ARISTOTLE’S POETICS

[Translated from the Greek: S. H. Butcher]

PART I / 1: A lays out the scope of P = to inquire into the structure of the plot as requisite to
a good ‘poem’/literary text, specifically tragedy & introduces the basic principles of
evaluation
 ‘mimesis praxeos’/’practice of imitation’ lies at core of all creative arts
 it follows, therefore, that ‘poetry’/literary expression—whether epic, tragedy,
comedy, dithyrambic poetry—is rooted in ‘mimesis’
 all above kinds of ‘poetry’ imitate
1. by means of language [i.e. imitation produced through rhythm, language, or
‘harmony’ in diction, either singly or combined]
2. by imitation of superior men in action [as explained in Part 2 below]
3. by imitation of narration [as explained in Part 3 below]
 above 3 kinds of imitation are different in terms of the medium, the mode & object of
imitation given the distinctness of epic, tragedy, comedy, or dithyrambic poetry
PART II /2: A describes purpose of imitation = word-painting humanity in terms of good &
evil
 the objects of poet’s/writer’s ‘mimesis’/imitation are usually men in action, either
depicted as being better/worse than in real life, or as intersection of both = depiction
of strength or weakness of moral fibre & character
 thus, as mimetic objects, men in action are quite distinct
PART III / 3: A speaks of 2 ways of ‘telling’/portrayal of such men
 poet can ‘imitate’ by either
- telling of these men through the mouth of another man i.e. poet ‘takes another
personality’ as Sophocles does in The Theban Plays = extradiegetic narration
OR
- by poet speaking/narrating in the person of one of these men = intradiegetic
narration
 poet imitates by presenting all his characters as living and moving before audience
 name ‘drama’ is given to those ‘poems’ which represent action
 3 areas of artiste’s/writer’s mimesis/imitation = the medium [i.e. diction], the objects
[the superior men in action/characters], and the manner [i.e. forms of narration as
above]
PART IV / 4: A on ‘poetry’/literary expression as imitation that clearly distinguishes human
mimetic impulse from animals
 A considers poetry to have sprung from two causes:
- 1st through instinct of mimesis/imitation as implanted in man from childhood
- 2nd as lessons learnt from imitation & the pleasure derived from imitation
 process of imitation inculcates the skill of learning & inference
 man also has instinct for ‘harmony’ and rhythm, which lead to improvisations that
eventually can give birth to ‘poetry’
 poetry has diverged in 2 directions given the writers’ individual character:
o writers with graver spirits imitate noble actions or actions of good men
o writers of the trivial sort imitate actions of lowly persons
 history of drama’s evolution = epic poetry/writing was succeeded by tragedy as
drama is higher form of art  initially tragedy was merely an improvisation of epic
 tragedy grew complex with time i.e. from single actor in tragedy’s early days to
Aeschylus introducing a 2nd actor, lessening importance of the Chorus & most
importantly, laying great significance on dialogue  Sophocles innovated further by
raising number of actors to 3 & added scene-painting  evolved diction that had
acquired stately manner & tone appropriate for status of character in tragedies 
increase in number of ‘episodes’ or acts in a play
PART V / 5: contrast between epic & tragedy
 A sees epic as a story ‘not limited in time’ [could cover years, centuries or aeons of
time] states tragedy’s time span should ideally be as long as ‘a single revolution of
the sun’ i.e. one day
PART VI / 6: tragedy & its principles defined
 ‘tragedy’ is
- imitation, not of men, but of a complete action and of life
- comprises events that evoke fear or pity  best produced when such events
come on audience by surprise
- it is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude
- imitation of action implies history/arrangement of facts concerning the actors in
the play
- as life consists of action, there can be no tragedy without action
- most important of all is the structure of incidents that comprise the action
 ‘tragedy’ must have 6 parts or principles in order of importance:
1st principle of tragedy is the plot:
- it is ‘the soul of a tragedy’
- it constitutes the medium of imitation i.e. it is imitation of actions set as an
arrangement of incidents

2nd principle of tragedy is action:

- it comprises actors as the agents of action
- it also constitutes a medium of imitation
- actors are shown to possess certain distinctive qualities of character [i.e.
virtues or qualities] & thought, both of which determine their actions
- character reveals moral purpose, showing what kind of things a man chooses
or avoids & so is either happy or heartbroken  therefore, the actors’
character is less significant than their actions
- thought & quality of character are two natural causes which induce action
3rd principle of tragedy is thought:
- it constitutes another medium of imitation
- thought is the faculty of saying what is possible and pertinent in given
circumstances  the older poets made their characters speak the language of
civic life; poets of ‘our’/A’s time make their characters speak the language of
rhetoricians
4th principle of tragedy is diction:
- diction constitutes the manner of imitation
- it implies tragedy is written in language embellished with artistic ornament =
several kinds of such language is found in separate parts of a tragedy e.g.
some parts of a tragedy might be rendered through medium of verse recital,
others to be sung as a song/melodic metrical arrangement
- language in tragedy should have rhythm, ‘harmony’ & song in the form of
action, not of narrative
5th principle of tragedy is song:
- song reflects the object of imitation
- it is basically a form of embellishment
6th principle of tragedy is spectacle:
- spectacle constitutes the object of imitation
- implies tragic imitation involving grand/spectacular presentation i.e. display
of scenes which have emotional attraction
- it is the least artistic & least connected with the art of poetry as spectacular
effects depend more on the art of stage machinist than on poet
PART VII /7: dimensions of ‘plot’ in tragedy
 significant facets of the plot:
- plot is ‘mythos’ i.e. the story or the ‘myth’ sequentially arranged
- plot is 1st & most important aspect of tragedy
- it is imitation of an action that is complete, whole & possesses a certain
magnitude
- plot has a beginning, a middle & an end = beginning does not follow anything by
causal necessity, but depicts something that comes to be  leads to a middle
which succeeds the beginning & continues till the end  end is
climax/denouement which naturally closes things set off by the beginning, either
by necessity or by rule/norm but has no continuation = a well-constructed plot
must conform to this trajectory & not begin or end haphazardly
- plot’s beauty & merit depend on magnitude and order  plot must be of a length
that can easily be absorbed by memory  plot’s proper magnitude should lie
within limits that depict sequence of events in keeping with the law of
probability or necessity that will permit acceptable change in fortune
PART VIII /8: plot-imitation-action connection
- imitation is one/unified when the object imitated is one/unified  so, plot
(being an imitation of an action) must imitate only one action
- plot’s whole should be structural union of all its parts in such a way that if any
part is displaced or removed, the play is disjointed and disturbed  if the
presence or absence of anything makes no visible difference in a play then it is
not an organic part of the whole
PART IX / 9: difference between history & poetry
- history is about events, ‘poetry’/tragedy is about events that could happen
- function of poet to relate what has happened & what may happen within law of
probability or necessity i.e. meticulously adhere to path of cause-and-effect
trajectory
- a plot is ‘episodic’ in which the episodes or acts succeed one another
- A asserts that good poets write pieces for competition

PART X / 10: classification & definition of kinds of ‘action’

 differentiation made between ‘single action’ & ‘complex action’  complex action
found in best tragedies
 plots are either ‘simple’ or ‘complex’
 ‘simple plots’:
 - comprise action which is one and continuous
- change of fortune takes place without reversal of situation & without recognition
 ‘complex plot’:
- comprises complex action in which change is accompanied by reversal or by
recognition or by both
- reversal & recognition should arise from the internal structure of the plot so that
what follows should be the necessary or probable result of preceding action
PART XI / 11: impact of tragedy on actor & audience
 ‘reversal’ in tragedy:
- change of situation in a manner by which the action veers towards the opposite,
but within, rule of probability or necessity e.g. in Oedipus Rex, messenger comes
to cheer Oedipus & free him from alarm about mother/wife Jocasta but by
revealing who he is, he produces opposite effect
 ‘recognition’ in tragedy:
- passage from ignorance to knowledge, producing love or hate between the
persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune
- best form of recognition is coincident with reversal of situation as in e.g. above
 recognition, combined with reversal, produces pity or fear in audience
 reversal of situation and recognition are 2 parts of plot that depend upon surprises
 3rd part of plot = scene of suffering  marked by destructive or painful action like
death, physical agony, wounds etc.
 audience’s pity & terror lead to ‘catharsis’ [purgation & purification] as onlookers
identify with characters external to themselves through emotional responses aroused
by performance
PART XII / 12: on structure of a tragedy
 structure comprises:
o ‘prologue’ = part of tragedy spoken by one or more characters from
beginning of play till the chorus enters, singing and dancing = the
‘parode’  followed by alternation of scenes as dialogue between
characters or between characters & chorus and sections in which chorus
sings & dances
o ‘parode’ = 1st speech/choric song by the chorus
o ‘episode’ = part of a tragedy between complete choric songs
o ‘exode’ = part of tragedy which has no choric song after it
o ‘choric song’ = speeches by chorus/characters speaking together as a
group commenting on situation in the tragedy
 o ‘stasimon’ = choric songs without anapaests or trochaics
o ‘commos’ = a joint lamentation by chorus & actors
PART XIII / 13: on ideal story & protagonist
 best tragedies are based on story of a family/house of eminence e.g. the fortunes of
Oedipus
 well-constructed plot should depict change of fortune from good to bad or some
great error or frailty in a character/protagonist
 protagonist must be highly renowned & prosperous personage e.g. Oedipus
 must not be story of a virtuous man transitioning from prosperity to adversity as this
arouses neither pity nor fear; it merely shocks audience
 real pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune  fear of misfortune of a
man/protagonist like ourselves i.e. a man not eminently good and just,-yet whose
misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some error or frailty
PART XIV / 14: on dimensions of tragic plot
 poets have a vast range of themes to choose from, especially houses/families whose
history contains heartrending incidents e.g. Oedipus’ myth
 tragic plot should be so constructed that even without the eye seeing it, anyone who
hears the tale will react with horror & pity at what occurs e.g. story of The Theban
Plays
 poet may choose any one of the following to arouse horror & pity:
1. action done consciously with knowledge of persons concerned
2. deed of horror may be done but done in ignorance, & the tie of kinship or
friendship be discovered afterwards
3. protagonist about to act with knowledge of concerned persons & then not to
act = the worst e.g. in Antigone, where Haemon threatens to kill Creon but
desists
4. when someone is about to do an irreparable deed through ignorance & makes
the discovery before it is done
5. the deed should be perpetrated
6. even better, deed should be perpetrated in ignorance & discovery made
afterwards = the best e.g. in Oedipus Rex
Chapter XV / 15: criteria of ‘character’ portraiture & allied issues
 as tragedy is imitation of persons who are above the common level, poets should be
good portrait-painters in words
 regarding creation of character/protagonist, the following should be aimed at:
 1. the protagonist must be good  protagonists can be good only if their
purpose is good [even a woman or a slave may be good though is inferior
being & slave is worthless
2. the protagonist must have propriety = possess some kind of manly valour;
but valour in a woman, or unscrupulous cleverness, is inappropriate
3. the protagonist must be true to life
4. the protagonist must have consistency i.e. as the subject of imitation; if
inconsistent, must be consistently inconsistent
 in portraiture of character, poet should always aim at the necessary or the probable
i.e. person of a given character should speak or act in a given way out of necessity or
probability  events should follow in necessary or probable sequence
 unravelling of plot must arise out of the plot itself & should not be brought about by
‘deus ex machina’ [i.e. machination by the gods] which, lying beyond human
comprehension, needs to be reported or foretold
 within the action, there must be nothing irrational but sometimes the irrational
cannot be excluded so it should be outside the scope of tragedy e.g. The Theban Plays
PART XVI /16: on protagonist’s ‘recognition’
 forms of recognition:
1. most common is recognition by known signs, either congenital or acquired
after birth [bodily marks like as scars e.g. Oedipus’ swollen foot] or external
tokens [like necklaces or rings]
2. recognitions invented by poet to suit narrative
3. recognition evoked by memory when some object awakens a
feeling/recollection
4. recognition arrived at through process of reasoning
 best form of recognition = that which arises from incidents themselves as a startling
discovery made by natural means e.g. The Theban Plays
PART XVII / 17: on plot-diction-action linkage
 while constructing the plot & choosing proper diction, the poet should see
everything within his play with the vividness that a real spectator can have of the
action  poet must to fill in only those episodes that are relevant to the action
PART XVIII / 18: parts & kinds of tragedy
 each tragedy falls into 2 parts i.e. ‘complication’ & ‘unravelling’
[climax/denouement]
 each tragedy marked by ‘complication’ = from beginning of the action to the turning-
point of fortune
  ‘unravelling’ = extends from the beginning of change in fortune to the end
 A identifies 4 kinds of ‘tragedy’:
1. the complex kind which depends entirely on reversal of situation &
recognition
2. the pathetic kind where passion is the motive
3. the ethical kind where the motives are rooted in honour & virtue
4. the simple kind which is devoid of any purely spectacular element
 the chorus must be regarded as one of the actors i.e. it is integral part of the whole &
share in the action e.g. The Theban Plays
PART XIX / 19: variations of ‘thought’ & ‘diction’
 for A, ‘thought’ is included in every effect that speech induces
 the subdivisions of ‘thought’ are:
1. proof and refutation
2. the excitation of feelings such as pity, fear, anger, and the like
3. the suggestion of importance or its opposite
 diction means ‘modes of utterance’ which are a ‘province of knowledge’ that belongs
to the masters of ‘the art of delivery’ that includes command, prayer/entreaty,
assertion, threat, question, answer etc.
PART XX / 20: parts of language
 A sees language as including the following parts:
letter, syllable, connecting word, noun, verb, inflexion or case, sentence or phrase
PART XXI / 21: comments on the ‘word’
 words are of two kinds = simple & double
 every word can be current/in common use or strange or metaphorical or ornamental
or new-coinage or lengthened or contracted or altered
 newly-coined word = one which has never been in common use but is adopted by
poet
PART XXII / 22: comments on poet’s style
 clearest style is that which uses only current or proper words
 perfection of style is to have clarity without hesitating to adopt unusual words
 lofty diction rises above the commonplace by employing unusual words  includes
metaphorical words that differ greatly from normal idiom  by far the greatest thing
is to have command over metaphor = the mark of genius creates good metaphors
through a keen eye for resemblances
 style that entirely consists of metaphors is a ‘riddle’ which is employed to express
true facts under impossible combinations
  style that consists of strange/rare words is ‘jargon’
 a certain infusion of riddle & jargon is necessary in style
PART XXIII / 23: differentiation between epic & tragedy
 the epic obeys the same rules of composition as tragedy; however, epic’s action is
significantly longer/more voluminous than tragedy
PART XXIV / 24: differentiation between epic & tragedy continued
 epic poetry has as much variety of plot as tragedy
 the epic also contains characters similar to those found in tragedy
 in tragedy, the irrational should lie outside the action of the play e.g. Oedipus’
ignorance about the manner of father Laius’ death
 poet’s personality must not intrude into text as imitation can be affected by this
PART XXV / 25: a summatory section
 like painter or any other artist, the poet is an imitator who must necessarily imitate
one of three objectives below:
1. present things as they were or are
2. present things as they are said or thought to be
3. present things as they ought to be
 vehicle/mode of expression is language, either current terms or may be as rare
words or metaphors [poets have liberty to do the latter]
 Sophocles said that ‘he drew men as they ought to be; Euripides, as they are’
PART XXVI / 26: contrast between epic & tragedy
 tragedy has succeeded the epic so latter is ‘elder brother’ to former, which is
‘younger brother’  epic poetry addresses ‘a cultivated audience’ [which requires no
‘gesture’/action] while tragedy is meant for ‘an inferior public’ [which is unrefined
and therefore, lower in status compared to former]
 tragedy, like epic poetry, produces its effect even without action as it reveals its
power even by mere reading but it is superior because it has all the epic elements
enriched by music & spectacular effects as important accessories
 tragedy produces the most vivid of pleasures which exceed those given by epic
 tragedy has vividness of impression in reading as well as in seeing its representation
 good tragedy, being within ‘narrower limits’/bounds of time, produces on audience
‘a concentrated effect’ that is far more pleasurable than the spread of time which is so
expansive in epic that pleasure gets diluted e.g. imagine the effect of viewing
Sophocles’ Oedipus [approx.. 1700 lines] in contrast to reading Homer’s Iliad [12.000
lines]
 all things considered, it becomes clear that tragedy is ‘the higher art’ of creativity