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Chapter 3
Coagulation and Flocculation
Abdel Fattah Hasan, Ph.D.
Civil Engineering Department
An-Najah National University

Environmental Engineering II

for use with

Water and Wastewater Engineering
By
Mackenzie L. Davis

Surface Water Treatment

Removal of turbidity
 rapid mix tank
 flocculation tanks
 settling (sedimentation) tanks

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General Classification of solids

Particulates in water and miscellaneous other reference sizes

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Characteristics of particles (SS)

Charge is predominately negative

Particles repel so suspension is

considered stable

Can be removed by physical means

Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation: Addition of chemicals to
destabilize particles for flocculation

Flocculation: Process of bringing the

particles together so that they
aggregate into larger particles

Physical Removal: Process of

removing the larger particles from the
clarified water (sedimentation, flotation,
filtration)

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Coagulation/Flocculation

The goal is to neutralize

charge to destabilize
colloids

This allows the colloids to

agglomerate or stick
together to form “flocs”
that readily settle

Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation (practical sense) +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
++ + + +
+
+ +
+ ++
+
+ ++ +
+
+ + ++ ++
+
+
Colloidal particles +
+ +
(0.001 - 1 µm)
floc
(1 - 100 µm)

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Coagulation/Flocculation/Physical Removal

Designed to remove
 Removes colloidal particles (0.001 - 1.0µm)
o Color
o Turbidity
o Pathogens
 Microorganisms
 Toxic compounds that are sorbed to
particles
 NOM (because it is a precursor of DBPs)

Designed to make the water more

palatable

(Granular media) filtration plant

Sludge
Pump
Solids to disposal
Backwash water

Goal: Removal of turbidity and color from surface water

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Direct filtration plant

Filter Aid

Solids to disposal
Backwash water

Goal: Removal of turbidity and color from high quality waters

(TOC < 4 mg/L)

Physics of Coagulation

Compression of charge

Adsorption and charge neutralization

Adsorption and interparticle bridging

Enmeshment in a precipitate

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Common coagulants

Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O

Aluminum chloride: AlCl3

Ferric chloride: FeCl3

Ferric sulfate: FeSO4

Polyaluminum chloride (PACl):
Alw(OH)xCl3w-x

Polyaluminum sulfate (PAS)
Alx(OH)y(SO4)z

Polyelectrolytes

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How does alum work?

Al2(SO4)3⋅14H2O ↔ 2Al3++ 3SO42-+ 14H2O
2Al3+ + colloids ↔ neutralize surface charge
If sufficient alkalinity is available:
2Al3+ + 6HCO3- ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2
each mole of alum added uses six moles of alkalinity and
produces six moles of carbon dioxide.

If insufficient bicarbonate is available:

Al2(SO4)3⋅14H2O ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4 + 14H2O
Here lime or sodium carbonate may be added to neutralize
the acid formed because the precipitate will dissolve.

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pH and Dose

The optimum pH range for alum is

approximately 5.5 to 7.7 with
adequate coagulation possible
between pH 5 and 9

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Alum Dose and pH are usually

determined by Jar Test

Turbidity is usually
measured after the
mixture was
allowed to settle
for 30 minutes

Lowest turbidity is
the optimum
condition

Example 3
Six beakers are filled with the raw water,
and then each is mixed and flocculated
uniformly by identical paddle stirrers
driven by a single motor (a gang stirrer).

A typical test is conducted by first dosing

each jar with the same alum dose and
varying the pH in each jar.

The test is then repeated in a second set of

jars by holding the pH constant at the
optimum pH and varying the coagulant
dose.

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Data for Example 3

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Example 3-4

Estimate the pH that results from the

addition of 100 mg/L of alum to a
water with no alkalinity, and
estimate the amount of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) in mg/L required
to bring the pH to 7.0

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Comments:
To determine if base needs to be added when alkalinity
is present, estimate the amount of alkalinity present
and calculate the amount of alkalinity “destroyed,” as
in Example 6-2. If the amount destroyed exceeds the
amount present, estimate the excess alum and use
this amount to estimate the amount of base to add.

Because of the diversity of species that occur when alum

and/or ferric chloride are hydrolyzed, and because
natural waters will contain ions that will react with the
base, it is not practical to calculate the dose. In actual
practice, the dose is determined by titration of a water
sample.

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FLOCCULATION THEORY
Small particles undergo random Brownian motion
due to collisions with fluid molecules and that these
motions result in particle to particle collisions.

Stirring water containing particles created velocity

gradients that brought about particle collisions

Design Aspects

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Velocity Gradient (G)

The root-mean square (RMS) of the velocity gradient (G)

of the fluid (dv/dy) was used to estimate energy
dissipation.

The rate of flocculation is directly proportional to G.

The proportionality also applied to coagulation with both

metal ion coagulants and polymers

Rapid Mixing: G values

Velocity gradient = G

Amount of shear taking place, higher
the G, the more violent the mixing
P
G=
µV
Where, P = power (W)
V = volume of water in the tank (m3)
µ = dynamic viscosity (Pa⋅s)
G = velocity gradient (s-1)

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Mixing Time

Ideal reactors
V
td =
Q

Where td = time, s (hydraulic retention

time, theoretical detention time)
V= volume, m3
Q = flow rate in m3/s

Non-ideal: Density gradients, short
circuiting, local turbulence or dead spots

Selection of G and Gt Values

Both G and the product of the velocity
gradient and time (Gt), serve as criteria for
the design of mixing systems.

The selection of G and Gt values for

coagulation is dependent on:
mixing device
chemicals selected
anticipated reactions
G values in the range of 3,000 to 5,000 s-1 and t on
the order of 0.5 s are recommended for
adsorption/destabilization reactions.

For sweep coagulation, t of 1 to 10 s and G values in

the range of 600 to 1,000 s-1 are recommended

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Selection of G and Gt Values

Jar test data may be used to identify whether

adsorption/destabilization or sweep coagulation is
predominant using the following procedure:

• Determine the optimum pH and dose from plots of

settled turbidity (see, for example, Figure 3-11 )

• Plot the optimum pH and dose on Figure 3-9

• Determine which is the predominant mechanism

from the plotted position.

Rapid Mixing

Used to blend chemicals and water being
treated

Probably most important physical operation
affecting coagulant dose efficiency

Chemical reactions take < 0.1 sec, 1-7 sec
for alum, less for other coagulants.

Accomplished by:
 in-line mechanical mixing
 in-line static mixing

 mechanical mixing in stirred tanks

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Chemicals Feed into WT Units

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In-line mechanical mixing

In-line static mixing

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Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks

In-line mechanical mixing

Also know as an in-line blender

Overcomes some of the disadvantages of the

static mixer.

The following design criteria may be used in

selection of in-line mechanical mixers:

(1) G in the range 3,000 to 5,000 s-1

(2) t of about 0.5 s
(3) headloss of 0.3 to 0.9 m

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Example 3-5.
Using Table 3-4 select an in-line
blender for an alum coagulant. The jar
test data resemble that shown in
Figure 3-11 .

The design flow rate is 383 m3/h, and

the design water temperature is 17oC.

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In-Line Static Mixing

Consists of a pipe with in-line helical vanes that

rotate and split the flow to increase turbulence.

The vanes are segmented so that the number of

vanes may be adjusted to fit local conditions.

These segments are called elements.

The element size is specified by the length of

element divided by the pipe diameter (L/D).

L/D is called the aspect ratio.

Generally, L/D varies from 1.0 to 1.5.

In-Line Static Mixing

The mixers come in sizes as small as 0.5 cm for
research application to as large as 300 cm for
industrial and water treatment use.

Generally, they are made in standard pipe diameters.

In-Line Mixers have two advantages:

(1)there are no moving parts
(2)no external energy source is required.

They have the disadvantage that the degree of

mixing and mixing time is a function of flow rate.

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COV of In-Line Static Mixers

Coefficient of variation (COV) is a measure of
the uniformity of the blend of the chemical and
the water.

Design Criteria for In-Line Static Mixers

(1) COV of 1 to 10 % with an average of 5 %
(2) Gt in the range 350–1700
(3) mixing time of 1 to 3 s
(4) a maximum headloss of 0.6 to 0.9 m.

The design should specify that the mixing

elements be removable so they may be
cleared and/or cleaned

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The selection process is highly dependent on the approach

suggested by the manufacturer for their mixer.

The following method is representative:

• Select the number of mixing elements to achieve the
desired COV. 3 elements will yield a COV of about 10%
and that 6 elements will yield a COV of about 1% for
mixers designed for turbulent flow (Reynolds number
greater than 5,000). Turbulent flow may be assumed for
water entering water treatment plants from pumped
sources.

• Using either an equation or a graph, such as that shown in

Figure 3-16 provided by the manufacturer, determine the
pressure drop per element.

• With the pressure drop per element and the number of

elements, estimate the detention time, water power, and
velocity gradient, and check these against the design
criteria.

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Water Power

Example 3-6
Design a static mixer for the
following conditions:

Design flow rate 150 m3/h

Minimum water temperature 5oC
Mixer aspect ratio = 1.5
Design COV is 1%

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Mechanical Mixing in Stirred Tanks

A typical completely mixed flow reactor (CMFR) or
continuous-flow stirred tank reactor (CSTR) will
perform well for sweep coagulation.

Design Criteria:
t of 1 to 7 s
G values in the range of 600 to 1,000 s-1
volume of a rapid-mix tank seldom exceeds 8 m3

The mixing equipment consists of an electric motor,

gear-type speed reducer, and either a radial-flow or
axial-flow impeller

The radial-flow impeller provides more turbulence and is

preferred for rapid mixing.

The tanks should be horizontally baffled into at least two and

preferably three compartments in order to minimize short
circuiting and thus provide sufficient residence time.

They are also baffled vertically to minimize vortexing.

Chemicals should be added below the impeller. Some
geometric ratios for rapid mix

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The power imparted to the liquid in a baffled

tank by an impeller may be described by the
following equation for fully turbulent flow

We normally assume an efficiency of transfer of

motor power to water power of 0.8 for a single
impeller

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Flocculation Mixing
While rapid mix is the most important physical
factor affecting coagulant efficiency, flocculation is
the most important factor affecting particle-removal
efficiency.

The objective of flocculation is to bring the particles

into contact so that they will collide, stick together,
and grow to a size that will readily settle or filter out.

Enough mixing must be provided to bring the floc

into contact and to keep the floc from settling in the
flocculation basin.

Too much mixing will shear the floc particles so

that the floc is small and finely dispersed

Flocculation Mixing Detention Time

Detention time usually of 30 min

Current practice is to use shorter times that are

adjusted by temperature.

With water temperatures of approximately 20oC,

modern plants provide about 20 min of flocculation
time at plant capacity.

With lower temperatures, the detention time is

increased:
o at 15oC the detention time is increased by 7%
o at 10oC it is increased 15%
o at 5oC it is increased 25%.

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Gt values for flocculation

Flocculation Basin

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Flocculation Basin
The flocculation basin should be divided into at
least three compartments.

The velocity gradient is tapered so that the G

values decrease from the first compartment to the
last and that the average of the compartments is the
design value selected from Table 3-6

Flow through velocities between 0.15- 0.45 m/s

Water depths in the basin range from 3 to 5 m

The velocity of flow from the flocculation basin to

the settling basin should be low enough to prevent
shear and breakup of the floc but high enough to
keep the floc in suspension.

Baffle Wall
Baffle wall is used to separate the flocculation basin
compartments

The top of the baffle is slightly submerged (1 to 2

cm), and the bottom should have a space of 2 to 3 cm
above the floor to allow for drainage and sludge
removal

Each baffle should have orifices that are uniformly

distributed over the vertical surface.

The size should be selected with the objective of

providing a velocity gradient that does not exceed the
gradient in the compartment immediately upstream.

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Baffle Wall

The headloss through the orifice:

Cd varies from 0.60 to 0.80

orifices diameter be 10 to 15 cm
velocities be between 0.25 to 0.55 m/s
Headloss range from 3 to 9 mm through each baffle orifice
hole at the maximum flow rate.

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A two-arm cross-flow paddle system. Note: two arms and two boards
per arm; baffle wall on left.

Direction of
flow

Cross-flow paddle flocculator. Note: paddle “boards” are fiberglass

reinforced plastic (FRP); upstream and downstream slotted wall baffles
at left and right of compartment.

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Access door through baffle wall between

flocculation chambers.

Access door from settling tank to flocculation basin chamber. Slotted

wall is a baffle. Photo taken from settling tank toward flocculation
chambers.

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Example 3-8
Design a baffle wall for one of a pair of flocculation basins
using the following design parameters:

Q = 10,000 m3/d
Diameter of orifices = 100 mm
Orifice coefficient of discharge = 0.60

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Mixer Alternatives
Flocculation is normally accomplished with one
of the following systems:

vertical turbine mixing similar to that used in

flash mixing

paddle flocculator

baffled chamber

Paddle flocculator with paddle wheels

arranged parallel to the flow

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Baffled channel flocculation system

General Notes on Flocculator-Mixers

Vertical turbine mixing with an axial-flow
impeller in a mixing basin is recommended over
the other types of flocculators because they
impart a nearly constant G throughout the tank

However, the paddle flocculator has been the

design choice for numerous plants.
chosen for conventional treatment when a
high degree of solids removal by
sedimentation is desired.
the unit of choice when very large volumes
of water are to be treated and the number of
vertical shaft units becomes excessive

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Vertical Turbine Mixer

Design recommendations:

 Using a nearly cubical shape for each compartment

with the impeller located at a depth equal to 2/3 of
the water depth

 Placing the shaft bearings above the water surface

and providing a 1.2 m walkway space around the
mixer for control panels, power connections, and
space for maintenance work

 The design of the mechanical mixing system follows

that used in flash mixing with appropriate
substitution of constants for the axial flow
impeller Np and tank/impeller ratios from
Table 3-5

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Comments:

1. The provision of two flocculation

basins meets redundancy
requirements.

2. An additional 0.60 m is added to

the water depth as freeboard so the
tank depth is 4.6 m.

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