CIS - CHLORDANE
50 CARBON TETRACHLORIDE

35
 Other places where polymers are used

A) Transportation

Polymers are a lot lighter weight than most plastic which still have similar mechanical
properties because many parts of cars are made from plastic. The automotive industry accounts

for about 10% of Europe’s plastic consumption [14, pg. 38]. Since the price of plastic is less
than the price of metals when vehicles are recycled the metals are usually the ones being
looked at the recycle. Having plastic in cars can make it difficult to recycle metals for if plastic
accidentally gets in the recycled pile, it can decrease the grade of the material. Below are the
steps used to recycle vehicles [15, 16].

1) Removal and storing of hazardous materials

a) Remove battery
b) Remove refrigerants
c) Remove gasoline or diesel fuel
2) Removal and storing of fluids
a) Antifreeze
b) Brake fluid
c) Engine oil
d) Transmission fluid
e) Power steering fluid
f) Differential fluid
g) Windshield washer fluid
3) Other materials to removal and store
a) Mercury switches
i) Anti - lock brakes

36
 ii) Convenience lights
b) Lead
i) Battery connectors
ii) Wheel weights
4) Determine if any parts can be reused or recyclable
a) Depending on the recycling companies, plastic may have to be removed during this
stage
5) Crush vehicle
a) Makes it easier to ship vehicles to be used as scrap metals

B) Electronics

It has been estimated that 25,000 tonnes of plastic waste are generated each year from

electronic and electrical products (EE) [13, pg. 38]. With only half of the waste being recycled.
One of the main problems is that only 10 of the 60 chemical elements in e - waste can be
recycled through mechanical processes: gold, silver, platinum, cobalt, tin, copper, iron,
aluminum, and lead [17]. Since electronics contain lesser amounts of lead or mercury, recycling
is more difficult and expensive. Another reason is there are a lot of contaminants in the

material that make recycling more difficult. Below are the steps used to recycle electronics
[17].

1) Manual sorting
a) e - waste is sorted into categories based on type and models
2) De - manufacturing
a) Remove all potential hazardous material
3) Shredded
a) Magnetic separator is used to separate ferromagnetic materials

37
4) Eddy current
a) Used to separate paramagnetic materials from non - materials
b) Plastic is a non - material
5) Float & sink separation
a) Metal with low density (plastic) float
b) Material with high density (glass) sink

C)Textile

In 2018 it was found that 65% of textiles worldwide were made from plastic [13, pg.39].
Textile recycling is not only an issue, but so is microplastics. When textiles containing plastic are
washed, microplastics release into the environment through the washing machine [18]. One of
the main difficulties with recycling textiles is because there are few infrastructures in place to
do this.

One - way textiles can be recycled through mechanical recycling. In this process textiles

are dismantled, then cut into little pieces. The little pieces are then placed into a spinning drum
to be broken down to collect the fibers [18]. The fibers are collected and then spun into yarn
which then can be woven together to make new textures [18]. Many factors play a part in
determining what the fiber can be used for after recycling. Figure 20 shows how textiles are
recycled [18, Fig 4].

38
 Figure 20: Textile Recycling Method 1

Another way textiles can be recycled is through chemical recycling. The tiles are first
sorted and cut into small pieces. The small pieces are then deteriorated to create dimethyl
terephthalate [18]. The dimethyl terephthalate is then repolymerized and spun into new

polyester fibers, filaments, and yarns, seen in the figure below [18, Fig. 5].

39
 Figure 21: Textile Recycling Method 2

D)Medical Plastic

In the United States alone 5.9 million tons of plastic waste is generated per year from
healthcare facilities. Most medical waste is treated by burning it in incinerators. Plastics are
used more in the medical industry because they are easier to sterilize . Only needing gamma

sterilization opposed to steaming and autoclaving like glass, ceramic, and metal [19].

Since medical waste is labeled as infectious before it can be sent to a facility for
recycling it must be decontaminated. Decontamination happens by breaking the plastic into
small pieces and then heating it at elevated temperatures [19]. After the plastic is cooled it can
be taken to a recycling facility [19]. Figure 22 shows the process of recycling medical waste [19,
Fig. 1].

40
 Figure 22: Medical Recycling

Many materials can be recycled effectively if disposed of before contamination . Since if

a plastic is contaminated and not properly disinfected it is possible to spread the disease. For
example, plastic wrappers that cover medical devices can be recycled if disposed of before
surgery starts (before any bodily fluids gets on them) [19].

41
E) Artificial Turf Pitches

All artificial turf has small rubber granules that come from recycled car tires. The reason
rubber granules are used is because they keep the surface soft and do not frost in winter [13,

pg.78]. One of the main problems with them is the rubber granules never stay on the turf . They
always end up in someone's shoes or clothes resulting in them leaving the turf area. This can
lead to granules falling in the ground and making it into the waterway [20].

42
 Recycling

A) Why recycling polymers is important

Over 35.7 million tons of polymers was produced in just 2018 in just the United States
[21]. 50% of polymers created were single use disposables, and 25% was long term
infrastructure [21]. Out of the 35.7 million tons produced 27 million went into landfills [21].
This means that only 8.7 million were either recycled or used for infrastructure. The reason
most polymers end up in land fill is because people are either recycling incorrectly or just
troughing away containers that can be recycled. The figure below shows where plastic waste

has gone from 1960 to 2018 worldwide [21, Fig. 1].

Figure 23: Plastic Waste Management from 1960 to 2018 Worldwide

43
 Some problems with not recycling polymers are that it takes centuries to degrade [22].
Then most of our polymer waste goes to developing countries . Where waste is dumped on land
or in rivers where it ends up in the ocean threatens marine life . The reason this happens is the
developing do not have the infostructure or the experience to process the polymers correctly
[21, 23, 22]. Most waste is sent to unregulated dump sites or just thrown into rivers or
streams. Even when waste goes into dump sites wind can blow pieces of the waste into the
water nearby resulting in the waste getting into the ocean.

It has been determined that about 8 million tons of plastic end up in the ocean each
year [22]. Which result in huge gyres of plastic in the middle of the ocean. Gyres develop from
current pushing plastic into the center of the ocean. One gyre between Hawaii and California

contains 1.8 trillion pieces of plastic [22]. Gyres would not necessarily be a bad thing since it
would make it easier to locate and take out the plastic out from the ocean. If it was not for the
fact that the gyre breaks down plastic into smaller pieces [22]. Which then makes it easier for
marine animals to swallow since it can look like food to them.

Marine life can be affected in multiple ways by having polymers in the ocean . For

example, marine animals can get cause in polymer objects (fishing nets that have been
discarded). Then as stated before animals can ingest the plastic which exposes them to polymer
chemicals that can alter their physiology over time [22]. Then plastic microbeads found in
toiletries cannot be caught in sewage system because they are too small resulting in them going
into the ocean. The main problem with these beads is unlike other plastic they do not degrade
over time and can transport toxic chemicals to marine organisms [22].

Then most polymers are created using oil and gas. So, by recycling polymers we are
avoiding consuming more oil and gas than we need. This also reduced the human impact on the
planet. Then polymers are one of the world's biggest emitters of CO2 [24]. Figure 24 shows the
creation of plastic bottles being on the big effects of greenhouse gases emission in 2016
worldwide [24, Fig. 2].

44
 Figure 24: Greenhouse Gases Emitted in 2016 Worldwide

If all the plastic in the world was recycled it would save 30 - 150 million tons of CO2
[24]. One thing to keep in mind is that polymers break down a little each time they are
recycled; however, this can be combated by mixing in new polymers to the recycled polymer to
help with the grade. Meaning there is zero possibility of having a circular economy with
polymers. The fact is that society cannot cope with the number of polymers being produced on
our planet.

45
B) From People to factory recycling

The first step to recycle a polymer is to determine if it can be recycled. Plastic bags, film
plastic, plastic lids, trays, Styrofoam, and plastic –coated beverage cups cannot be recycled [25,

26, 27]. Both plastic bags and film plastic clog up the sorter by getting stuck in the gears. Plastic
bags can be taken to most grocery stores though to be recycled [25, 26]. Then plastic lids
confuse the sorter and get identified as paper and therefore decrease the grade of paper when
gets sorted wrong [25, 26].

Some other types of plastic that cannot be recycled are frozen food boxes, containers
containing hazardous material [26]. Containers countian hazardous materials such as motor oil

cannot be recycled. This is not to say that cleaning supply bottles are not able to be recycled.
The reason containers that once help hazardous material cannot be recycled is because there is
a possibility there are still some traces of the hazardous material which can contaminate the
other material and lower the grade of the items being recycled.

There are 3 rules to determine if a polymer can be recycled. Is the food container 6
ounces (about 177.44 ml) or larger with a threaded neck, narrow neck, or the rim of the
container wider than the base [25]. Then for planting/ nursey pots it must be larger than 4
inches and made from rigid material [25] Finally, and bucket can be recycled if it is 5 gallons or

smaller. Table 7 shows common objects that have polymers in them [25, 26].

46
 Table 7: Common Objects and what Type of Polymer they are

Objects Type of polymer

• Refrigerators PS
• Air conditioners
• Ovens
• Microwave
• Vacuum cleaners
• Blenders
• Some parts in automotive
• Some parts in electronics
• Foodservice
• Insulation
• Test tubes
• CD and DVD cases
• Foam packaging peanuts
• packaging food PET
• beverages
• packaging film PE
• Trash cans
• grocery bags
• agricultural mulch
• Wire
• cable insulation
• squeeze bottles
• Toys
• housewares
• Clothing PA
• carpets

47
 • plastic packaging PP
• plastic parts for machinery and
equipment
• fibers and textiles
• manufacture of plastic film PLA
• Bottles
• biodegradable medical devices
• Contact lenses PMMA
• Eyeglasses
• Furniture PU
• Bedding
• carpet underlay
• making containers for milk HDPE
• motor oil
• shampoos and conditioners
• soap bottles
• Detergents
• bleaches.
• manufacturing containers LDPE
• dispensing bottles
• wash bottles
• Tubing
• Plastic bags for computer
components

Once the material has been determined that it can be recycled it must be emptied,
cleaned, and dried. The container must be cleaned before being recycled because most
recycling bins are mixed recycling. This means that paper, polymers, and glass are all put into

48
one bin. If the container contained food or water, it could ruin the quality of that item [27]. If
the quality of an item is too low, then it will be taken from the recycling facility to a landfill [27].

One thing to notice is that most objects can be made by multiple types of polymers and
polymers are used in everything. In most cases there is a number at the bottom of the object to

tell you what type of polymer it is, but this is not always the case [27]. The number on the
bottom is only used in certain recycling techniques [27].

C) What is single use plastic

Single use plastic is plastic used once or for a brief time before being thrown away.
Below is a table with 6 categories of single use plastic and what would fall under them [28, Tab.
6].

Table 8: Single use Plastic

category What falls under category

Bags/Carriers • Plastic bags
• Plastic rings that go around beverage containers to carry
them together
Cutlery • Plastic knives
• Plastic forks
• Plastic spooks
• Plastic sporks
• Plastic chopsticks
Foodservice ware Container containing
• Expanded Polystyrene foam
• Extruded Polystyrene foam
• Polyvinyl chloride

49
 • Carbon black
• Oxo - degradable plastic
sticks/Straw • Stirring sticks used to mix beverages or keep beverages
from spilling
• Straws used to drink beverages (straight or flexible straws)

50
 Recycling Methods

A) Mechanical Recycling

Once a polymer reaches a facility it must be sorted from the other recyclable material
using one or multiple of the sorting techniques in table 9 [29].

Table 9: Sorting Techniques for Mechanical Recycling

Sorting How it is used

Technique
Manual Picking Large items, contaminated items, and material that cannot be recycled are
removed.
Trommels Once non - recyclables are removed from the material. The trommels
separate the material into two categories: fine and coarse materials. This is
done by using a large cylinder drum that has holes that allow for fine
material to fall through it.
OCC screening Separates corrugated carboard from mixed recyclables. This is done by
using a rotating disc which proves lateral agitation to the material. In this
process the cardboard stays on top and the other material falls through the
rotating disc.
Ballistic A machine with two oscillating paddles which moves rigid waste to one side
Separator and flexible items to the other. Then allows glass and finer material to fall
through the mesh.
Magnet This is used to remove a metal the is in the recycling. To do this a conveyer
Separator belt is under a magnet. So, the metal gets picked up by the magnet and the
rest stays on the conveyer belt

51
 Eddy Current This is used to separate the non - ferrous materials from non - metallic
materials. The material passes over a shell containing rotating magnets .
This creates a magnetic field that repels the material away from the
magnet.
Optic Sorting This identifies plastic using infrared measurements. The infrared looks at
Machine absorbencies at specific wavelength.
Sink – Float The plastic is shredded and placed into a tank filled with water . The high -
Separator density plastic sinks and the low - density plastic floats.

After sorting the materials will be reprocessed to further sort the polymers. This is done

to make sure any remaining contamination is removed [29]. Some machines used in the
reprocessing process are magnets, optical and sink float separators. After the reprocessing step
the material is washed. This is done to get rid of any of the waste residue that was left on the
container.

During the washing process the plastic can be washed in different ways: friction washer, and

rotary washer. A friction washer uses heat to pressure wash the plastic from contaminants .
Then rotary washer uses a caustic solution to remove contaminants

Once washed the material is shredded and grinded into small pieces. The machine and
size that the material is shredded is determined by where the material will go after leaving the
facility. For example, shear shredders are used to get the polymer into industry size , while
hammer mills are used to pulverize the material [29].

The last step depends on whether mechanical or chemical recycling is being done. Table
10 shows the number and type of recycling used [29].

52
 Table 10: Polymers and Recycling Technologies used

Number on Type of polymer Technique used

Container
1 PETE or PET Chemical
2 HDPE, PE Mechanical

3 PVC Chemical
4 LDPE mechanical
5 PP Chemical
6 PS, PA Chemical

7 Other (PLA, PMMA, PU) Chemical

In mechanical recycling the material is melted and extruded into pellets to be shipped
off [29]. Then chemical recycling changes depending on the polymer used.

B) Chemical Recycling

The main three types of chemical recycling are solvent purification, chemical
depolymerization, and thermal depolymerization. Figure 25 shows how each process works in

chemical recycling [30, Fig. 1].

53
 Figure 25: Chemical Recycling Diagram for Polymers

1) Solvent Purification

Solvent purification is used to selectively separate plastic polymer from any other
materials contaminating the plastic waste. To do this the plastic is shredded then placed into a
solvent. The polymer must have a high solubility to the solvent and the contaminants must
have a low solubility. This is so the contaminates will remain solid and be separated from the
liquid. One the solid and liquid is separated the liquid is placed in a non - solvent.

This will cause the liquid to solidify the polymer [30]. To get rid of the non - solvent that
is on the polymer the material is then filtered, washed, and dried [30]. One of the most
important parts of solvent purification is understanding the contaminants within material;

54
however, most materials just have a label saying contaminate not what the contaminates are
[30]. Figure 26 shows the solvent recycling process [31, Fig. 6].

Figure 26: Solvent Processing

2) Chemical Depolymerization

Chemical Depolymerization breaking down polymer chains using chemicals . In this

process the plastic feedstock must be pre - treated to make sure there are no solid
contaminants. From there the chemicals are added to break the polymer into oligomer and
monomers. The monomers and oligomer are recovered by one of the three processes:
distillation, precipitation, or crystallization. In this process, the polymer grade determines the
quality of the primary raw material [30]. In addition, condensation polymers are used for this

55
process. There are five main chemical inputs and pathways that can occur during
depolymerization [30]. Figure 27 is an example of three of the pathways that can occur when
PET is chemically depolymerized [32, Fig. 7].

Figure 27: Chemical Depolarization

3) Thermal depolymerization

Thermal depolymerization is breaking down polymers using heat treatment. In this

process there are two types: pyrolysis and gasification. Pyrolysis is heating the material at
elevated temperatures with the absence of oxygen. Since there is no oxygen, the process must
be done at atmospheric pressure to avoid a liquid fraction and the creation of gaseous by
product [30]. While gasification is heating the material with low amount of oxygen.

Oxygen is used to control the degradation and to avoid incineration of the plastic inputs .
Gasification converts the plastic inputs into a mixture of gasses . The main gases are carbon

56
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane [30]. The higher temperature leads to more
extensive breakdown of the inputs. Figure 28 is the thermal depolymerization using pyrolysis
[31, Fig. 8].

Figure 28: Thermal Depolymerization using Pyrolysis

Table 11 shows the pros and cons for each type of chemical recycling process, and what

type of polymer is used [30].

57
 Table 11: chemical process and the polymers used for

Chemical process Pros Cons polymers

used
Solvent • It has been • Can currently handle only • PS
purification demonstrated to material inputs that are • PET
separate polycotton homogenous in nature. • PE
textile blends. • Often requires stringent • PA
Environmentally pre - sorting and or pre - • PP
benign solvents have treatment steps to
been tested prepare for purification.
successfully on a lab • Typically, high energy
scale.
requirements, particularly
• Generally, allows
the post - purification
recovery of the
drying stages.
solvent for reuse.
• Typically, they cannot
• The process has been
remove contaminants
demonstrated to
entirely.
recover non - target
• It has not been
by - products for
demonstrated to provide
valorization.
food - grade outputs.
• Lack of clarity regarding
the solvent types and
toxicities for larger scale
examples.
• Does not allow for
limitless recycling of the
material, due to thermal

58
 degradation of the chains
during reprocessing and
conversion to form new
plastic products.
• Current lack of clarity
regarding environmental
performance.
• Yet to demonstrate
economic viability on a
commercial scale.
Chemical • Monomer outputs can • Typically requires • PET
depolymerization be utilized to produce homogenous waste • PU
plastic products of streams as an input, often • PA
equal quality to virgin requiring extensive pre - • PLA
equivalents, treatment/sorting
potentially suitable for technologies.
food contact • Lack of information
applications. concerning the quantities
• Demonstrated of chemical reagents and
examples of systems other supplementary
that allow the materials e.g., catalysts.
recovery and reuse of • Lack of clarity as to the
chemical reagents overall energy inputs
such as catalysts and associated with the
solvents. technologies, processes
• High yields were often requiring high
demonstrated for energy inputs.
several technologies.

59
 • Demonstration of • Lack of yield information
commercial viability at plant level.
for bottle and fiber • General lack of
inputs. understanding around the
level of contamination
that the technologies can
handle, nor how the
contaminants are dealt
with following monomer
purification.
• Little consideration in
published information
given for hazardous
inputs/by - products.
• Lack of verified
environmental
performance data for
most technologies.
Thermal • Can typically accept • Requires a homogenous • PS
depolymerization more heterogenous source of plastic waste to • PMMA
mixtures of waste as provide higher level (i.e., • PE
an input, but at the monomer) outputs. • PP
expense of output • The random nature of the • HDPE
quality and utility depolymerization process • LDPE
(recovery as a fuel). leads to a complex
• Can be applied to mixture of products,
certain waste streams requiring costly

60
 that are currently purification systems to
unrecyclable. isolate usable products.
• When purified, • Current thermal
outputs can be used depolymerization outputs
to manufacture are skewed towards the
plastics and other high lower cost production of

value chemicals, of fuel.

equal quality to virgin • No clarity as to the

feedstocks. recycling of byproducts

• Elevated and reagents as part of

temperatures are the process.

utilized to effectively • Steam cracking of

decontaminate the pyrolysis oil to create
waste inputs. monomers typically

• Requires a results in a proportion of

homogenous source the input being converted

of plastic waste to to energy (recovery) to

provide higher level run the process.

(i.e., monomer) • Requires the existing
outputs. virgin polymer value chain

• The random nature of (steam cracking) to

the depolymerization produce monomers.
process leads to a • No environmental
complex mixture of performance data is
products, requiring currently available for
costly purification most technology
systems to isolate providers.
usable products.

61
 • Current thermal
depolymerization
outputs are skewed
towards the lower
cost production of
fuel.

C) Degradation

One method of disposing of polymers is to create degradation polymer materials that

can be degraded in one of the three methods: Thermal degradation, Photodegradation, and
biodegradation.

1) Thermal - oxidation degradation

With enough heat the chemical bonds of the polymer absorb the energy from the heat
and start to break the chemical bonds. Causing free radical bonds that will keep reacting and
creating more free radical bonds (until the polymer is fully broken down). During this process,
the parameters of polymers change, resulting in a change in their mechanical and thermal

performance [33]. There are three types of thermal degradation that do not use oxygen :
depolymerization, random chain breaking, and side group elimination. The figure below shows
the general mechanism of thermal - oxidation degradation [34, Fig. 1].

62
 Figure 29: General Mechanism of Thermal - Oxidation Degradation

Depolymerization is when the ends or weak points of the polymer chain break first and
then the connecting monomers. Random chain breaking is when the reaction starts from any
point in the polymer chain. This method creates low molecular weight polymers [33]. Finally,
side group elimination is when the reaction starts at the side groups of the polymer chains [33].
Then there is thermal degradation that uses oxygen.

In the thermal oxidation degradation, the heat and oxygen react with the polymer
chains to form peroxide. The peroxide decomposes and produces new radicals that react with
other chains to create basic radicals. In this process multiple types of radicals can form and
react with each other, leading to complete termination [33].

63
2) Photodegradation

Photodegradation is the break of photosensitive groups in the polymer chain using light .

There are two types of photodegrading, one without oxygen and one with oxygen. The one
without oxygen has two subcategories direct degradation and indirect degradation [33]. In
direct degradation is when the polymer absorbs photons directly and the polymer molecules
change from the ground to the excited state. Then in an indirect degradation the polymers
absorbed the photons from the environment making the molecules go from ground to excited
state.

When oxygen is interduce in photodegradation it is called photo oxidative degradation.

In this process the light and oxygen break the polymer molecules to create some basic radicals .
The basic radicals react with oxygen to form peroxide. The peroxide starts to decompose and
produce new radicals. New radicals react with each other until complete termination of the
polymer [33]. The figure below shows the general mechanism of photodegradation [35, Fig.
24].

64
Figure 30: General Mechanism of Photodegradation

65
3) Biodegradation

Biodegradation is a type of polymer that can degrade with microorganisms , water or

CH4 [33]. In this process bacteria attach to the surface of the polymer . Next the polymer chain
gets broken down by the enzyme secreted. Finally, low molecular weight fragments will be
absorbed and digested by the bacteria. There are three types of biodegradable polymers, seen
in table 12 [33].

Table 12: Types of Biodegradations

Type of biodegradation polymer

microorganisms • PHBV
• PHB
Synthetic polymer material • PLA
• PCL
Natural polymer material • Cellulose
• Starch
• Lignin
• chitin

D) Quaternary Recycling

Quaternary recycling is used for thermoplastic based materials . In this process,

thermoplastics are burned and their reclamation to create energy and fuel production called
plastic pyrolysis. Plastic pyrolysis is when plastic is exposed to elevated temperatures in an

oxygen free environment. At extremely elevated temperatures the molecules start to vibrate
violently. This vibration causes the molecules to break down into smaller molecules [36].
Before plastic can go through pyrolysis the polymer must first be shredded and then
compresses the small material into dense material. Once this is done the material can go

66
through pyrolysis. The gas of the material is collected and condensed into a liquid. That can be
processed into oil.

One of the main problems with this method is from heteroatoms like polyolefins or
hydrocarbons. When hydrogen chloride gas forms in a pyrolysis process , it manifests as it is.

Chloride gas is corrosive and acidic but easily removed in a scrubber. Figure 31 shows the
quaternary recycling process [37, Fig. 4].

Figure 31: Quaternary Recycling Process

67
 Recycling myths

A) Polymer vs plastic

A polymer is a large molecule that has the same repeat unit structure . It can be
synthetic or natural. The structure of a polymer can be linear, complex or branch. Polymers can
be elastomers, brittle, or plastic polymers.

Plastic is a polymer composed of chains of polymers . Plastics are either partially organic

or fully synthetic polymer. Plastic exhibits the same mechanical properties as polymers. There
are two types of plastic: thermoplastic and thermoset plastic. Table 13 shows the difference
between polymers and plastics [38].

Table 13: polymer vs plastic

Polymer Plastic
structure • Made of a lot of small • Made of one long polymer chain
monomers
Types • Additional polymer • Thermoset plastic
• Condensation polymer • Thermoplastic
Used • Adhesives • Bottles
• Paints • Bags
• Films • Boxes
• Fibers • Fibers
• paints • films

68
B) Why do we not just reuse PET bottles

PET bottles cannot just be cleaned and reused. One of the main reasons is the second
we opened a water bottle we exposed the bottle to contaminants from the air , hands, and

mouth [39]. With enough time given these bacteria can grow to dangerous levels . Bacteria can
grow in a damp water bottle or a half full bottle. All bacteria need is a little water to thrive [39].
Another reason is the chemicals used to create the bottle can migrate into the beverage ,
making one extremely sick. The migration of the chemical (antimony form the creation of PET
bottles) to the beverage depends on the temperature and the contact time [39]. If one uses the

bottle frequently the migration will be more. Then if someone reuses a bottle once then
recycles it. Temperature changes to the bottle can pose great risks [39]. PET bottles will start to
deform and melt when the beverage inside them reaches more than 70C .

C)Polymers that sound better for the planet, but arrent

Bioplastics are created using plant - based sources like flaxseeds [40]. However, United
Nation reported in 2015 that bioplastic have the same material properties as polymers created
from fossil fuels [40]. This means that the material still has the same problems as other plastics ,
it is just recycled differently.

Compostable plastics are like biodegradable plastic except to be classified as

compostable plastic. It must be verified by an independent third - party organization.
Compostable plastics are hard to recycle in waste facilities resulting in them getting into the
water way. Biodegradable plastics are plastics that can be broken down into carbon dioxide ,
water, and minerals through natural processes [40]. Below is a list of what makes plastic a
biodegradable plastic.

69
1. Does not contain elevated levels of heavy metals
2. 90% can be broken down by CO2 within six months of being exposed to natural process
3. 12 weeks (about 3 months) after exposure, 90% of plastic leftovers must be able to pass 2 x
2mm (about 0.08 in) mesh
4. Final material cannot be toxic to plants

One of the problems with biodegradable plastic is that the speed and how it degrades
depends on the environment. There have been many stories about how a biodegradable bag
was found intact after being in the ocean for three years [41]. The reason the plastic was able
to stay intact is because this type of plastic needs a certain type of temperature range to
breakdown [41]. The UV radiation and current help break down the plastic, but if the plastic
gets into deep water, it stops breaking down. The reason for this is the plastic becomes barred

in biofilm or sediments which decreases the speed of breaking down plastics [41]. Another
problem with this plastic is that many treatment plants for organic waste cannot treat this type
of plastic because it would disrupt their treatment process or take too long to degrade .

70
 Polymers being reused

A) Recycling using asphalt

When polymers are not added to asphalt, asphalt exabits plastic behaviors at elevated
temperatures and under low frequency. When plastic is added to asphalt, the amount of plastic
is determined by its volume. The amount of plastic in asphalt can range from 6% to 12%. There
are two methods for mixing asphalt: dry and wet [42, Ch 7, pp. 117 - 144].

In the dry process the plastic waste is blended with the aggregates then mixed with the
asphalt at a defined temperature until fully blended. Then the material is molded with an

impact hammer. While wet, the plastic waste is mixed with the asphalt at an elevated
temperature (165C or above) [42, Ch 7, pp. 117 - 144]. One problem with the wet process is
without continues agitation the asphalt and plastic will start to separate.

It was found that water damage was reduced when plastic was added. Then depending
on the plastic used it has been seen to have a resistance agents' deformation of HMA [42, Ch 7,

pp. 117 - 144]. Plastic also improved stiffness, rutting, resistance, and fatigue resistance.
Finally, plastic in asphalt is shown to increase ductility and help decrease the likelihood that the
asphalt will fracture at low temperatures.

Some problems with adding plastic to asphalt is that it changes the handling
temperature. Another issue is that some plastic waste (like LDPE) has high melting points a lot
higher than handling temperature of asphalt [42, Ch 7, pp. 117 - 144]. This means that the dry

method cannot be used. Then it is hard to get all the plastic to dissolve into the mixture. There
will always be parts of the plastic that do not dissolve and will become part of the aggregate in
the mixture [42, Ch 7, pp. 117 - 144].

71
B) Sustainable building materials

It has been estimated that in Europe alone 1 million tonnes of plastic are used annually
and only 20% is recycled [13, pg. 37]. Plastic is used in buildings because of the benefits it has
over metals. For example, using plastic for insulation decreases energy consumption than when

bricks are used. Then plastic coating, unlike steel, does not corrode when wet .

One way to decrease the amount of plastic waste in buildings is by using plastic waste as
building material. In this experiment it was looked at how placing plastic bottles in cement
blocks would affect the material. The bottles were 30cm (about 11.81 in),9cm (about 3.54 in),
1.5cm (about 0.59 in) with a thickness of 0.5mm (about 0.02 in) [13]. The blocks created were
300 x 300 x 300mm (about 11.81 in) [13]. The block was created by leaving the mold at room
temperature for 24hours then taking the block out of the mold and immersed in water for 27
days (about 4 weeks) to cure. There were two types of blocks: one where bottles were filled

with air, and cement blocks. Figure 32 shows how the bottles were placed in the cement blocks .

Figure 32: Bottles in Cement Blocks

72
 It was seen that the plastic bottles with air had stable thermal performance in all
seasons compared to the traditional blocks. The plastic bottles also acted like a good thermal
insulator, and higher strength, and higher factor of safety than traditional blocks. Even though
the nontraditional blocks showed higher strengths cracks still appeared when pressure was
placed on the box and always the same patter. The crack would start in the top layer then work
its way down with cracks forming in between the bottles . This may be due to the modulus of
elasticity being different between the mortar and the bottle resulting in tensile stress being
created inside the specimen.

C)Plastic in paver Blocks

Paver blocks were created using fine and coarse aggregates. Table 14 shows the
material used and how much of each material was used [43].

Table 14: Types of Aggregates used in Paved Blocks

Name of aggregates Type of Percentage used inf Information

aggregates fine or coarse
aggregates
River Sand Fine 60% total fine - Specific gravity: 2.6
aggregate aggregate - Fitness modulus: 2.8
Quarry Dust Fine 30% total fine - Specific gravity: 2.58
aggregate aggregate - Fitness modulus: 2.95
Polypropylene Fine 10% total fine - Specific gravity: 1.5
granules aggregate aggregate - Fitness modulus: 3.2

73
 Crushed Coarse 90%, 85%, 80% - 20mm (about 0.79 in)
aggregate passing and retaining on
10mm (about 0.39 in) sieve
- Specific gravity: 2.73
- Fitness modulus: 6.8
Polypropylene chip Coarse 10%, 15%, 20% - specific gravity: 1.5
aggregate - water
- absorption: 0.01%
- tensile strength:35 MPa

This study looked at how paver blocks would be if the percentage of crushed and
polypropylene chip aggregates were changed. In this experiment the polypropylene chips

added in total of coarse aggregates were 10,15, and 20 percent. A slump test was done for each
of the three products created. A product containing 90% crushed and 10% polypropylene will
be called case 1. A product containing 85% crushed and 15% polypropylene will be called case
2. Then a product containing 80% crushed and 20% polypropylene will be called case 3. Finally,
one with 100% crushed aggregates will be called case 4 [43].

The compressive strength of all four cases increased as the days went on . However, the
amount that the compressive strength increased decreased with the increase of polypropylene
chip [43]. Based on what countess as adequate strength of paver blocks the most plastic waste
that can be added is 20%. The slump size of all four cases was the same, seen in table 15 [43,
Tab. 12].

74
 Table 15: Slump Sized for Each Case

cases Slump size (cm)

1 26
2 24.5
3 23
4 21

D) Reuse plastic Mulch

One-way plastic is used in agriculture is in fertilizers and pesticide eclipsed in plastic

[44]. These plastics are used for a season and left outside exposed to the weather . This results
in this plastic being found next to waterways. One way this has been combated is by using
wool. Wool can prevent weeds, animals, and retain water during dry periods [44]. In some
countries like Norway farmers can dispose of their plastic free of charge and there is a charge
per kilo of new plastic put on the market used in agriculture [13, pg.57].

In Florida most strawberry production is carried out in open fields using black plastic
mulch. The plastic mulch is removed after growing session. A study was prepared where plastic
mulch was used for two seasons instead of one. In the experiment the dead strawberry plant
was left as federalizer on some of the mulch to see the effect it would have . For the mulch
using the dead plant the strawberry crop had to be desiccated. The desiccated plant was left on
the bed to act as fertilizer, then fumigated with Telone Inline [44]. It was seen that more weeds
grew in the mulch that did not have the dead strawberries than the one that did , seen in the
figure below [44, Fig. 2].

75
 Figure 33: Weeds in the Mulch

Using the mulch, a second time and not removing the dead strawberry plant decreased
the number of weeds and insects. However, it did not affect the height or width of the plant at
all, seen in table 16 [44, Tab. 13].

76
 Table 16: Dead Plant in the Mulch and out of Mulch

Without dead plant With dead plant

Hight 1.64 1.63
width 1.68 1.59
Weeds 95 43
TSSM motiles 24.2 ± 6.6 18.4 ± 4.2

N. californius 0.01 ± 0.01 0.07 ± 0.04

Melon aphid 0.4 ± 0.3 0.4 ± 0.1

six - spotted thrips 0 0.02 ± 0.01

Big - eyed bug eggs 0.02 ± 0.01 0.03 ± 0.02

E) Graphene Nano sheets

PS, PP, PE have been shown to act as a synthesis for multiple forms of carbon nano
material. To take off all the hydrocarbon containing oils from the plastic the material is heated
up slowly (5C/min) to 400C [45]. This slow pyrolysis causes porous, amorphous, and shiny black

charred to form when the material is cooled. The material is then moved into another reactor
where the powder is grinded and warmed to 750C (warming rate of 10C/min) in a dormant
atmosphere [45]. Figure 34 shows the process for creating the graphene nano sheets [45, Fig.
10].

77
 Figure 34: Graphene Nano Sheet Process

Looking at the nano sheets, it was determined there were two prominent bands: D -
band and G - bands. The D - band was found to cause non - consistency and indiscretions in
end structure [45]. Then the D - band also caused flexible dispersing of charge transporter in
armchair edges and did not have a large effect in crisscross edges [45].

78
 New Methods to break down Plastics

A) Super enzymes

PET is a thermoplastic that is used worldwide 87 million tonnes being produced in 2022
[46]. PET is widely used in clothing, containers, water bottles, etc. In 2016 a bacteria called
Ideonella Sakaiensis was found [46]. This bacterium was found to break down PET by using a
two - enzyme system to depolymerize PET into TPA and EG. The first enzyme is ISF6_4831
protein which hydrolyzes and breaks ester linkage [46]. The second enzyme is MHET hydrolase
which hydrolyzes the soluble to produce TPA and EG . Figure 35 shows the bacteria break down

PET [46, Fig. 2].

Figure 35: Supper Bacteria Reacting with PET

79
 It has been seen that when MHET hydrolase is added to the reaction PET breaks down
twice as fast than when PET has no bacteria. It was found that the reaction is enzymes limited,
not substrate because as the reaction takes place there is an increase constituent monomer as
the enzymes increase in both concentrations.

Scientists decided to create an enzyme that had both MHET hydrolase and PET
hydrolase to see how it would affect breaking down PET. It was determined that this new
enzyme depolymerizes PET and Polyethylene furanoate. As of right now both bacteria are too

slow to be commercialized since it takes a few days to break the PET into its monomer [46].

B) Mushrooms eating plastic

Mushrooms are fungi that can break down dead plants. A mushroom called
Pestalotiopsis Microspora and Aspergillus Tubingensis can turn polyurethane into organic
material 47]. Polyurethane is one of the main ingredients of plastic. The performance of the
mushrooms is determined by the temperature and pH balance of their surroundings.

Pestalotiopsis Microspora using polyurethane as its carbon source [47]. Unlike many
mushrooms Pestalotiopsis Microspora does not need oxygen to survive and can break down
plastic in 2 weeks. While Aspergillus Tubingensis takes two months to break down plastic. By

first breaking down individual molecules then using mycelia to break them apart [47].
Mushrooms have not become mainstream for breaking down plastic because the production
condition has yet to be determined [47, 48].

80
C)Magnetic Nanohybrid

This water purification is still in the testing stage. From research, it has been determined
that the nitrogen coated carbon nanotubes when mixed with peroxymonosulfate created a
chemical known as reactive oxygen species [48]. The reactive oxygen species attacks the

microplastic into chemical by product (like aldehydes and carboxylic acid) [48]. During the
experiment it was found that heating up the water speeds up the process . To allow the tubs to
be fished out of the water they were made magnetic. This was achieved by embedding
manganese into the nanotubes.

When the water was heated to 120C it was found that 30 - 50% of the microplastic had

been reduced. As of right now aldehydes and carboxylic acid as major environmental hazards . It
should be noted that too much of anything can become hazardous. Another problem is the
time it would take to heat up the water. It would not be feasible for a purification plant to heat
up water to 120C [48]. Finally, 30 - 50% is a significant improvement; however, there is a fear
that the cost of heating up the water and the time it would take would not make this an
economic solution [48].

D)Worms

Two types of worms were identified to break down PS and PU . Their worms are
Zophobas Atratus Fab (super worm) and Tenebrio Molitor Linn (yellow worm). This study
looked at what would happen to these worms if they were fed a plastic diet.

Super worms survived 100% on a PS or PU diet; however, the weights of the worms
decreased as the days went on [49]. Yellow worms survived 84.67% on PS and 62.67% on PU

diet. With an increase in weight as the days went on for both diets [49]. When comparing super
worms to yellow worms it was seen that super worms consumed more PS than yellow worms

81
but had a similar amount of PU consumed. Both worms also showed a change in gut microbials,
seen in table 17 [49, Tab. 14].

Table 17: Plastic Diet and Worms

Types of worms PS diet PU diet

Super worms • Enterobacteriaceae • Enterococcus
• Klebsiella • Mangrovibacter
• Enterococcus
• Dysgonomonas
• Sphingobacterium
Yellow worm • Hafnia • Enterobacteriaceae
• Hafnia

82
 How countries recycle polymer

A) Japan recycling of polymers

Disclaimer: There is a lack of transparency with how much of Japan's polymers are being
exported.

Japan is one of the worst plastic users in the country , generating 8.08 million tonnes in a
year [51]. With only 86.2% of the polymers being recycled [51]. One way Japan can recycle so

many polymers is by holding national government, municipal governments, manufactures, and

consumers responsible. The only people exempt from recycling obligation are small businesses .
The producers and manufacturers are held responsible by paying a recycling fee so that
recycling companies will recycle their products. This was done through policy management and
legislation. Figure 36 show the flow of plastic waste amongst stakeholders in Japan [51, Fig. 5].

Figure 36: Flow of Plastic Waste Amongst Stakeholders

83
 There are two main acts and laws that affected plastic recycling are the plastic recourse
circulation act and the waste management and public cleansing law.

The plastic recourse circulation act was created because Japan found that circulation of
plastic recourse to important since plastic is used in multiple types of products . The policy
includes creating guidelines for manufactures on how products can be designed and produced .
In return the government will provide financial support to manufactures whose products meet
the requirements. Then criteria are set to retailer and service providers to reduce sing use
plastic. For example, in 202 Japan banned free distribution of plastic bags [51]. This was to

discourage people from using plastic bags and instead bringing their own reusable bag .
Retailers and manufacturers also must develop a plan on how to collect and recycle their used
products. Next, municipalities must either be able to recycle plastic products under the current
recycling scheme for containers and packaging or develop a recycling plan in collaboration with
recyclers. Finally, waste generators must develop a recycling plan to reduce and recycle plastic
waste.

The waste management and public cleansing law gives a list of responsibilities that
citizens, business, and central government & local government must follow when it comes to
waste. Citizens must restrict their waste discharge by using recycled articles and sorting waste

prior to discharge. Then businesses must reduce the amount of waste produced by recycling or
reuse of waste. The business also must produce products that will not present handling or
processing difficulties. They must also provide information to the consumer on how to properly
manage the waste generated when their product is discarded. Finally, the central government
and local government must give the necessary advice to the municipality to allow them to
perform the duties described above and keep data on the waste being produced. The central

government must give advice and financial aid to help with performing the duties outlines . The
list below shows the problems Japan is facing with recycling [51].

84
Problems Japan is facing with recycling are

1. Rise of plastic waste

2. Lack of incentive for Recycling companies
3. High Environmental load of waste processing
4. Opposition to Construction of waste treatment facility
5. Lack of relevant information and data on plastic waste export

Japan is having trouble creating incentives for recycling companies because most
companies are finding it hard to make a profit. The reason is that virgin material costs less than
pellets made from recycled polymers. Another reason recycling companies are having trouble is

that most people do not want waste treatments facility. When polymers are recycled there is
an emission of dioxin - related substances, carbon dioxide, and sulphide [51]. Carbon dioxide
and sulphide are not as bad as dioxin related substances. Dioxin has been linked to birth defects
and developmental abnormalities. Then people are also not getting any compensation for the
potential pollution that may occur around them.

B) Norway

In Norway there are about 200 small and medium size companies that produce plastic.
With 3 million tonnes of plastic in use and 0.5 million tonnes going int landfills each year [13,
pp..26]. For a more circular plastic economy there must be more sustainable plastic products
and more recycling from plastic waste.

One of the main difficulties of recycling polymers is that they must be sorted by type
and many polymers have additives. There is no solution for this yet, but there are steps in place

to help improve the situation, seen below [13].

85
1) Having eco design products based on EU’s descriptions
2) Non - toxic materials/chemicals
a) Materials and chemicals added to plastic can harm human health and the environment
b) Examples: phthalates, halogenated compounds, and bisphenols
3) Increase knowledge of polymer
a) Increasing knowledge on the content of polymers
b) Identify hazardous substance in polymer
c) Determine how hazardous substances in polymers affect humans' health and the
environment

Norway has decided to increase research on what is a hazardous substance in polymers.

Once a substance has been identified as a concern limit values are placed on the polymers that
contain them. Polymers are not only difficult to recycle because of additives , but because there
is no efficient policy to ensure polymers are recycled. Below is a list of what the Norwegian
government is doing to remediate that [13].

1) Single - use plastics

a) Producers are responsible for covering the cost of litter clean - up

b) Product groups responsible
i) fast food, take - away food
ii) wet wipes and balloons
iii) Filtered Tabaco products
2) Voluntary measurement
a) Industries can volunteer to give the Norwegian government measurements on their
plastic usage and there reduce in consumption.
b) Companies taking Plastic Pledge
i) use more recycled plastic
ii) Avoid unnecessary use of plastic
iii) Increase recycling

86
C)Bhutan

Bhutan is a developing country that is carbon negative [52]. Meaning that they emit less
than zero carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases. One way Bhutan was able to become carbon

negative is that it has national legislation on waste management.

The waste prevention and management regulation of 2012 was used to classify waste.
Waste was classified into medical waste, industrial waste, and e - waste. Then each category
has their own management and prevention policy. They also have their own monitoring and
implementing agencies. One of the main points of this regulation is that it prohibits illegal

dumping or the release of waste into the environment. There are charges and fines for
noncompliance with the law.

National waste management strategy of 2019 looked at the current waste statue , waste
management and police and legislation at the time. In 2018 it was noted that 58.1% of waste

was organic and 13% of waste is plastic [52]. The waste management strategy was for local
munipal collect the thromdes and urban area solid waste. Then the Ministry of Works and
Human Settlement (MoWHS) will provide technical guidelines for supporting solid waste
management. Finally, waste must be collected and put into landfills or dumpsite or burned or
waste management sites. Waste will be put into four different waste containers . Red for

infectious waste, green for general waste (paper and plastic), blue for food waste (fruit and
vegetables), and yellow/ white for medical stuff (needles, blades). The different bins are to help
decrease the burden of separating the types of waste.

National waste management flagship program of 2020 is to get Bhutan to become a

zero - waste country. To do this the country would like for only 20% of waste to go into landfill
instead of the 80% that is going right now by year 2030 [52]. One way this is happening is by

having multiple waste recovery facilities. Table 18 shows all the waste recovery facilities and
what they do [52].

87
 Table 18: Waste Recovery Facilities

Facility Info
Material recovery facility (MRF) • recyclable dry waste
• where material will be further separated
and sent to recycling plants
Refuse derived fuel (RDF) • fuel derived from plastic, wood, organic
waste, paper, textile, rags, leather, non -
recyclable plastics, etc.
Waste recycling plants • recycling plastic, paper, etc.
• Country does not really have one right
now
Construction and demolition of a C&D waste • bags, wood, metals used for Contruction
recycling plant materials

C) Austria

The study Kunststoffabfälle in Österreich – Aufkommen und Behandlung was done by

the BMNT. This study aimed to provide information on the generation and treatment of plastic
waste in Austria since 2015. The study looked at the type of waste and plastic content, origins

of waste by industry and area of use. The study showed 0.92 million tonnes of homogenous
plastic waste in Austria [53]. With 77% being mixed waste, 80% post - consumer waste, and
20% is production waste [53]. Out of the plastic being wasted only 20% is recovered and 71%
goes undergo thermal recycling [53].

In Austria there is about 5,000 to 7,000 tonnes of plastic carrier bags accruing in Austria

annually until January 1, 2020 [54]. When Austria government put a ban on non -
biodegradable plastic bags. There is also a band on microplastic particles in cosmetics and
cleaning agents as of 2020 to abide by the European solution. To determine more strategies on

88
how to fight plastic waste the government has asked for a round table discussion with major
trade chains to understand how this ban has affected them and what can be done to help.

D) Canada

Canada has moved towards a zero plastic waste and mitigating marine plastic littler. The
reason for this is that 80% of all plastic in the oceans is land based [55]. The plastic in the ocean

comprises of microplastics and macroplastics. Microplastics comprise of primary and secondary

plastic. A primary microplastic is microbeads found in exfoliating scrubs [55]. Secondary plastic
is from degraded macroplastics like plastic bags that have broken up from current [55]. One of
Canada main problem with the plastic problem up until 2022 there was no federal band on
single use plastic. Instead, the Canadian government left it up to municipalities to decided is
they banned the use of single use plastic like plastic bags . The Canadian government wanted a
management hierarchy to be created to help municipalities determine what was the best action
to take for them [56]. The Ministers of the Environment created a management hierarchy for

decision making, seen in figure 37 [56, Fig. 2]. Reusable alternative is preferred over recycling
alternatives and reducing is the best option.

89
Figure 37: Management Hierarchy

90
European Environment Agency (EEA) Take on Everything

A) Plastic in Textiles

In 2018 more than 60 million tons of synthetic fibers were used worldwide. With over
70% of synthetic fibers being processed for cloths and household textiles [57]. The most
common synthetic fiber is polyester with over 55 million tonnes being produced in 2018 [57].
With 60 - 70% of textiles being reused, 10 - 30% being recycled, and 1 - 20% being used for
energy recovery or going into landfills. Textile accounts for 13% of all plastic waste [57].

Synthetic fiber requires a large amount of energy. However, cotton requires agricultural
resources or the use of toxic pesticides or fertilizers to create. The five major textiles are nylon,
acryl, elastane, polyester, and cotton. Figure 38 shows the comparison of environmental impact
of the five major textiles [57, Fig. 3].

91
 Figure 38: Environmental Impact of Five Major Textile

One of the main problems with most textiles is the microplastics that come off them . It
has been estimated that between 200,000 and 500,000 tonnes of microplastic enter the oceans
each year from textiles [57]. To help improve the impact the textile industry has on the
environment three categories have been determined: fiber choices, microplastic emissions, and

recycling/reusing. The fiber that is in the textile determines the properties and performance
that textile has [57]. A fiber must be chosen based on the application that textile will have.
Then microplastic emission also plays a key role in the fiber being chosen.

Scientists are trying to find the factors in textiles that impact microplastic emission and
the effects it has on the environment. To try to address the concerns about microplastic
entering the water, scientists are trying to create filters that will catch the microplastics . The

92
one problem with this is there is still no stratagem of what to do with the microplastic once
they are caught in the washing machine [57]. Troughing away the microplastic will just result in
microplastic going into landfills instead of the ocean .

B) Europe fixing plastic crisis

There are three pathways to fixing the plastic crisis : policy, industrial/producers, and

consumers. As of right now the production and consumption system for plastic is not
sustainable. A way to make the consumers industry more sustainable is by producing plastic
from renewable raw materials [58]. This would decrease the need to mine materials and
decrease the need to export so much plastic to other countries for treatment.

One of the difficulties with trying to get producers to use renewable raw material
instead of oil is that oil is much cheaper than renewable raw material [58]. Another issue is

there is not much of an economic value on recycled plastic as there is with oil [58]. This makes
it difficult for recycling companies to make a profit from recycling plastic. One way to fix this
problem is by developing technology that can collect, sort, and recycle plastic.

Policies have been put into place like single use plastic to decrease some of the plastic
going into landfills. With more policies being created focusing on smart use of plastic, increased
circularity, and use of renewable raw materials.

93
C)Plastic waste trade

EU (European Union) exported 150,000 tonnes of plastic waste a month in 2019 [59].
The EU created a figure that shows the exporting of Eu plastic waste in 2015 and 2018, seen

below. There is a major difference that can be seen in China and Hong Kong form 2015 and
2018 because of Chinas import restrictions being put into place [59, Fig. 1].

Figure 39: Exporting of EU Plastic Waste from 2015 to 2019

94
 One key element of the EU exporting plastic waste to other countries is that it is
prohibited by EU law to transport to no EU countries. However, the EU used to send most of its
plastic waste to China (not part of EU). Below is a list of factors that determine where plastic
waste is exported [59].

1. Tariff and non – tariff barriers

2. Gate fees at treatment facilities
3. Transport cost
4. Environmental taxes and policy stringency
5. Treatment capacity
6. Legislation and classification

Then there is a push to send plastic waste to countries that follow the same rules and
regulations for waste treatment as the ones the EU has [59]. However, many of the countries
that the EU send their waste to do not have the same standard. Since they are still in the
infancies stage of developing waste management facilities .

D)Biodegradable and composable plastics

As of 2021 only 1% of plastic worldwide is considered biobased. Biobased plastics are

plastics that are at least partly made from biological raw material (sugarcane, corn, microbes)
[60]. Biodegradable and compostable can be formed from biological raw material or fossil fuels
[60]. One of the key issues that the EU is having is getting consumers to understand the
difference between compostable at home, compostable in industrial lant, biodegradable in
soil/freshwater/marine water, and biobased [60]. A biodegradable plastic is designed to
degrade under certain conditions over a certain length of time . Industrially compostable plastic
is designed to degrade under industrial composting plants or anaerobic digestion plants. While
a home compostable plastic is designed to degrade in a home composter at low temperatures .

95
Many homes compostable plastic can be recycled in an industry composting plant , but an
industrial compostable plastic cannot compost in a home composter. Figure 40 shows the
differences between non – biodegradable, biodegradable, fossil – based and bio – based [60,

Fig. 1].

Figure 40: Biodegradable and Compostable Plastics

A way to help clear up the confusion consumers have with these labels is to start young .

Teaching children in school about labels (certified labels vs. Self – declared labels) and how to
correctly sort waste can help in the long run [60]. Then repeatedly communicating with
consumers about the different types of compostable and biodegradable plastics. Finally, by

96
using different colored bins for collection and QR codes that provide information can better
clear up the confusion.

E) Plastic in the water

More than 500,000 pieces of plastic were found in the ocean in 2018. With 249,379 in
Northeast Atlantic Ocean, 225,394 in Mediterranean, 24,741 in Black Sea, and 10,097 in Baltic

Sea.

The biggest plastic litter in the sea is lost fishing gear [13]. Lost nets and fish pots trap
animals (like fish) in their gear making it easy for them to pray for other animals. When the
other animals try to eat them, they also get stuck in the gear. This results in many animals dying
in fishing gear. In Norway there is an apply that fishers can use to report lost and found fishing

gear. To reduce the amount of ghost fishing (fishing gear lost at sea). Norway also makes
lobster and crab pots to have escape vents that is tied with degradable cotton [13]. That way if
the pot is lost the cotton will eventually open and se the trapped animals free. Figure 41 shows
where waste material ends up when they get into the water system [66, Fig. 1].

97
Figure 41: Where Waste Material is Found in the Ocean

98
 Is Plastic Recycling possible

A) Why recycling is impossible

One of the main reasons recycling plastic is so hard is that for most recycling facilities it
does not meet the recycling rate. Recycling rate is the total annual waste recycled divided by
the annual total waste generated [63].

Another problem is that there are so many different types of plastic and none of the
plastics can be melted down together. This makes it expensive to collect and sort plastic. This is
made harder with educating the public. Many people think that all plastic can be recycled and
that is far from the truth. Figure 42 shows what type of plastic can be recycled all the time

(green), sometimes (yellow), and can never be recycled (red) [63, Fig. 1].

Figure 42: Plastics and Ability to be Recycled

99
 People putting all types of plastic into the recycling bins makes it difficult to recycle. For
example, more than 50% of recycling facilities take plastic cups and containers; however , less
than 5% is recycled [63].

Recycling plastic will never be a circular economy because eventually the plastic cannot
be recycled. Each time plastic is recycled the polymer chain decreases and so does the quality

of the material. That is if the material can be recycled. For example, thermoset plastic has a
hard time being recycled because many contain hazardous additives .

B) Why do we still use plastic

Almost half of the world's plastic comes from the packaging sector [64]. Plastic is used
for foods to help with food safety and to decrease food waste. It has been found that wrapping

cucumbers in plastic increases the shelf - life from three to 14 days (about 2 weeks) [64]. This is
because plastic acts as a barrier against bacteria. One reason food needs to last such a long
time is because food has a long distance to get to the consumer (long supply chain). Getting rid
of plastic on food found decreases the food's life span and causes more food waste . A way to
get rid of plastic on food and not have a spike in food waste is by developing shorter food chain
supplies [64]. That way it does not take days for food to come from the farm into grocery
stores.

Another problem is that there are so many types of polymers being used which makes it
expensive and difficult to recycle plastic. There are many ways to solve this problem. One way
is to design packages where it is easier to separate [64]. For instant using water soluble glue
that way the outer and inner packaging layer can be separated [64]. There could also be a
single standard type of polymer depending on the field they are used in . That way there are not

dozens of types of plastic that recycling facilities must figure out how to recycle. Then, when

100
possible, biodegradable, or composable plastics created through biomaterial can be used for
food products. Since given enough time these types of plastic in the right condition degrade on
their own and do not need to be recycled.

101
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