Literature

Provides students with opportunities to study the

basic approaches to literary theory and criticism
and their application to selected literary works.
Definition

 Literature is life.
 It presents man’s experience in various forms
(sensation, feelings, moods, attitudes,
thoughts, and events).
 If language is the people’s greatest invention,
literature is the greatest art.
 Kings and conquerors die, empires topple,
bridges and steel fall to decay, but the artist’s
words remain and live on in the hearts of men.
 Literature liberates people from political
oppression, social injustice, economic
inequality, and emotional inhibition as
reflected in short stories, novels, dramas,
essays, and other literary genres.
 It adds to reality. It does not simply describe.
Reasons for Studying Literature

 To know ourselves, our heritage, and the genius

of our race as a people distinct from others.
 To realize that like other people, we also have
great noble traditions that we may use as
foundation for the assimilation for new cultures
and civilization.
 To realize the limitation of our literary capacities
and to retain ourselves to overcome them.
 To recognize our literary merits and find means to
improve them.
Seven (7) Literary Standards

 Universality. Literature appeals to everyone,

regardless of culture, race, sex, and tome which
are all considered significant.
 Artistry. Literature has an aesthetic appeal and
thus possesses a sense of beauty.
 Intellectual Value. Literature stimulates critical
thinking that enriches mental processes of
abstract and reasoning, making man realize the
fundamental truths of life and its nature.
 Suggestiveness. Literature unravels and conjures
man’s emotional power to define symbolisms,
nuances, implied meanings, images and
messages, giving and evoking visions above and
beyond the plane of ordinary life and experiences.
 Spiritual Value. Literature elevates the spirit and
the soul and thus has the power to motivate and
inspire, drawn from the suggested morals and
lessons of the different literary genres.
 Permanence. Literature endures across time
and draws out the time factor: timeliness,
occurring at a particular time, and timeliness
invariable throughout time.
 Style. Literature presents peculiar way/s on
how man sees as evidenced by the formation
of his ideas, forms, structures, and
expressions which are marked by their
memorable substance.
Three (3) Ingredients of Literature

 Subject
Any work of literature is about something and
for this reason, it has a subject. The subject
may be an emotion, an object, an abstract
idea, or an event.
 Form
For m is the verbal and artistic structuring of
ideas. The subject on love for instance may be
expressed in a poem, in a story, or in a drama
form. In a reading of literary work, you must
pay careful attention to its form because the
work of art is in large part and aesthetically
shaped structure.
 Point of View
This refers to the angle of vision of the narrator;
it determines the narrator of the story, the one
who tells it from different points of view.
 First Person Point of View is a character –
narrator who tells the story in the “I” voice,
expressing his own views. He is either a minor
or main character that tells the story in his
own words.
 Third Person Omniscient is a narrator that
tells the story from an all-knowing point of
view. He sees the mind of all the characters.
 Third Person Limited has a narrator that tells
only what he can see or hear “ inside the
world” of the story. This narrator is otherwise
known as “camera technique narrator” as he
does not reveal what the characters are
thinking and feeling.
 Third Person Central has a narrator that
limits narration to what the central character
thinks, feels, does, and what and whom the
central character observes.
 Third Person Editorial has a narrator hat
comments on the action by telling the
readers its significance or evaluating the
behavior of the characters.
Literary Type and Forms

1. PROSE FICTION
 Presents a story that is invented and not
literally “true.”
 It is written to be read rather than acted or
performed, and the events depicted are told
to us by a narrator, not enacted or
dramatized.
 The most commonly encountered prose
fiction is novel and short story.
Prose Fiction Examples

 Myth: often a story of origins, how the world

and everything in it cane to be.
 Legend: comes from the Latin adjective
“legenda.” it refers to unverified story handed
down from earlier times, especially one
popularly believed to be historical.
 Parable: is a simple story illustrating a moral
or religious lesson.
 Fable: is a usually short narrative making an
edifying or cautionary point and often
employing as characters animals that speak
an act like humans.
 Fairy Tale: is a kind of folktale or fable. In this
story, we meet witches and queens, giants and
elves, princes, dragons, talking animals, ogres,
princesses, and sometimes even fairies. Marvelous
and magical things happen to characters in fairy
tales. A boy may become a bird. A princess may
sleep for a hundred years. A seal may become a
girl. Objects too can be enchanted-mirrors talk,
pumpkins become carriages, and a lamp may be
home to a genie.
 Short Story: is a piece of prose fiction marked
by relative shortness and density, organized
into a plot and with some kind of
denouement at the end. The plot may be
comic, tragic, romantic, or satiric. It may be
written in the mode of fantasy, realism or
naturalism. It usually focuses on one
important event in lives of a small number of
central characters.
 Novel: is a fictional prose narrative of
considerable length, typically having a plot
that a is unfolded by the actions, speech, and
thoughts of numerous characters placed in a
number of different situations.
 Novella: is a fictional prose narrative that is
longer that a short story, but shorter than a
novel. It is a form in its own right.
2. POETRY
 A piece of art written by a poet in meter or verse
expressing various emotions which are expressed
by the use of variety of techniques including
metaphors, similes and onomatopoeia.
 The emphasis is the use of aesthetics of language
and the use of techniques such as repetition,
meter and rhyme
 It heavily uses imagery and word association to
quickly convey emotions
Three (3) Major Types
 Lyric Poetry- is comparatively short, non-narrative poem in
which a single speaker presents a state of mind or an emotional
state. It retains some of the elements of sonf which is said to be
its origin.

Examples: song, sonnet, elegy, ode

 Song- is a musical work, an abstract entity that serves as an

umbrella for many versions or renditions. It is meant to be sung.
 Sonnet- is a fourteen-line poem in iambic pentameter. Iambic
refers to the name of the foot, which is composed of a weaker
syllable followed by an accented syllable. Pentameter refers to the
number of feet in a line, in this case five.
 Elegy- is a meditative lyric poem lamenting
the death of a public personage or of a friend
or loved one; by extension, any reflective lyric
on the broader theme of human morality.
 Ode- is a long lyric poem with a serious
subject written in an elevated style and
formal stanzaic structure.
 Narrative Poetry- gives verbal representation, in verse, of a
sequence of connected events. It propels characters through a
plot. It is always told by a narrator. It may tell a love story, the
story of a father and son, or the deeds of a hero or heroine.

Example: ballad, metrical romance, epic

 Ballad- is a song, originally transmitted orally, which tells a story.

It is an important form of folk poetry which was adapted for
literary uses from the sixteenth century onwards. The ballad
stanza is usually a four-line stanza, alternating tetrameter and
trimeter.
 Metrical Romance- is a poem which tells a story
that ends happily, whether love is involved or
not. It represents a chivalric theme or relates
improbable adventures of idealized characters
in some remote or enchanted setting.
 Epic- is an extended narrative poem that
operates in a large scale, both in length and
topic. It uses a legendary hero with the
intervention of supernatural beings.
 Dramatic Poetry- like narrative poetry, yells stories.
But in dramatic poetry, the poet lets one or more of
the story’s characters act out the story. Many plays
are written as dramatic poetry. The difference
between drama and dramatic poetry is a matter of
degree. If the dialogue of a play rhymes, has
repeating rhythms, or features of other distinct
poetic elements, th3e play is considered to be
dramatic poetry.

Examples: dramatic monologue, soliloquy

 Dramatic Monologue- is a combination of the
words dramatic and monologue. The “
dramatic” says that it could be acted out, and
is a form of drama, while the “ monologue”
defines it as a speech that one person makes,
either to himself or to another. It is written to
reveal both the situation at hand and the
character himself.
 Soliloquy- is a long speech in which a
character who is alone on a stage expresses
his or her private thoughts or feelings. It is
intended to give the illusion of unspoken
reflections.
3. DRAMA
 Comes from the Greek word “dran” which
means “ to do” or ‘to act.”
 It is a story acted out.
 It shows people going through some eventful
period in their lives, seriously or humorously.
 The speech and action of a play recreate the
flow of human life, which comes fully to life
on the stage.
Two (2) Major Types

1. Tragedy- refers to a drama in which a heroic

protagonist meets an unhappy or
calamitous end, brought about by some
fatal flaw of character, by circumstances
outside his or her control, or simply by
destiny.
Examples: tragicomedy, melodrama
 Tragicomedy- refers to fictional works that blend
aspects of the genres of tragedy and comedy. In
English literature from Shakespeare’s time to the
nineteenth century, tragicomedy refers to a serious
play with a happy ending.
 Melodrama- is formed by combing the words “
melody” (from the Greek “melodia”, meaning
“song”) and “drama”. Thus, in melodrama, music is
used to increase the spectator’s emotional
response or to suggest character types.
2. Comedy- depicts humorous incidents in which protagonists
are faced with moderate difficulties but overcome them and
the play ends happily. Instead of being isolated like tragic
heroes, comic protagonists are comfortable with their society,
or become so; and their success is brought about through
cooperation with others. It may involve laughter at a character
who is a fool, a coward, a miser, or zany, or laughter with the
rogue or trickster who upsets the normal social order for a
time.

Examples:, satirical comedy, the comedy of manners, romantic

comedy, black comedy, farce
 Satirical comedy- generally ridicules human folly and associated
political, social or moral problems.
 The comedy of manners- depicts the romantic intrigues of a
sophisticated upper class, including witty repartee and
humorous social blundering.
 Romantic Comedy- involved idealized romantic love, as in
romance.
 Black Comedy- includes laughter as a kind of defense
mechanism when a situation, dispassionately considered, would
be simply horrifying.
 Farce- depend upon ridiculous situations, exaggerated character
types, coarse humor, and horseplay for its comic effects.
4. NONFICTION PROSE
 presents factual information or expresses a
viewpoint.
Examples: autobiography, biography, character
sketch, diary or journal, editorial, essay.
Overview

 All early literatures began with simple word-

tunes-rhythmic sounds that might or might
not have meanings; lullabies of shepherds to
help pass the long, lonely days; religious
chants or hymns.
 Later came praises for the hero, a king or
chieftain, and oftener than not, the hero was
said to have descended from god or goddess.
Overview

 Then came stories of adventure on land and

sea, stories of love and courage, of dignity
and splendor, or of crime and punishment.
 Most of the pieces of ancient literature that
we have today are of these kinds.
 The oldest extant literature are the literary
remains of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt
which are written in ink on papyrus.
Overview

 There still exist the fragments of stories such

as the marvelous adventures of a
shipwrecked sailor or the tale of the eloquent
peasant
 Worthy of note is the religious literature of
Babylonia and Assyria which consisted mainly
of the ritual of worship; magic incantations to
repel evil spirits in this life; predictions of the
future
Two (2) FORMS OF CRITICISM
EXPLICATION

 A line-by-line or episode-by-episode
commentary on what is going on in a text
( literally, unfolding or spreading out)
 “ In line one…in the second line…in the third
line…”
 The next stanza begins with…and then
introduces…”
 It does not deal wit the writer’s life or times,
and it is not a PARAPHRASE, a rewording-
though it may include paraphrase.
 It is a commentary revealing your sense of
meaning of the work.
 It calls attention, as it proceeds, to the
implications of words, the function of rhymes,
the shifts in point of view, the development of
contrasts, and any other contributions to the
meaning.
Example
Forget
by: George Bowering ( 1935)

We forget those
apartment blocks
were made step-
by-step by
human hands.

The glue on this

envelope too
it tastes like
a pear.
Preliminary jottings…
Forget
by: George Bowering ( 1935)

who are we?- We forget those- which,? How do we know?

apartment blocks can we see them
breaks word were made step-
group-sticks out by-step by - by/by ( rhythm)
human hands.

The glue on this – odd. Why shift to glue?

was also - envelope too – again, which envelope?
made by humans, it tastes like
so? a pear.- does glue taste like pear?
why this simile? Glue tastes horrible
 Draft analysis
9 lines; short, but powerful; elusive
Order or comment that we forget
Examples of what we forget
Pause to realize that buildings are made step-by-step
Emphasis on the slow process of building
Emphasis on HUMAN hands
White space draws attention to shift to a new application
of the idea
Again, “this” suggests we can see the object
Use of pear taste: artificial? Natural taste worth noticing
in made object?
Annotations…

 These annotations chiefly get at the structure of

the poem, the relationship of the parts.
 The student notices that the poem speaks from the
point of view of “we” and wonders who “we” is,
and he also wonders which apartments and which
envelope is being discussed.
 Further he indicates that the making “ step-by-
step” is emphasized by breaking up the lines.
 He questions how glue tastes and asks if the “
pear” tastes means something important.
Explication…

 It is a method used chiefly in the study of fairly

short poems or brief extracts from essays,
stories, novels and plays.
 More likely, one will explicate only a
paragraph or at most a page of the novel, and
a speech or two of the play.
ANALYSIS
 It is used when writing about works longer than a
page or two.
 Literally separating into parts in order to better
understand the whole.
 It is not a process used only in talking about literature.
 It is commonly applied in thinking about almost any
complex matter.
 It is concerned with seeing the relationship between
the parts of a work; it may also take note of what is
not in the work.
What to consider?

 Analysis of the setting and characters, theatrical

rhythms, imagery, monologues
 Topic, Thesis and Structure
 Comparison and Contrast
 Finding a topic- what is this doing?; why do I have
this response?
 Considering the evidence- context of the material
 Organizing the material- “ begin at the beginning,
and go on till you come to the end: then stop”
Communicating Judgments
(Voice of the Critic)

 The critic has FEELINGS about the work

under discussion and reveals them, not by
continually saying “I feel” and “ this moves
me,” but by calling attention to the degree of
success or failure perceived.
 Write sincerely. Any attempt to neglect your
own thoughtful responses and replace them
with fabrications designed to please an
instructor will surely fail.
Take Note!

 Nothing is wrong with occasionally using

“I”, and noticeable avoidance of it-”it seen
that,” “ this writer,” the present writer,”
“we,” and the like-suggest an offensive
sham modesty; but too much talk of “I”
makes a writer sound like an egonomaniac.
Example…opening paragraph in a
review of George Owell’s 1984

I do not think I have ever read a novel more

frightening and depressing; and yet, such are
the originality, the suspense, the speed of
writing and withering indignation that it is
impossible to put the book down.

( fine-provided that the reviewer goes on to

offer evidence that enables readers to share
his or her evaluation of 1984.)
Review: How to write an effective
essay
 Pre-writing- annotate certain things, such as
passages that please or that puzzle; jot down notes
 Drafting- make an outline of your thesis
( explication- order of lines or of the episodes)
(analysis- lesser material to the greater, simple to
complex to avoid anticlimax)
 Revising- peer review ( pay attention to the title,
the opening, thesis and organization, closing)
 Editing- spelling, punctuation, accuracy of
quotations
 Editing Checklist
1. Is the title of my essay at east moderately
informative and interesting?
2. Do I identify the subject of my essay (author
and title) early?
3. What is my thesis? Do I state it soon enough
(perhaps even in the title) and keep it in view.
4. Is the organization reasonable? Does each
point lead into the next without irrelevancies
and without anticlimaxes?
Editing…

5. Is each paragraph unified by a topic sentence or

a topic idea? Are there adequate transitions
from one paragraph to the next?
6. Are generalizations supported by appropriate
concrete details, especially by brief quotations
from the text?
7. Is the opening paragraph interesting and, by its
end, focused on the topic? Is the final
paragraph conclusive without being repetitive?
Editing…

8. Is the tone appropriate? No sarcasm, no

apologies, no condescension?
9. If there is a summary, is it as brief as possible,
given its purpose?
10. Are the quotations adequately introduced,
and are they accurate? Do they provide
evidence and let the reader hear the author’s
voice, or do they merely add words to the
essay?
Editing…

11. Is the present tense used to describe the

author’s work and the action of the work ( “
Shakespear shows,” “Hamlet dies”)?
12. Have I kept in mind the needs of my audience,
for instance by defining unfamiliar terms, or by
briefly summarizing works or opinions that the
reader may be unfamiliar with?
13. Is documentation provided where necessary?
Editing…

14. Are the spelling and punctuation correct?

Are other mechanical matters ( susch as
margins, spacing, and citations) in correct
form? Have I proofread carefully?
15. Is the paper carefully identified- author’s
name, instructor’s name, course number, and
date?
Other Kinds of Writing about
Literature

A Summary

It is a brief restatement or condensation of the

plot.

Summaries have their place in essays, but

remember that a summary is not an
analysis; it is only a summary
Governing principles:
 A summary is much briefer than the original.
 A summary usually achieves its brevity by omitting almost all
of the concrete details of the original and by omitting minor
characters and episodes.
 A summary is as accurate as possible, given the limits of
space.
 A summary is normally written in the present tense..Thus, “
A woman is condemned to hanging…,The friends tell the
narrator…”
 If the summary is brief ( say fewer than 250 words), it may be
given as a single paragraph. Longer summaries, longer work.
Paraphrase

 It is a restatement- a sort of translation into

the same language- of material that may in
its original form be somewhat obscure to a
reader.
Example:
The friends that have it I do wrong
When ever I remake a song,
Should know what issue is at stake;
It is myself that I remake.
Paraphrase

 Now for the paraphrase:

The friends who think that I am doing the wrong thing

When I revise one of my poems should be informed what the
Important issue is; I’m not just revising a poem; rather,
I am revising my own thoughts, my own feelings.
Literary Response

 You may write a literary response by giving a

different ending, or by writing an epilogue in
which you show the characters 20 years later;
 You might rewrite a literary work, presenting
the characters from a somewhat different
point of view.
Parody

 A comic form that imitates the original in a

humorous way. It is a caricature in words.
 Short, punchy sentences- but apply this style
to a subject that the original author would
not be concerned with.
A Review

 A review, for instance of a play or of a novel,

is also a response, since it normally includes
an evaluation of the work, but at least at first
glance it may seem to be an analytic essay.
 Example: write a review of a local production.
A review requires analytic skill, but it is not
identical with analysis.
Literary Interpretation

 Interpretation is a setting forth of the meaning,

or, better, a setting forth of one or more of the
meanings of a work of literature.
 Although some critics believe that a work of
literature has a single meaning, the meaning it had
for the author, most critics hold that a work has
several meanings, for instance the meaning it had
for the author, the meaning (s) it had for the later
readers, and the meaning (s) it has for us today.
What Characterizes a Good
Interpretation?
 It possesses a persuasive argument; is we
value the work highly, is richer than the
discussion
 It must be plausible and inclusive;
 Must convincingly argue a thesis; must point
to evidence so that the reader will not only
know what the essayist believes but will also
understand why he or she believes it;
 Presents all the complexities of the work.
What is metafiction?

Again and again something in one’s own life,

or in the life around one, will seem so
important that one cannot bear to let it pass
into oblivion. There must never come a time,
the writer feels, when people do not know
about this.

( a character offers an opinion as to why a

writer tells a story)
What is Literary Canon?

 It is the recognized body of literature.

 Canon comes from a Greek word for a reed
( it’s the same as our word cane) a reed or
cane was used as a yardstick, and certain
works were said to measure up to the idea
of literature.