LITERATURE

-liberates people from political oppression, social injustice, economic inequality, and emotional inhibition as
reflected in short stories, novels, dramas, essays and other literary genres.
- Roger Don SJ. Cerda

-It is the beautiful expression of man’s personal interpretation of some aspect of human life, or a wording out in
a unique, beautiful, and personal manner of saying what an author thinks is a passionate meaning of life. This
is saying that literature not only becomes but is “life itself.”
- Amador Daguio

WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LITERATURE?

1. Literature helps us grow both personally and intellectually.

Since it reflects significant human experiences, it allows us to grow personally by learning from the
experience of other people, thus enabling us to handle varied human situations that we never experience
before; and intellectually because it enhances our vocabulary range vis-s vis our mental faculty, thus
making us think critically to articulate and defend our point of view.

2. Literature links us with the world of which we are apart

It helps us understand the people across nations-their cultures, traditions, beliefs, and religious practices;
thus making us live harmoniously by recognizing and respecting individual differences.

3. Literature enables us to transcend our immediate time, place, and culture and to make connections with
other human beings and their concerns.
It enables us to break away from or go beyond our present reality through the power of imagination,
enabling one to travel thru time and space at the same time establish good human relations by realizing
people’s angst evident in the literary pieces that we are exposed to.

4. Literature encourages us to develop mature empathy with all forms of life-human, animal, and plant.
It nurtures our sensibility and compassion for the environment and everything in it by making us grasp
the interconnectedness of life on earth, that the obliteration of one tree is tantamount to the extinction of animal
and plant species, and with that, we were reminded to be the stewards of Gods creation for the earth serves as
the habitat of all.

5. Literature sharpens our sense of moral judgment

It hones our sense of morality by delineating the distinction between art and pornography, right from
wrong, moral and immoral, and that what is ethical may not necessarily be good in our own personal
consciousness; it enables us to make our personal judgment based on our standard of morality.

6. Literature stimulates our imagination and ingenuity

It fuels our imagination and creativity to reconstruct the plot; these are essential to make sense of any
literary work, whether it is read, performed, or viewed.

7. Literature shows the significance of Irony, Paradox, Oxymoron, and Ambivalence

It acquaints us to different poetic devices and poetic dictions to unearth the message of the poets different
from fictionists and playwrights; most of the time, it will require us to have working knowledge of literary
theories or approaches to recreate the writer’s intended meaning.

8. Literature allows us to see the world in different vantage points

It enables us to see the world in different perspectives; what is perceived to be “good” may not be good in
your own standard, in the same way that what is perceived to be “bad” may not necessarily be bad in your own
consciousness because we see things in different angles.
9. Literature relieves history
It has historical grounding, thus, making the readers aware of some important facts in the past to make
sense of the present circumstances where we are in. In short, we are able to establish the connection between
the past and the present, and what tomorrow may bring.

10. Literature remind us that we are human beings

It makes us realize that we have our own limitations, insecurities, and imperfections; that despite our
shortcomings, we learn from our experiences and from the experiences of other people, making us better
individuals- responsible, self-reliant, compassionate, God-loving, and God-fearing.

LITERARY TYPES AND FORMS

Literature is classified into four genres:
A. PROSE FICTION- presents a story that is invented and not literally “true”. It is written to be read rather
than acted or performed, and the events depicted are told to us by a narrator, not enacted or
dramatized. The most commonly encountered prose fiction is novel and short story.

1. Myth- often a story of origins, how the world and everything in it came to be. It orients people to the
metaphysical dimension, attempts to explain the origins and nature of the world, as well as a certain
custom or practice of a human society, validates social issues, and on, the psychological plane,
addresses oneself to the innermost depths of the psyche.

2. Legend-comes from the Latin adjective “legenda”. It refers to unverified story handed down from earlier
times, especially one popularly believed to be historical.

3. Parable- a simple story illustrating a moral or religious lesson.

4. Fable-is usually a short narrative making an edifying or cautionary point and often employing as
characters animals that speak and act like humans.

5. Fairy Tale- a kind of folktale or fable. Marvelous and magical things happen to character in fairy tales.

6. Short story- a piece of prose fiction marked by relative shortness and density, organized into a plot and
with some kind of denouement at the end. The plot may be comic, tragic, romantic, or satiric. It may be
written in the mode of fantasy, realism or naturalism. It usually focuses on one important event in the
lives of a small number of central characters.

7. Novel- a fictional prose narrative of considerable length, typically having a plot that is unfolded by the
actions, speech, and thoughts of numerous characters placed in a number of different situations.

8. Novella- a fictional prose narrative that is longer than a short story, but shorter than a novel. It is a form
in its own right.

B. Poetry
-a piece of art written by a poet in meter or verse expressing various emotions which are expressed by
the use of variety of techniques including metaphors, similes and onomatopoeia. The emphasis is the
use of aesthetics of language and the use of techniques such as repetition, meter and rhyme. It heavily
uses imagery and word association to quickly convey emotions.

1. Lyric Poetry- is a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a single speaker presents a
state of mind or an emotional state. It retains some of the elements of song which is said to be its
origin.
 a. Song-a musical work, an abstract entity that serves as an umbrella for many versions or
renditions. It is meant to be sung.
b. Sonnet- a fourteen-line poem in iambic pentameter.
Iambic-refers to the name of the foot, which is composed of a weaker syllable followed by an accented syllable.
Pentameter- refers to the number of feet in a line, in this case five.
c. Elegy-a meditative lyric poem lamenting the death of a public personage or of a friend or loved
one; by extension, any reflective lyric on the broader theme of human mortality.
d. Ode- a long lyric poem with a serious subject written in an elevated style and formal stanzaic
structure.

2. Narrative Poetry- gives a verbal representation, in verse, of a sequence of connected events. It

propels characters through a plot. It is always told by a narrator. It may tell a love story, the story of
a father and son, or the deeds of a hero or heroine.
a. Ballad- a song, originally transmitted orally, which tells a story. It is an important form of folk
poetry which was adapted for literary uses from the sixteenth century onwards. The ballad
stanza is usually a four-line stanza, alternating tetrameter and trimeter.
b. Metrical Romance- a poem which tells a story that ends happily whether love is involved or not.
It represents a chivalric theme or relates improbable adventures of idealized characters in some
remote or enchanted setting.
3. Dramatic Poetry-like narrative poetry, tells stories. But in dramatic poetry, the poet lets one or more
of the story’s characters act out the story. Many plays are written as dramatic poetry. The difference
between drama and dramatic poetry is a matter of degree. If the dialogue of a play rhymes has
repeating rhythms, or features of other distinct poetic elements, the play is considered to be
dramatic poetry.
a. Dramatic monologue- a combination of the words dramatic and monologue. The “dramatic” says
that it could be acted out, and is a form of drama, while the “monologue” defines it as a speech
that one person makes, either to himself or to another. It is written to reveal both the situation at
hand and the character himself.
b. Soliloquy- a long speech in which a character who is alone on a stage expresses his or her
private thoughts or feelings. It is intended to give the illusion of unspoken reflections.

C. DRAMA- comes from the Greek word “dran” which means “to do” or “to act”. It is a story acted out. It
shows people going through some eventful period in their lives, seriously or humorously. The speech
and action of a play recreate the flow of human life, which comes fully to life on the stage.
1. Tragedy-refers to a drama in which a heroic protagonist meets an unhappy or calamitous end,
brought about by some fatal flaw of character, by circumstances outside his or her control, or simply
by destiny.
a. Tragicomedy- refers to fictional works that blend aspects of the genres of tragedy and comedy.
In English literature from Shakespeare’s time to the nineteenth century, tragicomedy refers to a
serious play with a happy ending.
b. Melodrama- formed by combining the words “melody” ( from the Greek “meloidia”, meaning
“song”) and “drama”. Thus in melodrama, music is used to increase the spectators emotional
response or to suggest character types.
2. Comedy-depicts humorous incidents in which protagonists are faced with moderate difficulties but
overcome them and the play ends happily. Instead of being isolated like tragic heroes, comic
protagonists are comfortable with their society, or become so; and their success is brought about
through cooperation with others. It may involve laughter at a character who is a fool, a coward, a
miser, or laughter with the rogue or trickster who upsets the normal social order for a time. In “high”
comedy, human folly arouses intellectual amusement as well as engaging the emotions, whereas
“low” comedy arouses laughter through jokes and clowning that have more appeal to the emotions
than the intellect.
 a. Satirical Comedy- generally includes human folly and associated political, social, or moral
problems.
b. The Comedy of Manners- depicts the romantic intrigues of a sophisticated upper class,
including witty repartee and humorous social blundering.
c. Romantic Comedy- involves idealized romantic love, as in romance.
d. Black Comedy- induces laughter as a kind of defense mechanism when a situation,
dispassionately considered, would be simply horrifying.
e. Farce- depends upon ridiculous situations, exaggerated character types, coarse humor, and
horseplay for its comic effects.

D. NONFICTION PROSE- presents factual information or expresses a viewpoint.

1. Autobiography- comes from the Greek words “auton,” self, “ bios” life and graphein, “write”, is a
biography written by the person himself or herself.
2. Biography- which comes from the Greek word “bios” meaning “life”, and “graphein” meaning write,
is a personal account of a personal account of a person’s life written by another person.
3. Character Sketch- an abbreviated portrayal of a particular characteristic of people. It emphasizes
the most striking part of a person’s life.
4. Diary or Journal-a daily record of events in a person’s life.
5. Editorial- a statement or an article by a news organization, newspaper or magazine that expresses
the opinion of the editor, editorial board, or publisher.
6. Essay- a brief work of nonfiction that offers an opinion on a subject. The purpose of an essay may
be to express ideas and feelings, to analyze, to inform, to entertain, or to persuade.

THE DIFFERENT APPROACHES EMPLOYED BY READER IN STUDYING LITERATURE

1. Reader-Response Approach- establishes the interaction between the reader and the piece of literature. The
reader’s response to the text and how the text impinges on the reader is the fundamental principle of this
approach. It recognizes reader’s dynamism, that is, each reader carries with him his attitude, intelligence,
schema and experience to make sense of the text without making reference to author’s life history and the
text’s historical and cultural circumstances as opposed to Historical-Biographical Approach. It embraces the
idea that each text is an organic unity, meaning, the text itself has meaning independent from its creator.
2. Marxism- focuses on class conflicts as well as class distinctions by emphasizing social, economic, and
political inequalities as exemplified by the characters in a literary work. It establishes the tension between the
privileged and the deprived, the superior and the inferior, and the strong and influential and the weak and
insignificant. It also magnifies how “structural violence” affects the people in their quest for social justice and
equality.
3. Feminism- examines the subjugation of women in the society and how they were personified in literature
whether independent or dependent, the superior or inferior, strong or weak, liberated or conservative, assertive
or submissive, uncompromising or accommodating, expressive or timid. It defies the stereotyped
representation of women grounded on the idea or notion that they are only secondary to men in terms of their
economic, social, and political roles.
4. Queer Theory- scrutinizes, problematizes and criticizes the role of gender in literature. It confronts the
concept of normative sexualities as types of social structures and social constructs which delineate our ideas
about sexuality as an act and sexuality as an identity where a man is expected to be attracted to a woman and
vice versa. It advocates recognition on both homosexuals and lesbians as sexual preferences or identities not
deviant to what we consider as normal and natural.
5. Formalism- focuses on the inherent features of a text. These features encompass the literary elements and
devices such as plot, character, setting, point of view, and conflict as well as how they work together to support
the theme and to form organic unity. It reduces the importance of text’s historical, biographical, and cultural
contexts as opposed to Historical-Biographical Approach. It capitalizes on form rather than content.
6. Historical-Biographical Approach- embraces the idea that text and author are inseparable, thus, in order to
make sense of the text, the reader must dig the author’s life history to know what compelled him from writing
the text. It also enables the reader to have greater knowledge from which to draw conclusion by understanding
the way of life on a certain time period.
7. Deconstruction- strives to exhibit that any text is not a disconnected whole but contains numerous
conflicting meanings; that any text therefore has more than one interpretation; that the text itself links these
interpretations inextricably; that the incongruity of these interpretations is irreducible; thus, an interpretative
reading cannot go beyond a certain point.
8. Moral/Intellectual Approach- concerns itself with the content and values of the text, that is, to determine if the
text is significant in the reader’s well-being- making them become better persons and helping them understand
the world.

THE 7- LITERARY STANDARDS

-A work of art is excellent if it possesses the following characteristics:

1. Artistry- is a quality that appeals to the readers standard of beauty in terms of painting or literature, its
elements work together to express its intended meaning;
2. Intellectual value- it appeals to our intellect. An artwork inflames critical thinking. It helps you uncover
indispensable truths about life and human nature.
3. Suggestiveness- it appeals to our emotion. It makes us sympathize or empathize with the people involved in
an artwork.
4. Spiritual value- it appeals to our sense of morality by making us undergo self-realization that makes us
better person. It subsumes the capacity to inspire; ordinary people who do things extraordinarily well.
5. Permanence- an excellent artwork lasts. It stands the test of time. It can be read on several occasions with
the feeling that you are reading it for the first time for each reading provides new insights about the world we
live in.
6. Universality- a superb artwork is timeless and timely; it is forever relevant; it appeals to all regardless of
one’s race, educational attainment, gender, religious affiliation, and social status because it deals with
elemental feelings, fundamental truths, and universal conditions.
7. Style- an artwork manifests the artists ingenuity and originality. He deviates from the usual convention, but
he is able to showcase his talent beyond mediocrity.

ELEMENTS OF A SHORT STORY

-A short story is a short work of fiction. Fiction as you know, is prose writing about imagined events and
characters. Prose writing differs from poetry in that it does not depend on verses, meters or rhymes for its
organization and presentation.
-What makes authors such remarkable short story writers? They are true masters at combining the five key
elements that go into every great short story: plot, character, setting, point of view and theme.

PLOT- is a series of events and character actions that relate to the central conflict.
 Exposition- the opening section, information on the setting and time of the story are presented. The
situation is established and some of the characters are introduced. Nothing significant is happening yet.
 Complication- when something happens that disturbs the equilibrium, in this part conflict is introduced and
thing begin to happen, this conflict propels the plot forward.
 Conflict- is a struggle between two people or things in a short story. The main character is usually on one
side of the central conflict. When the character is opposed by another person or against the forces of
nature or against society, it is called external conflict. The main character may even struggle against
something inside himself or herself (feelings, emotions,
 illness) is internal conflict.
 Climax- the complication develops, the conflict intensifies until the story reaches and where tension is
most intense and it represents the turning point of the plot. Also known as Crisis.
 Falling action or reversal- after the climax comes, where the tension subsides. As the complications are
entangled, the story moves to its conclusion.
 Resolution or Denouement- the story ends wherein the conflict is finally resolved.

CHARACTER
-Character -is a person or sometimes even an animal, who takes part in the action of a short story or other
literary work. Most of the time fiction, like short story, interests readers because of the interesting and
significant events that it narrates, but it also interests us because of the characters that it portrays.
CHARACTERS IN A SHORT STORY MAY BE CLASSIFIED IN DIFFERENT WAYS:
A. According to their role and importance in the story
-The main character are primarily responsible for the major actions in the story, while the rests are secondary
characters. The story focuses on one of the main characters wherein the events are primarily connected to his
or her situation. The story revolves around this person who is called the central or leading character.
-In old narratives, the central character is usually called the hero and the exact opposite is the villain, the
character who opposes him or her and invested with negative attributes. Nowadays, they are popularly called
the protagonist (hero) and the antagonists (villain)
B. According to the complexity of their characterization
Flat characters- are simple and one-dimensional. They represent a single dominant trait or characteristic and
they remain essentially unchanged throughout the story. In contrast, round characters are complex and
multidimensional.
C. According to their role in advancing the plot
-There are characters who make things happen and that they can alter the course of events in the story. The
plot advances largely because of them. They are called dynamic characters. In contrast are the static
characters, they do not effect changes in the story. They may contribute to the action, but they are not the
primary agents in the story. They may contribute to the action, but they are not the primary agents of change.
Protagonists are usually dynamic characters.
The presentation and establishment of character is called characterization. And there are two modes of
characterization, the expository and the dramatic.
Expository mode-is a direct and explicit way of characterizing. It tells what the character is like. The dramatic
mode, on the other hand, is indirect and implicit instead of explicit statements, the speech, action, or thoughts
of the character are ways to know what he or she is like.

SETTING
-Most readers think that setting only refers to the place where the story takes place, but it actually
encompasses both the physical locale that frames the action and the specific time including dates and years,
the climactic actions, and even the historical period during which the story took place.
 Atmosphere-is an aspect of short story that is closely related to setting. This is the mood or feeling that
pervades a literary work. When a story is light and cheerful or gray and lonely, it is referred to as the
atmosphere.

POINT OF VIEW
-The author is the person who wrote the story. The narrator is the person who is recounting the events in the
story. Since every work of fiction must have a narrator, the narrator is obviously an important element of a
story. When we speak of a narrator, point of view is needed.
-Point of view refers to two things. First is the person narrating the events in the story, and second is the
position of that narrator in relation to the events being recounted. Point of view may be classified either as first-
person or third-person. In a story written in the first person point of view, we have the “I”, narrator and this
narrator may be a first-person observer. In this point of view, the narrator plays a minor role in the story, but
when the narrator plays a major character, the point of view is called first-person participant.
-Writers who want to present a wide spectrum of events and experience usually called third-person
omniscient point of view. In here, the narrator is not a character in the story, but like a God the writer is
capable of knowing everything including characters thoughts and feelings. A different type of omniscient point
of view may be seen, however, in short stories where the narrator chooses a character and presents the
events as they are seen and regarded by that particular character. This point of view is called limited
omniscient. It is similar to the first person point of view in so far as they are both restricted to situations and
events which can be seen and known by one character.

THEME
-is the central idea or belief in a short story. The plot is considered as the body of the story and the theme is its
soul.

THE ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

 Drama- is quiet different from other literary works because it is meant to be performed on stage. It is a
story in dialogue performed by actors, on a stage, before an audience. It is also popularly known as
play. Although drama shares some common elements with short story, it is a distinct genre with its own
set of requirements. Its three key elements are the dialogue, plot and character.

 Dialogue- is an indispensable element of drama, for without it there is no play. Dialogue makes up the
bulk of the drama. It functions like the expository section of a short story’s plot. The dialogue reveals
the situation and it also introduces the characters. So the characters are revealed by what they say
about themselves and about each other, directly or indirectly. The dialogue also shows some aspects of
the personality of the people in the play. Dialogue, therefor, serves as directions. It establishes the
situation and also conveys its tone. It provides factual information about the characters and reveals
aspects of their personality. It provides background information or information about prior events. It
accompanies and illuminates the actions of the characters. It conveys dramatic tensions and conflicts
and finally, dialogue functions as commentary and implies the theme of the play.

 Plot- the story tells us what happens; plot tells us why it happens. As in the plot of a short story, the plot
of a drama also includes the exposition or introduction, the complication or rising action, the climax or
crisis or the turning point of the story, and then the falling action. The interest generated by the plot
varies for different kinds of plays. The plot is usually structured with acts and scenes, act is the main
division in drama while scene is a smaller unit, either a division with no change of locale or time.

 Character- drama characters and plot work together. What have already mentioned about character
and characterization in a short story also applies to drama. Like short story, drama also has
protagonists and antagonists, heroes and villains, major and minor characters. It is said that in drama
characters and plot work together.

In short story characterization could be expository, but in drama this is not applicable for drama uses
three methods of characterization. The first one is through name and physical appearance, the second
method is through action, through what the characters do in the course of the play. And the third one
which is the most important is the dialogue.