Optical Fiber Communications: Dr. Ali Waqar Azim

Optical Fiber
Communications
Dr. Ali Waqar Azim
Email and Office Hours
• Email: ali.azim@uettaxila.edu.pk
will only answer legitimate queries.
• Class/lecture related queries should go through the CR.
• Office Hours: Monday and Thursday

09h30 – 11h30
Assesment
• Quizes and Assignments: 25% (15% + 10%)
• Mid Term: 25%
• End Semester Examination: 50 %
• Subject to change.
Quizes and Assignments
• Total of five quizes during the semester, will count best four
(2 marks each).
• Two assignments (5 marks each).

Suggested Books
J. Senior, “Optical Fiber

G. Keiser, “Optical Fiber
Communications: Principles and
Communications”, McGraw Hill,
Practice”, Prentice Hall, ISBN-13:
ISBN-13: 978-0073380711.
978-0130326812.
J. Ahmed, M. Y. Siyal, F. Adeel and

A. Hussain, “Optical Signal G. P. Agrawal, “Fiber-Optic
Processing by Silicon Photonics”, Communication Systems”, Wiley,
Springer, ISBN-13: 978- ISBN-13: 978-0470505113.
9814560108.
Couse Content
• In general, the course content develop by the HEC will be

followed.
Communications using light
• The use of light for communication has been common for many years.
• Examples: fires, reflecting mirrors, signalling lamps, etc.
• The idea was to essentially use light for free space optics (wireless communications).
• Alexander Graham Bell’s – photophone - modulated sunlight with a diaphragm giving

speech transmission over a distance of 200 m
Introduction to Fiber Optic
Communications and Basic Principles
Limitations…
• Low capacity communication links

- due to both the lack of suitable light source – incoherence- frequency and
wavelength may differ from light source to light source.
- light transmission in the atmosphere is restricted to line of sight and severely

affected by disturbances such as rain, snow, fog, dust and atmospheric
turbulence.
But…
• Radio and microwave - less affected by these atmospheric conditions.
• In theory, the greater the carrier frequency, the larger the available transmission
bandwidth and thus the information-carrying capacity.
• High frequencies communication systems- e.g., UHF, millimeter-wave sytems-

large available bandwidths and larger communication distances.
Limitations…
Recall: The idea was to use light for free space optics (wireless
communication)
Solution: Laser
- Coherent light source - same frequency and wavelength
- Capable to modulate high frequency - higher bandwidth
Limitations: Light transmission in the atmosphere tended to restrict

these systems to short-distance applications.
Evolution of Optical Communications
• Rather than using light for free space optics (wireless
communications), use it for a guided medium (wired
communications).
• Limitations: The guided media available

(dielectric waveguides or optical fiber fabricated
from glass) had high attenuations (1000 dB/km)
compared to coaxial cables (5-10 dB/km) .
• Solution: This issue was solved with the

development of semiconductor based lasers.
General Communication Systems
• Convey the signal from the information source over the transmission medium
to the destination.
• Components of Communication Systems

- transmitter or modulator - linked to the information source
- transmission medium - signal is attenuated, suffers loss, degrades due to contamination by
noise, etc.
- receiver or demodulator - destination point
General Communication Systems
Example: Electrical Communication System

- Information source - provides an electrical signal, derived from a message signal which is not electrical
- Transmitter - comprising electrical and electronic components which converts the signal into a suitable
form for propagation (electromagnetic wave)
- Transmission medium - pair of wires, a coaxial cable or a radio link through free space
- Receiver- electrical information signal (demodulated) before being passed to the destination.
Optical Communication System
Example: Optical Communication System

- Information source - provides an electrical signal to a transmitter
- Transmitter – consists of electrical transmit and optical source
- electrical transmit comprises an electrical stage which drives an optical source
- optical source – performs electrical–optical conversion -laser or light-emitting diode (LED).
- Transmission medium - optical fiber cable
- Receiver - consists of an optical detector and electrical receiver
- optical detector –photodiodes - detection of the optical signal and the optical–electrical conversion.
- electrical transmit - interfacing at either end of the optical link and at present the signal processing is usually
performed electrically
Optical Fiber Communications- Advantages
• Enormous potential bandwidth- 50000 times bandwidth improvement
over coaxial cables
• Small size and weight
• Electrical isolation-electrically hazardous environments – no short circuits,
sparks, etc.
• Immunity to interference and crosstalk – no radio-frequency interference
• Signal security
• Low transmission loss - 0.15 dB/km -facilitates the implementation of
communication links with extremely wide optical repeater or amplifier
spacings, thus reducing both system cost and complexity.
• Ruggedness and flexibility – can be bent and transported easily
• System reliability and ease of maintenance – less optical repeaters, 20-30
year lifespan
• Potential low cost - glass which generally provides the optical fiber
transmission medium is made from sand – not a scarce resource
Optical Fiber Communications- Disadvantages
• Attenuation- fiber attenuation depends on the material

• Complex Electronic Circuitry- required at both transmitter and receiver
• Difficult Coupling
• Separated Power Supplies – for repeaters at different stages
Communication Systems-Comparisons
Optical Communication Systems Radio Frequency Communication Systems
Higher available bandwidths Saturated Bandwidths
Light-weight Heavier in weight
Electronically isolated-no shielding is needed Prone to electrical disturbances
Low attenuation Relatively higher attenuation
Large repeater spacing Less repeater spacing
Higher data rates Relatively lower data rates
Message security is obtained Signal can be tapped easily
No cross talk-multiple optical channels If shielding is not properly, cross talk may appear
Communication Systems-Comparisons
Optical Communication Systems Radio Frequency Communication Systems

Expensive transmitter and receiver Less expensive transmitter and receivers
Power efficiency depends on the efficiency of the Output power is directly coupled to transmission
light source (Laser or LED) (if the system is operating in linear range)
Unable to excite terminal device directly Able to operate terminal device directly
Nature of Light – Antient Ideas
- Newton (18th Century) was the chief architect of the

particle theory of light.
- Light was considered a stream of particles.
- Light is emitted by the object being viewed or emanated

from the eyes of the viewer.
- Light moves faster in transparent mediums.

Nature of Light – Alternative View
- Christian Huygens argued that light might be some sort

of a wave motion.
- Thomas Young (in 1801) provided the first clear

demonstration of the wave nature of light.
- He showed that light rays interfere with each other.
- Such behavior could not be explained if we consider the

particle nature of light.
Nature of Light
What is light?
By the 17th Century light had been observed as:
- Travel in a straight line.
- Reflect.
- Refract.
- Transmit energy from one place to another.
Two Theories could explain these Phenomena.

Wave Nature of Light
• During the nineteenth century, other developments led to the general

acceptance of the wave theory of light.
• Thomas Young provided evidence that light rays interfere with one another
according to the principle of superposition.
- This behavior could not be explained by a particle theory.
• Maxwell asserted that light was a form of high-frequency electromagnetic

wave.
• Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s predictions.

Wave Nature of Light
• Wave theory could easily explain reflection, energy transmission and refraction
but had difficulty explaining the straight travel of light.
• The wave theory’s explanation of refraction required that light must travel
slower in water than in air.
Particle Nature of Light
• Some experiments could not be explained by the wave model of light.
• Particle theory could easily explain the straight line travel of light, reflection
and energy transmission but had trouble explaining refraction.
• Particle theory of refraction required that light must travel faster in water than
in air.
• The final blow to the particle theory came in 1850 when Jean Foucault
discovered that light travels faster in air than in water.
Photoelectric Effect
• The photoelectric effect was a major phenomenon not
explained by wave theory.
• Photoelectric effect - when light strikes a metal surface,

electrons are sometimes ejected from the surface.
• Wave theory
- predicts that electrons should be emitted when they
accumulate enough energy.
- alteration in the intensity of light would theoretically change
the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim
light resulting in a delayed emission.
Photoelectric Effect
• The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only when the
light exceeds a certain frequency—regardless of the light's intensity or duration of
exposure.
• Einstein (in 1905) proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect - assumes

that the energy of a light wave is present in particles called photons.
𝐸 = ℎƒ
- ℎ is Planck’s Constant and = 6.63 𝑥 10!"# J.s

Problem 1:
Prob1: Given that the light has a frequency of 4×10$#Hz, what will be the energy of
light wave? (Planck’s Constant = 6.63 𝑥 10!"# J.s)
Dual Nature of Light
• Light must be regarded as having a dual nature.
• Light exhibits the characteristics of a wave in some

situations and the characteristics of a particle in
other situations.
• Light is radiant energy transported in photons that

are guided along their path by a wave field.
Nature of Light
Wave Nature:
• Reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference,
polarization, fading, loss
Particle Nature:
Number of photons, minimum energy: 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
Electromagnetic Wave:
• Interacts with any charges in nearby space
• Characterized by frequency, wavelength, phase and
propagation speed
• Photometric terms: luminous flux, candle intensity,
illuminance, Luminance
Speed of Light
• Galileo tried by using two observers separated by about

10 km.
- The reaction time of the observers was more than
the transit time of the light.
• Since light travels at a very high speed, early attempts to

measure its speed were unsuccessful.
- 𝑐 = 3.00 𝑥 108 m/s (speed of light in vacuum).
Speed of Light-Light in different mediums
• The light enters from the left.
• The light may encounter an electron.
• The electron may absorb the light, oscillate, and

reradiate the light.
• The absorption and radiation cause the average speed of

the light moving through the material to decrease.
Wavelength and Frequency and Light
• If we consider light as an electromagnetic wave, it can be characterized in terms of
frequency and wavelength.
𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆
- 𝑐 is the speed of light
- 𝑓 is the frequency of the electromagnetic wave
- 𝜆 is the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave
• As aforementioned, the speed of light changes when it enters from one material to a
different material, if so, then
- does the frequency changes ?
- does the wavelength changes ?
Wavelength and Frequency and Light
• Let us consider the speed of light, 𝑣$ and 𝑣% in two different medium
𝑣$ = 𝑓$𝜆$
𝑣% = 𝑓%𝜆%
We will observe that
𝑓$ = 𝑓%
𝜆$ ≠ 𝜆%
The change in material results in change of wavelength and not the frequency.
Wavelength and Energy
The minimum energy for a given frequency of light is given as
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
We also know that
𝑐
𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆 ⇒ 𝑓 =
𝜆
Thus, we have
𝑐
𝐸=ℎ
𝜆
Energy and wavelength of light have an inverse relationship

Problem 2:
What is the energy of light wave having wavelength of 400𝑛𝑚?
Wavelength and Energy
Ray Approximation in Ray Optics
• Ray optics (sometimes called geometric optics) involves the study of the
propagation of light.
• It uses the following assumptions

- light travels in a straight-line path in a uniform medium
- changes its direction when it meets the surface of a different medium or if
the optical properties of the medium are nonuniform.
• The ray approximation is used to represent beams of light.

Ray Approximation
• The rays are straight lines perpendicular to the wave

fronts.
• With the ray approximation, we assume that a wave

moving through a medium travels in a straight line in
the direction of its rays.
Ray Approximation
• If a wave meets a barrier, with 𝜆 << 𝑑, the wave

emerging from the opening continues to move in a
straight line.
- 𝑑 is the diameter of the opening.
- There may be some small edge effects.
• This approximation is good to simplifies the study.

Reflection of Light
• A ray of light, the incident ray, travels in a medium.
• When it encounters a boundary with a second medium, part of the incident ray is
reflected back into the first medium, this ray if light is known as reflected ray.
• This means it is directed backward into the first medium.
• Considering a smooth surface, if the incident rays the parallel, then the reflected
rays are also parallel to each other.
Law of Reflection
• The normal is a line perpendicular to the surface.
- It is at the point where the incident ray strikes the
surface.
• The incident ray makes an angle of 𝜃1 with the normal.
• The reflected ray makes an angle of 𝜃1’ with the

normal.
• The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of

incidence.
𝜃1’ = 𝜃1
This relationship is called the Law of Reflection.
Refraction
• When a ray of light traveling through a transparent
medium encounters a boundary leading into another
transparent medium, part of the energy is reflected and
part enters the second medium.
• The ray that enters the second medium changes its

direction of propagation at the boundary.
• This bending of the ray is called refraction.

Refraction
• The incident ray, the reflected ray, the refracted ray, and
the normal all lie on the same plane.
• The angle of refraction depends upon the material and

the angle of incidence.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃$ 𝑣$
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃% 𝑣%
𝑣1 is the speed of the light in the first medium and 𝑣2

is its speed in the second.
Problem 3
Consider that the light having frequency of 7.5×10$# Hz is travelling in the air and the
angle of incidence is 30° with respect to the normal at the boundary of glass. Consider
that the speed of light is 3𝑥10& m/s, what will be the angle of refraction if the wavelength
of light in glass is 0.263𝜇𝑚?
Refraction
• Light may refract into a material

where its speed is lower, 𝑣% <
𝑣$, or 𝑛% > 𝑛$
• The angle of refraction is less

than the angle of incidence.
The ray bends toward the

normal.
Refraction
• Light may refract into a material

where its speed is higher, 𝑣% >
𝑣$, or 𝑛% < 𝑛$
• The angle of refraction is greater

than the angle of incidence.
The ray bends away from the

normal.
Refraction
Refraction
– Ray 1 is the incident ray.

– Ray 2 is the reflected ray.
– Ray 3 is refracted into the plexiglass.
– Ray 4 is internally reflected in the
plexiglass .
– Ray 5 is refracted as it enters the air from
the plexiglass.
Index of Refraction
• Recall that the speed of light in vacuum is 𝑐 = 3.00 𝑥 10& m/s.
• The speed of light in any material is less than its speed in vacuum.
• The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in second medium is known as
the refractive index or index of refraction 𝑛 of the material and is given by
𝑐 𝜆'()
𝑛= =
𝑣 𝜆*+,
where 𝑣 is the speed of the light in the medium.
• The index of refraction is inversely proportional to the wave speed.

- As the wave speed decreases, the index of refraction increases.
- The higher the index of refraction, the more it slows downs the light wave
speed.
Index of Refraction
𝑛1 < 𝑛2 < 𝑛3
𝑛!
𝑛"
𝑛#
Index of Refraction
• Large value of 𝑛 ⇒ Denser material ⇒ Slow wave speed

• Low value of 𝑛 ⇒ Less dense material 𝑛 ⇒ High wave speed
• The angle of refraction in terms of index of refraction is given as
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃$ 𝑛%
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃% 𝑛$
Index of Refraction
• Since 𝑣 is always less than 𝑐, i.e., 𝑐 > 𝑣, therefore, 𝑛 > 1.
• For a vacuum, 𝑛 = 1
- We assume 𝑛 = 1 for air also.
• For other media, 𝑛 > 1

- 𝑛 is a dimensionless number greater than unity.
- 𝑛 is not necessarily an integer.
Index of Refraction
Problem 4
What will be the index of refraction of glass when the wavelength of light in glass is
0.263𝜇𝑚 and the frequency of light in air is 7.5×10$# Hz?
Problem 5
Consider that the light is travelling in air incidents on the glass surface at an angle
of 30° with respect to the normal. What will be the angle of refraction, given that
the refractive index of air and glass is 1 and 1.52, respectively?
Frequency between Media
• As light travels from one medium to another,

its frequency does not change.
• Both the wave speed and the wavelength do

change.
• The angle of refraction in terms of

wavelengths can be measured as
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃$ 𝑣$ 𝑛% 𝜆$
= = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃% 𝑣% 𝑛$ 𝜆%
Problem 6
Determine the angle of refraction of light considering the following information.

- Frequency of light is 7.5×10$#Hz;
- Angle of incidence is 45°;
- Light enters from air to glass;
- Wavelength of light in glass is 0.263𝜇𝑚.
Snell’s Law of Refraction
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
- 𝜃1 is the angle of incidence

- 𝜃2 is the angle of refraction
• The experimental discovery of this relationship is usually credited to Willebrord

Snell and is therefore known as Snell’s law of refraction.
Total Internal Reflection
Total internal reflection is the optical phenomenon in which waves arriving at

the boundary from one medium to another are not refracted into the second medium,
but completely reflected back into the first medium.
Total internal reflection occurs when light is directed from a medium having a higher
index of refraction (lower speed) toward one having a lower index of refraction (higher
speed).
Total Internal Reflection
• Possible directions of the beam are

indicated by rays numbered 1 through
5.
• The refracted rays are bent away from

the normal since 𝑛1 > 𝑛2.
Critical Angle
• There is a particular angle of incidence that
will result in an angle of refraction of 90° to
the normal.
• This angle of incidence is called the critical

angle, 𝜃) .
• For angles of incidence greater than the
critical angle, the beam is entirely reflected
at the boundary.
• Total internal reflection occurs only when

light is directed from a medium of higher
index of refraction toward a medium of
lower index of refraction.
Critical Angle
• Consider the expression of Snell’s law
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
- 𝜃1 is the angle of incidence

- 𝜃2 is the angle of refraction
• Now, if we consider 𝜃% = 90° , then the expression can be modified so that we can
calculate the angle of incidence at which critical angle can be attained.
𝑛%
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 ⇒ 𝜃$ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛!$
𝑛$
Problem 6
• Find the critical angle when light enters from glass (𝑛 = 1.52) to air (𝑛 = 1).
Fiber Optics
• An application of total internal reflection
• Plastic or glass rods are used to “pipe” light

from one place to another.
Overview of Optical Fiber Commmunications
In the subsequent slides, we shall study

1. Evolution of Optical Fiber Communications
2. Key Elements of Optical Fiber Systems
3. Optical Spectral Bands
4. Analog and Digital Signals
5. Channel Capacity
6. Standards
Evolution of Optical Fiber Communications
The Path to Optical Networks:
1. The invention of the telegraph by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1837—the era of electrical

communications started.
2. In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell developed photophone that could transmit entire
voice signal in an analog form using lightwave communications.
3. The invention of Laser in the early 1960 aroused a curiosity for optical region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
4. The technical breakthrough for optical fiber communications started in 1970 when
researchers at Corning Inc. demonstrated the feasibility of producing glass.
5. The first optical fiber links appeared in the late 1970s when telephony signals were
transmitted at about 6 Mb/s over distances of around 10 km.
6. High demand for optical communication in 1990s due to bandwidth hungry services,
continuous expansion of internet. This demand was fueled by the rapid proliferation of
personal computers.
Low loss fibers High attenuation fibers ≈ 1000 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚
Invention of laser
Bit-rate distance product (BL): how much data rate can be attained at a given distance.
Key Elements of Optical Fiber Systems
Optical transmitter: Consists of a light source and associated electronic circuitry. The
source can be a light-emitting diode (LED) or a laser diode.
LED Optical Transmitter
Laser Optical Transmitter

Optical Connector
Optical fiber: is the transmission medium. A variety of fiber types exist, inside a
building, in underground pipes, outside on poles, or under Water.
Optical amplifiers: Traditionally the optical signal was converted to an electric signal,
amplified electrically, and then converted back to an optical signal. The invention of
an optical amplifier that boosts the power level completely in the optical domain and
avoids transmission bottlenecks.
Optical receiver: Inside the receiver is a photodiode that detects the weakened
optical signal. The receiver also converts the optical signal to an electrical signal. The
receiver also contains electronic amplification devices.
Photodiodes
Optical Receiver
Active components: components which require an electronic control for their

operation, e.g., lasers, photodiodes, optical amplifiers, tunable (wavelength-
selectable) optical filters, variable optical attenuators, optical switches.
Passive devices: Passive devices are optical components that require no electronic
control for their operation. Example, optical filters, optical splitters, optical
multiplexers, couplers
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Characteristics of Optical spectrum:

1. Wavelength→≈ 10!" −10!&m
2. Frequency →≈ 10$$ −10$/Hz
3. Includes infrared, visible and ultraviolet spectrums.
Optical Spectral Bands
Optical communication generally uses wavelength to designate the spectral operating

region and photon energy or optical power when discussing topics such as signal
strength or electro-optical component performance.
If the frequency is known and one wants to find the wavelength, we use
𝑐
𝜆=
𝑓
The relationship between the energy of a photon and its frequency
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
In terms of wavelength (measured in micrometers), the energy in electron volts is given

by
1.2406
𝐸 𝑒𝑉 =
𝜆(𝜇𝑚)
Optical spectrum ranges from about 5

nm (ultraviolet) to 1 mm (far infrared),
the visible region being the 400- to 700-
nm band. Optical fiber communications
use the near-infrared spectral band from
770 to 1675 nm.
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has designated six spectral

bands for use in intermediate-range and long-distance optical fiber
communications within the 1260- to 1675-nm wavelength region.
These band designations arose from the physical characteristics of optical fibers
and the performance behavior of optical amplifiers.
The regions are known by the letters O, E, S, C, L and U.

Original band (O-band) 1260 to 1360nm
Extended band (E-band) 1360 to 1460nm

Short band (S-band) 1460 to 1530nm
Conventional band (C-band) 1530 to 1565nm
Long band (L-band) 1565 to 1625nm

Ultralong band (U-band) 1625 to 1675nm
Windows and Spectral Bands
• In case of optical transmission, the loss is wavelength dependent which in turns

depends on material properties.
• There is a specific band of wavelength where the signal attenuation is minimum which
is known as optical or operating window.
• Optical windows are designed to maximize transmission in a specified wavelength

range, while minimizing reflection and absorption.
• The wavelength of operation from the optical window is selected as they offer
minimum attenuation.
• The first optical window is defined from 800-
900nm, where the minimum signal loss is
4dB/km.
• In early 1970’s this window was used for

operation.
• By reducing the concentration of hydroxyl ions

and metallic impurities in the fiber material, in
1980’s manufacturers were able to fabricate
optical fibers with very low loss in the 1100-
1600nm region. This spectral band is called long
wavelength region.
• The second optical window is centered at

1310nm also called O-band, which offers
0.5dB/km.
• The third optical window is centered at

1550nm also called C-band, which gives the
loss of 0.2dB/km.
• For long distance applications the 1550nm

wavelength is preferred because loss offered at
this wavelength is minimum than any other
wavelength.
Analog and Digital Signals
An analog signal varies continuously with time, e.g., audio signal, etc.
A periodic analog signal having period 1/𝑓

Analog and Digital Signals
In order to convert an analog signal into a digital signal, the following digitization steps
have to be perfomed:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
Sampling of Analog Signals
Convert an continuous time signal, i.e., analog signal into a discrete time signal.
Sampling Theorem
Sampling Theorem
The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem serves as a fundamental bridge
between continuous time signal and discrete time signal. It establishes a sufficient
condition for sample rate (in Hz, sample per seconds) that permits a discrete sequence
of samples to capture all the information from a continuous-time signal of
finite bandwidth.
A signal with maximum frequency 𝑓*(0 can be recovered if sampled at 𝑓1 > 2𝑓*(0
Sampling Theorem
Quantization
Quantization is the process of constraining an input from a large set of values (such as the real numbers) to a
discrete set (such as the integers).
Rounding is a typical example of quantization processes.
The difference between an input value and its quantized value (such as round off error) is referred to
as quantization error.
Quantization
Quantization
Analog to Digital Converters
An analog to digital converter (ADC) can be modelled as two processes:
1. Sampling converts a time-varying voltage signal into a discrete time signal, a sequence of
real numbers.
2. Quantization replaces each real number with an approximation from a finite set of
discrete values.
Channel Capacity
Maximum rate at which data can be sent across a channel from message source to the user
destination in reliable manner.
If channel has a bandwidth B (measured in Hz) then the maximum information
transmission capacity C of that channel is given in bits per second by the relationship
(Shannon capacity formula).
𝐶 = 𝐵log %(1 + SNR)
The parameter signal to noise ratio (SNR) on a decibel scale is given as
2*+,
SNR = 2
-.+*/
where 𝑃134 is the signal power and 𝑃5631+ is the noise power.
Channel Capacity
1.Shannon formula indicates the theoretical maximum capacity that can be achieved.
2. In practice this capacity cannot be reached, since the formula only takes into account
thermal noise.
3. It does not consider factors such as attenuation distortion etc.
4. Capacity can be increased by raising the signal power, but it also raises nonlinear effects.
Problem 7
Consider a noisy channel with 1 MHz bandwidth with signal to noise ratio equal to 1 dB.
Find maximum capacity for this channel?
Problem 8
Find the capacity of a channel that operates between 3 MHz and 4 MHz and in which the
signal to noise ratio is 20 dB?
Decibel Unit
Attenuation (reduction) of the signal strength, i.e., signal power arises from various loss
mechanisms in a transmission medium.
For example:
• Electric power is lost through heat generation as an electric signal flows along a wire.
• Optical power is attenuated through scattering and absorption processes in a glass fiber
or in an atmospheric channel.
A standard and convenient method for measuring attenuation through a link or a device is
to reference the output signal level to the input level.
𝑃%
𝑃,7 = 10 log$8
𝑃$
𝑃%is the output power and 𝑃$is the input power.
Problem 9
After traveling a certain distance in some transmission medium, the power of a signal is
reduced to half at point 2, that is 𝑃% = 0.5𝑃$. What is the attenuation or loss of power in
dB at point 2?
Problem 10
Consider the transmission path from point 1 to point 4 shown in fig below. The signal is
attenuated by 9 dB between point 1 and 2. After getting a 14 dB boost from an amplifier
at point 3, it is again attenuated by 3 dB between points 3 and 4. What is the dB level at
point 4?
Decibel Unit
Representative values of decibel power loss and the remaining percentages

Decibel Unit
• Unit that is particularly common in optical fiber communications is the dBm.

• This expresses the power level as a logarithmic ratio of power referred to 1mW.
The power in dBm is an absolute value defined by

𝑃*9
𝑃,7* = 10 log$8
1𝑚𝑊
• An important rule-of-thumb relationship to remember for optical fiber communications

is 0 dBm = 1mW.
• Positive values of dBm are greater than 1mW.
• Negative values are less than 1mW.

Decibel Unit
Examples of optical power levels and their dBm equivalents
Standard of Optical Fiber Communications
There are three basic classes of standards:
1) Primary Standards
2) Component Testing
3) System Standards
Primary Standards
Primary standards refer to measuring and characterizing fundamental physical

parameters such as attenuation, bandwidth, diameter for single mode fibers, and
optical power.
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

- National Physical Laboratory (NPL)
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) in Germany.
Component Testing
Component testing standards define relevant tests for fiber optic component
performance, and they establish equipment calibration procedures.
- Telecommunication Industries Association (TIA)

- Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
- International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
- International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
TIA over 120 fiber optic test standards which are also called Fiber Optic Test
Procedures (FOTPs),
TIA/EIA-455-XX-YY where XX = measurement technique

YY = publication year.
System Standard
• System standards refer to measurement methods for links and networks.
• This standard is also responsible for the Interoperability and compatibility

between different vendor equipment.
- American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

- Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
- International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Propagation of Light in Optical Fibers
Acceptance Angle
• Only rays with an angle to the normal greater than 𝜑) at the core–cladding interface
are transmitted by total internal reflection, it is clear that not all rays entering the fiber
core will continue to be propagated down its length.
Acceptance angle is the maximum angle to the fiber axis at which the light rays may
enter the fiber axis in order to get propagated.
Acceptance Angle
• The ray A makes critical angle 𝜑) within the fiber at the core–cladding interface.
• This ray enters the fiber core at an angle 𝜃( to the fiber axis and is refracted at the air–
core interface before transmission to the core–cladding interface at the critical angle.
Acceptance Angle
• The rays which are incident into the fiber core at an angle greater than 𝜃( will be
transmitted to the core-cladding interface at an angle less than 𝜑) , and will not be totally
internally reflected.
• The incident ray B at an angle greater than 𝜃( is refracted into the cladding and eventually
lost by radiation.
Acceptance Angle
• For rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core they must be
incident on the fiber core within an acceptance cone defined by the conical half angle 𝜃( .
• 𝜃( is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order to be
propagated, and is referred to as the acceptance angle for the fiber.
Numerical Aperture
• Numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system characterizes the range of angles over which
the system can accept or emit light.
• For acceptance angle, we observed that we have three different mediums

- Air (𝑛8)
- Core (𝑛$)
- Cladding (𝑛%)
• NA defines a relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the
three media involved, namely the core (𝑛$), cladding (𝑛%) and air (𝑛8).
Numerical Aperture
• A light ray incident on the fiber core at an angle 𝜃$ to the fiber axis which is less than the
acceptance angle for the fiber 𝜃( .
• The ray enters the fiber from a medium (air) of refractive index 𝑛8, and the fiber core has a
refractive index 𝑛$, which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index 𝑛%.
Numerical Aperture
Considering the refraction at the air–core interface and using Snell’s law given by
𝑛8 sin 𝜃$ = 𝑛$ sin 𝜃%
Considering the right-angled triangle ABC indicated in Figure, then:

𝜋
𝜙 = − 𝜃%
2
where 𝜙 is greater than the critical angle at the core–cladding interface.
Numerical Aperture
Thus, we have
𝑛8 sin𝜃$ = 𝑛$ cos𝜙
Using the trigonometrical relationship sin% 𝜙 + cos %𝜙 = 1, The above equation may be
written in the form:
𝑛8 sin𝜃$ = 𝑛$ 1 − sin% 𝜙 8.;
We know that the critical angle is given as

𝑛%
sin 𝜙 =
𝑛$
Also considering the limiting case when 𝜃$ = 𝜃( . Combining these cases we have
𝑛8 sin 𝜃( = 𝑛$% − 𝑛%% 8.;

Numerical Aperture
Thus, NA is given as
NA = 𝑛8 sin 𝜃( = 𝑛$% − 𝑛%% 8.;
• Normally, NA is often used with the fiber in air where n0 is unity, it is simply equal to
NA = sin 𝜃(
• It may also be noted that incident rays over the range 0 ≤ 𝜃$ ≤ 𝜃( will be propagated
within the fiber.
Numerical Aperture
The NA may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index difference Δ between the
core and the cladding which is defined as
𝑛$% − 𝑛%%
Δ=
2𝑛$%
When Δ ≪ 1, then
𝑛$ − 𝑛%
Δ≈
𝑛$
Then, NA is given as
NA = 𝑛$ 2Δ 8.;
The relations which are analyzed are independent of the fiber core diameter and will hold for
diameters as small as 8 𝜇𝑚.
Numerical Aperture
The normalized frequency of the fiber is given as
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎𝑛$ 8.;

𝑉= 𝑁𝐴 = 2Δ
𝜆 𝜆
𝑎 is the radius of the fiber core.

Problem
Consider a silica optical fiber with core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index
of 1.47.
Determine:
(a) the critical angle at the core–cladding interface;
(b) the NA for the fiber;
(c) the acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
Problem
A typical relative refractive index difference for an optical fiber designed for long distance
transmission is 1%. Estimate the NA when the core index is 1.46. Further, calculate the critical
angle at the core–cladding interface within the fiber.
Problem
An optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.480. The cladding has a refractive index of
1.460. Calculate the numerical aperture of the fiber and acceptance angle from air.
Problem
An optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.460. The refractive index difference is 0.3%.
Calculate the numerical aperture and the acceptance angle of the fiber.
Fiber Types
Optical Fiber
• A flexible light pipe is called an optical fiber.
• A bundle of parallel fibers (shown) can be

used to construct an optical transmission
line.
Structure of Optical Fibers
Optical fibers are made of three parts

• Core
• Cladding
• Jacket
• The transparent core is surrounded by

cladding.
• The signal always passes through the core.
• The cladding surrounds the core.
• The combination is surrounded by the

jacket which protects core and cladding.
• The transparent core has a refractive index of 𝑛1.
• The cladding has a refractive index of 𝑛2.
• 𝑛$ > 𝑛% ⇒ allows total internal reflection.

Types of Optical Fibers
There are two types of optical fibers
• Step index fiber
• Graded index fiber
This differentiation is made on refractive index profile of the fibers.

Step Index Fiber
• Step index fibers are the optical fibers that have some constant value of refractive index
in the core and some other constant value of the cladding.
• Mathematically, the index profile of step index fibers is given as

𝑛$ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 (core)
𝑛 𝑟 =g
𝑛% 𝑟 > 𝑎 (cladding)
where 𝑎 is the radius of the core.
Types of Step Index Fiber
• The step index fibers can be of two types based on core diameter
- Multimode step index fibers (core diameter ≥ 50𝜇𝑚)
- Single mode step index fibers (core diameter ≈ 2 − 10𝜇𝑚)

Multimode Step Index Fiber
Multimode step index fiber has a core diameter of around 50𝜇𝑚 or greater, which is large
enough to allow the propagation of many modes within the fiber core as illustrated by
many different possible ray paths through the fiber.
Step Index Fiber
• The total number of guided modes or mode volume 𝑀1 for a multimode step index
fiber is related to the 𝑉 value for the fiber by the approximate expression
𝑉%
𝑀1 ≈
2
which gives an estimate of the number of guided modes in a multimode fiber
• Recall that the normalized frequency of the fiber is given as

2𝜋𝑎
𝑉= 𝑁𝐴
𝜆
Problem
A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80 μm and a relative index
difference of 1.5% is operating at a wavelength of 0.85 μm. If the core refractive index is
1.48, estimate:
(a) the normalized frequency for the fiber;
(b) the number of guided modes.
Problem
A step index fiber has a core diameter of 100 µm and a refractive index of 1.480. The
cladding has a refractive index of 1.460. Calculate the number of modes sustained when
the source wavelength is 850 nm.
Single-mode Step Index Fiber
Single-mode or mono-mode step index fiber allows the propagation of only one transverse
electromagnetic mode, and hence the core diameter must be of the order of 2 to 10𝜇𝑚. The
propagation of a single mode is illustrated as a single ray path through the fiber.
2a
• The condition for single mode propagation is V £ 2.405, which gives the cut-off
wavelength.
Problem
A typical single mode optical fiber has a core of diameter 8 µm and a refractive index of
1.460. The refractive index difference is 0.3%. The cladding diameter is 125 µm. Calculate
the numerical aperture and the total acceptance angle of the fiber. What is the single mode
cut-off wavelenth lc of the fiber?
Single-mode vs Multimode Step Index Fiber
• The single-mode step index fiber exhibits
low intermodal dispersion (broadening of
transmitted light pulses), as only one mode
is transmitted.
• Multimode step index fiber manifest

considerable dispersion due to different
group velocities.
• This in turn restricts the maximum

bandwidth attainable with multimode step
index fibers, especially when compared with
single-mode fibers An illustration using the digital bit pattern 1011 of the broadening of
light pulses as they are transmitted along a fiber: (a) fiber input; (b)
fiber output at a distance L1; (c) fiber output at a distance L2 > L1
Single-mode vs Multimode Step Index Fiber
Group Velocity
• The group velocity is the velocity with

which the envelope of a pulse
propagates in a medium.
• Figure illustrates how the different

frequency components combine to
form a pulse, and how the different
velocities arise.
Phase Velocity and Group Velocity
• Within all electromagnetic waves, there are points

of constant phase.
• For plane waves these constant phase points form a

surface which is referred to as a wavefront.
As a monochromatic lightwave propagates along a waveguide in the these points of constant

phase travel at a phase velocity 𝜐< given by:
𝜔
𝑣< =
𝛽
where 𝜔 is the angular frequency of the wave and 𝛽 is the propagation constant which is
given as
2𝜋 𝑛$𝜔
𝛽 = 𝑛$ =
𝜆 𝑐
If propagation in an infinite medium of refractive index 𝑛$ is considered.

• In practice light is generally composed
of a sum of plane wave components of
different frequencies.
• So a group of waves with closely

similar frequencies propagate forming
wave packets.
• The formation of such a wave packet

resulting from the combination of two
waves of slightly different frequency
propagating together.
This wave packet does not travel at the phase velocity of the individual waves but is observed
to move at a group velocity 𝜐4 given by:
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣4 = =
𝑑𝑛$ 𝑁4
𝑛$ − 𝜆
𝑑𝜆
where 𝑁4 is the group index of the waveguide.

Graded Index Fibers
• Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in the core but a decreasing
core index 𝑛(𝑟) with radial distance from a maximum value of 𝑛$ at the axis to a
constant value 𝑛% beyond the core radius 𝑎 in the cladding.
• This index variation may be represented as:

$
𝑟 = %
𝑛$ 1 − 2Δ 𝑟<𝑎 (core)
𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑎
$
𝑛$ 1 − 2Δ % = 𝑛% 𝑟≥𝑎 (cladding)
501 !511
where Δ = is the relative refractive index difference and 𝛼 is the profile parameter
%501
which gives the characteristic refractive index profile of the fiber core.
Graded Index Fibers
The change in the refractive index profile of the

fiber core can be obtained as a variation of 𝛼.
• Step index profile when 𝛼 = ∞,

• Parabolic profile when 𝛼 = 2,
• Triangular profile when 𝛼 = 1.
The graded index profiles which produce the

best results for multimode optical propagation
have a near parabolic refractive index profile core
with 𝛼 ≈ 2.
Graded Index Fibers
The total number of guided modes or mode volume 𝑀4 supported by the graded index
fiber
𝛼 𝑉%
𝑀4 ≈
𝛼+2 2
Problem
A graded index fiber has a core with a parabolic refractive index profile which has a
diameter of 50 μm. The fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.2. Estimate the total number of
guided modes propagating in the fiber when it is operating at a wavelength of 1 μm.
Propagation in Graded Index Fibers
• The gradual decrease in refractive index from the center of the core creates many refractions of the
rays as they are effectively incident on a large number or high to low index interfaces.
• The ray is shown to be gradually curved, with an ever increasing angle of incidence, until the
conditions for total internal reflection are met, and the ray travels back towards the core axis, again
being continuously refracted.
• In a medium where 𝑛 decreases continuously the path of the ray bends continuously.
Graded Index Fibers
• Multimode graded index fibers exhibit far less intermodal dispersion than multimode step
index fibers due to their refractive index profile.
• The different group velocities of the modes tend to be normalized by the index grading.
The rays traveling close to the fiber axis have shorter paths when compared with rays which
travel into the outer regions of the core. However, the near axial rays are transmitted
through a region of higher refractive index and therefore travel with a lower velocity than
the more extreme rays.
Graded Index Fibers
(a) Multimode step index fiber.

Ray paths are different so
that rays arrive at different
times.
(b) Graded index fiber. Ray
paths are different but so are
the velocities along the paths
so that all the rays arrive at
the same time.
Graded Index Fibers
Multimode step index fiber
Multimode graded index fiber
Single-mode step index fiber

Fresenel Reflection and Joint Losses
Fresnel Reflection
• A major consideration with all types of fiber–fiber connection is the optical loss
encountered at the interface.
• Even when the two jointed fiber ends are smooth and perpendicular to the fiber axes,
and the two fiber axes are perfectly aligned, a small proportion of the light may be
reflected back into the transmitting fiber causing attenuation at the joint. This
phenomenon, known as Fresnel reflection, is associated with the step changes in
refractive index at the jointed interface (i.e. glass–air–glass).
Fresnel Reflection
The magnitude of this partial reflection of the light transmitted through the interface may be
estimated by
𝑛$ − 𝑛 %
𝑟=
𝑛$ + 𝑛
where
- 𝑟 is the fraction of the light reflected at a single interface
- 𝑛$ is the refractive index of the fiber core,
- 𝑛 is the refractive index of the medium between the two jointed fibers (i.e. for air 𝑛 = 1).
Fresnel Reflection
• The loss in decibels due to Fresnel reflection at a single interface is given by:
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠>?+1 = −10 log10(1 − 𝑟)
• Fresnel reflection may give a significant loss at a fiber joint even when all other aspects
of the connection are ideal.
• The effect of Fresnel reflection at a fiber–fiber connection can be reduced to a very low
level through the use of an index-matching fluid in the gap between the jointed fibers.
• When the index-matching fluid has the same refractive index as the fiber core, losses
due to Fresnel reflection are in theory eradicated.
Problem
An optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.5. Two lengths of the fiber with smooth and
perpendicular (to the core axes) end faces are butted together. Assuming the fiber axes are
perfectly aligned, calculate the optical loss in decibels at the joint (due to Fresnel reflection)
at fiber-air interface when there is a small air gap between the fiber end faces.
Joint Losses
• Unfortunately, Fresnel reflection is only one possible source of optical loss at a fiber joint.
• A potentially greater source of loss at a fiber–fiber connection is caused by misalignment

of the two jointed fibers.
• Any deviations in the geometrical and optical parameters of the two optical fibers which
are jointed will affect the optical attenuation (insertion loss) through the connection.
Joint Losses– Optical Phenomenon
• There are inherent connection problems when jointing fibers with, the possible optical
phenomenon which can cause losses are:
- different core and/or cladding diameters;

- different numerical apertures and/or relative refractive index differences;
- different refractive index profiles.
• The losses caused by the above factors together with those of Fresnel reflection are
usually referred to as intrinsic joint losses.
• The best results are therefore achieved with compatible (same) fibers which are
manufactured to the lowest tolerance.
Joint Losses – Geometrical Phenomenon
If there is still the problem of fiber misalignment then may occur in three dimensions:
- the separation between the fibers (longitudinal misalignment),

- the offset perpendicular to the fiber core axes (lateral misalignment);
- the angle between the core axes (angular misalignment).
The three possible types of misalignment which may occur when jointing compatible optical fibers: (a) longitudinal
misalignment; (b) lateral misalignment; (c) angular misalignment
Joint Losses
Optical losses resulting from these three types of misalignment depend upon
- the fiber type,
- core diameter,
- the distribution of the optical power between the propagating modes.
• Figure shows the attenuation characteristic for both

longitudinal and lateral misalignment of a graded index
fiber of 50 𝜇𝑚 core diameter.
• Lateral misalignment gives significantly greater losses

per unit displacement than the longitudinal
misalignment.
Joint Losses
• Higher NA results in lower insertion

loss due to angular misalignment.
• Index matching fluid in the fiber gap

causes increased losses with angular 0.3
misalignment.
• Small levels of angular misalignment

can cause significant attenuation at a
fiber joint.
Lateral Misalignment-Multimode Step Index Fibers
• Lateral misalignment reduces the overlap region between the two fiber cores.
• Assuming uniform excitation of all the optical modes in a multimode step index fiber, the
overlapped area between both fiber cores approximately gives the lateral coupling
efficiency, 𝜂@(A .
• The lateral coupling efficiency for two similar step index fibers may be written as
𝑛$ %
16 𝑛 1 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 % 8.;
𝑛@(A ≈ . . 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 !$ − 1−
𝑛$ # 𝜋 2𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎
1+ 𝑛
where 𝑛$ is the core refractive index, 𝑛 is the refractive index of the medium between the
fibers, 𝑦 is the lateral offset of the fiber core axes, and 𝑎 is the fiber core radius.
Lateral Misalignment-Multimode Step Index Fibers
50
• Assuming no Fresnel reflection, as 5 = 1,thus, we have
8.;
$ C C C %
𝑛@(A ≈ B
. 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 !$ %( − (
1− %(
• This may be valid if the two fiber ends are assumed to be in close contact (i.e. no air gap in
between) and gives lower predicted losses.
• The lateral misalignment loss in decibels may be determined using:
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠@(A = −10 log10 𝜂@(A dB

Problem
A step index fiber has a core refractive index of 1.5 and a core diameter of 50 μm. The fiber is
jointed with a lateral misalignment between the core axes of 5 μm. Estimate the insertion
loss at the joint due to the lateral misalignment assuming a uniform distribution of power
between all guided modes when:
(a) there is a small air gap at the joint;
(b) the joint is considered index matched.
Lateral Misalignment-Multimode Graded Index Fibers
• Lateral misalignment loss in multimode graded index fibers depends on the refractive
index gradient 𝛼 for small lateral offset and may be obtained from
% C =D%
𝐿A =
B ( =D$
for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 0.2𝑎
where the lateral coupling efficiency was given by:
𝜂@(A = 1 − 𝐿A
• For parabolic refractive index profile, i.e., 𝛼 = 2, 𝐿A can be approximated as
8 𝑦 𝑦
𝐿A = = 0.85
3𝜋 𝑎 𝑎
Problem
A graded index fiber has a parabolic refractive index profile (α = 2) and a core diameter of 50
μm. Estimate the insertion loss due to a 3 μm lateral misalignment at a fiber joint when there
is index matching and assuming there is uniform illumination of all guided modes only.
Angular Misalignment-Multimode Step Index Fibers
• Angular misalignment losses at joints in multimode step index fibers may be predicted using
an expression for the angular coupling efficiency 𝜂(54 given by
𝑛$ %
16 𝑛 𝑛𝜃
𝑛(54 ≈ # . 1−
𝑛$ 𝜋𝑛$ 2Δ 8.;
1+ 𝑛
where 𝜃 is the angular displacement in radians and Δ is the relative refractive index difference
for the fiber.
• The insertion loss due to angular misalignment may be obtained from the angular coupling
efficiency in the same manner as the lateral misalignment loss following:
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠(54 = −10 log10 𝜂(54

Problem
Two multimode step index fibers have numerical apertures of 0.2 and 0.4, respectively, and
both have the same core refractive index of 1.48. Estimate the insertion loss at a joint in each
fiber caused by a 5° angular misalignment of the fiber core axes. It may be assumed that the
medium between the fibers is air.
Joint Losses- Optical Phenomenon
Mismatch of Core Diameters-Multimode Fibers
• Assuming all the modes are equally excited in a multimode step or graded index fiber, and
that the numerical apertures and index profiles are the same, then the loss resulting from a
mismatch of core diameters is given by
𝑎% %
−10 log$8 (dB) 𝑎% < 𝑎$
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠EF =y 𝑎$
0 𝑎% ≥ 𝑎$
where 𝑎$ and 𝑎% are the core radii of the transmitting and receiving fibers respectively.
• It may be observed from the equation that no loss is incurred if the receiving fiber has a
larger core diameter than the transmitting one.
NA Mismatch-Multimode Fibers
• When the transmitting fiber has a higher numerical aperture than the receiving fiber, then
some of the emitted light rays will fall outside the acceptance angle of the receiving fiber
and they will therefore not be coupled through the joint.
NA Mismatch-Multimode Fibers
• Assuming a uniform modal power distribution, and fibers with equivalent refractive index
profiles and core diameters, then the loss caused by a mismatch of numerical apertures
can be obtained from
𝑁𝐴% %
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠GH = y−10 log$8 𝑁𝐴$ (dB) 𝑁𝐴% < 𝑁𝐴$
0 𝑁𝐴% ≥ 𝑁𝐴$
where 𝑁𝐴$ and 𝑁𝐴% are the numerical apertures for the transmitting and receiving fibers
respectively.
Refractive Index Profile Mismatch-Multimode Fibers
• Assuming a uniform modal power distribution, and fibers
with equivalent numerical apertures, and core diameters,
then the loss caused by a mismatch of refractive index
profiles can be obtained from
𝛼%(𝛼$ + 2)
−10 log$8 (dB) 𝛼% < 𝛼$
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠IJ =y 𝛼$(𝛼% + 2)
0 𝛼% ≥ 𝛼$
where 𝛼$ and 𝛼% are the index profiles of the transmitting

and receiving fibers respectively.
Refractive Index Profile Mismatch-Multimode Fibers
• Let us consider the following equation
𝛼%(𝛼$ + 2)
−10 log$8 (dB) 𝛼% < 𝛼$
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠IJ =y 𝛼$(𝛼% + 2)
0 𝛼% ≥ 𝛼$
• We can observe that when connecting from a step index fiber with 𝛼$ = ∞ to a parabolic
profile graded index fiber with 𝛼% = 2, both having the same core diameter and axial
numerical aperture, then a loss of 3 dB is produced.
• The reverse connection, however, does not incur a loss due to refractive index profile
mismatch.
Intrinsic Losses- Multimode Fibers
• All the intrinsic losses obtained at multimode fiber–fiber joints can be combined into a
single expression as follows
𝑎%𝑁𝐴% % 𝛼%(𝛼$ + 2)
−10 log$8 (dB) 𝑎% < 𝑎$, 𝑁𝐴% < 𝑁𝐴$, 𝛼% < 𝛼$
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠35A = y %
𝑎$𝑁𝐴$ 𝛼$(𝛼% + 2)
0 𝑎% ≥ 𝑎$, 𝑁𝐴% ≥ 𝑁𝐴$, 𝛼% ≥ 𝛼$
• It should be noted that this equation assumes that the three mismatches occur together.
Signal Degradation in Optical Fibers
Signal Degradation in Optical Fibers
There can be two types of signal degradations in optical fibers
1) Signal Attenuation: It determines the maximum unamplified or repeaterless distance

between transmitter and receiver.
2) Signal Distortion: limits the bandwidth of the fiber due to pulse broadening, which
determines the number of bits of information transmitted in a given time period.
Attenuation is the reduction in power of the light signal as it is transmitted, whilst

dispersion is the spreading of the signal over time.
Attenuation
• Channel attenuation determines the maximum transmission distance prior to signal
restoration and is defined in decibels.
• Optical fiber communications became especially attractive when the transmission

losses of fibers were reduced below those of the competing metallic conductors, i.e.,
less than 5 dB km−1.
• For a particular optical wavelength, the ratio of the input (transmitted) optical power 𝑃3
into a fiber to the output (received) optical power 𝑃6 from the fiber is given as
𝑃3
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log$8
𝑃6
The above relation will give positive values of attenuation as 𝑃$ > 𝑃% .

Attenuation
• In optical fiber communications the attenuation is usually expressed in decibels per unit
length (i.e. dB km−1) as following:
𝑃3
𝛼,7 𝐿 = 10 log10
𝑃6
where 𝛼,7 is the signal attenuation per unit length in decibels which is also referred to as
the fiber loss parameter and 𝐿 is the fiber length.
Problem
When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 120 μW, the mean
optical power at the fiber output is 3 μW.
Determine:
(a) the overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels through the fiber assuming
there are no connectors or splices;
(b) the signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber.
(c) the overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the same fiber
with splices at 1 km intervals, each giving an attenuation of 1 dB;
(d) the numerical input/output power ratio in (c).
Prob 3.1
Attenuation
There can be three basic attenuation mechanisms in optical fibers
1. Absorption: related to the fiber material.

2. Scattering: associated both with the fiber material with the structural imperfections in
the optical fibers.
3. Radiative losses/ Bending losses: originates from perturbation (microscopic and
macroscopic) of the fiber geometry.
Absorption
Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms

1. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.
2. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material.
3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.
Absorption by Atomic Defects
• Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material.
Examples:
- Missing molecules
- High density clusters of atom groups
- Oxygen defects in the glass structure.
• Absorption losses arising from these defects are negligible compared with intrinsic and
impurity absorption.
Extrinsic Absorption
The dominant absorption factor in silica fibers is the presence of minute quantities of
impurities in the fiber material.
•These impurities include
• OH- (water) ions dissolved in the glass.
• Transition metal ions, such as iron, copper, chromium and vanadium
Extrinsic Absorption
• Optical fiber attenuation as a function of

wavelength yields nominal values of 0.5
dB/km at 1310 nm and 0.2 dB/km at 1550
nm for standard single mode fiber.
• Absorption by the water molecules causes

the attenuation peak around 1400nm for
standard fiber.
Intrinsic Absorption
• Intrinsic absorption is associated with the basic fiber material (e.g pure silicon
dioxide SiO2).
• Intrinsic absorption results from:
- Electronic absorption bands in the ultraviolet region.
- Atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region.
Intrinsic Absorption-Electronic Absorption
• Electronic absorption occurs when a

photon interacts with an electron in the
valance band and excites it to a higher
energy level.
• This absorption in the ultraviolet region
decays exponentially with increasing
wavelength and is small compared
absorption in the near infrared region.
Intrinsic Absorption-Infrared
• The inherent infrared absorption is associated with the vibration frequency of

chemical bond between the atoms of which the fiber is composed.
• An interaction between the vibrating bond and the electromagnetic field of the
optical signal results in a transfer of energy from the field to the bond and thereby
giving rise to absorption.
• This absorption is quite strong because of many bonds present in the fiber. Example:
GeO2-SiO2.
Intrinsic Absorption-Infrared
A comparison of the infrared absorption induced by various doping materials in low-loss silical fibers.
Absorption
Absorption
Absorption
Extrinsic Intrinsic
Atomic Defects
(Impurity atoms) Absorption
Absorption in Absorption in
Ultraviolet region Infrared region
Scattering Losses
• Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of the optical power contained within
one propagating mode to be transferred linearly (proportionally to the mode power) into
a different mode.
• This process tends to result in attenuation of the transmitted light.
• Scattering losses in glass arise from variation in the material density primarily from
inhomogeneities or defects occurring during fiber manufacture.
Scattering Losses
• It must be noted that as with all linear processes, there is no change of frequency on
scattering.
• Linear scattering may be categorized into two major types:

- Rayleigh
- Mie scattering.
• Both result from the nonideal physical properties of the manufactured fiber which are
difficult and, in certain cases, impossible to eradicate at present.
Scattering Losses – Rayleigh Scatteting
• Rayleigh scattering is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in the low-absorption
window between the ultraviolet and infrared absorption tails.
• It results from inhomogeneities of a random nature occurring on a small scale compared

with the wavelength of the light.
• These inhomogeneities manifest themselves as refractive index fluctuations and arise

from density and compositional variations which are frozen into the glass lattice on
cooling.
• The compositional variations may be reduced by improved fabrication, but the index
fluctuations caused by the freezing-in of density inhomogeneities are fundamental and
cannot be avoided.
Scattering Losses – Rayleigh Scatteting
Scattering Losses – Mie Scatteting
• Linear scattering may also occur at inhomogeneities which are comparable in size with
the wavelength of light.
• These result from the nonperfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide and may be
caused by fiber imperfections such as
- irregularities in the core–cladding interface,
- core–cladding refractive index differences along the fiber length,
- Diameter fluctuations,
- Strains and bubbles.
• Depending upon the fiber material, design and manufacture, Mie scattering can cause
significant losses.
Scattering Losses
Scattering Losses
Rayleigh Scattering Mie Scattering

Inhomogeneities < guided wavelength Inhomogeneities > guided wavelength
Radiative/Bending Losses
• Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of
curvature.
• Fiber can be subject to two types of bends:
1. Macroscopic bends (Macrobending): Light lost from the optical core due to macroscopic
effects such as tight bends being induced in the fiber itself.
2. Microscopic bends (Microbending): Light lost from the optical core due to microscopic
effects resulting from deformation and damage to the core cladding interface.
Radiative/Bending Losses - Macrobending
• Macrobending losses are normally produced by poor handling of fiber.
• Poor reeling and mishandling during installation can create severe bending of the fiber
resulting in small but important localized losses.
Bends are shown full size — and may have caused damage to the fiber
Radiative/Bending Losses - Microbending
• Microbending losses: It is the radiation loss in optical waveguide results from mode
coupling by random microbends.
• Microbending is a much more critical feature and can be a major cause of cabling
attenuation.
• These stresses are very difficult to define, however, they can be caused by:
o Nonuniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber
o Nonuniform lateral pressures during cabling
o Low temperatures
o High pressures
Radiative/Bending Losses - Microbending
• The loss can generally be represented by a radiation attenuation coefficient which has the
form:
𝛼? = 𝑐$ exp(−𝑐%𝑅)
where
- 𝑅 is the radius of curvature of the fiber bend
- 𝑐$, 𝑐% are constants which are independent of 𝑅.
• Large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a critical radius of curvature
𝑅EN which may be estimated from
3𝑛$%𝜆
𝑅EN ≈ "
4𝜋 𝑛$% % %
− 𝑛%
• The critical radius of curvature for a single-mode fiber 𝑅EO can be estimated as:
!"
20𝜆 𝜆
𝑅)1 ≈ " 2.748 − 0.996
𝜆)
𝑛$ − 𝑛% %
where 𝜆) can be computed using the 𝑉 number.

Radiative losses/
Bending losses
Macroscopic bends Microscopic bends

Problem
Two step index fibers exhibit the following parameters:
(a) a multimode fiber with a core refractive index of 1.500, a relative refractive index
difference of 3% and an operating wavelength of 0.82 μm;
(b) an 8 μm core diameter single-mode fiber with a core refractive index the same as (a), a
relative refractive index difference of 0.3% and an operating wavelength of 1.55 μm.
Estimate the critical radius of curvature at which large bending losses occur in
both cases.
Example 3.4
Attenuation
Attenuation
Scattering Radiative
Absorption Losses losses/ Bending
losses
Extrinsic
Intrinsic Atomic
(Impurity
Absorption Defects
atoms)
Absorption Absorption
in in Microscopic Macroscopic
Rayleigh Scattering Mie Scattering
Infrared Ultraviolet bends bends
region region
Dispersion
• Dispersion mechanisms within the fiber
cause broadening of the transmitted
light pulses as they travel along the
channel.
• Each pulse broadens and overlaps with

its neighbors, eventually becoming
indistinguishable at the receiver input.
• Optical signal weakens from

attenuation mechanisms and broadens
due to distortion effects.
Dispersion
• Dispersion results when some components of the input signal spend more time traversing
the fiber than other components.
• It is noted that actually no power is lost to dispersion, the spreading effect reduces the peak
power.
Dispersion
• Each pulse broadens and overlaps with its neighbors, eventually becoming indistinguishable
at the receiver input. The effect is known as intersymbol interference (ISI).
• Thus an increasing number of errors may be encountered on the digital optical channel as
the ISI becomes more pronounced.
Dispersion
• For no overlapping of light pulses down on an optical fiber link, the digital bit rate 𝐵P must
be less than the reciprocal of the broadened (through dispersion) pulse duration (2𝜏).
Hence:
1
𝐵P ≤
2𝜏
• This assumes that the pulse broadening due to dispersion on the channel is 𝜏 which
dictates the input pulse duration which is also 𝜏.
• Hence the equation gives a conservative estimate of the maximum bit rate that may be
obtained on an optical fiber link as 1/2𝜏.
Dispersion
• Another estimate of the maximum bit rate for an optical channel with dispersion may be
obtained by considering the light pulses at the output to have a Gaussian shape with an
rms width of 𝜎. The maximum bit rate is given approximately by:
0.2
𝐵 P *(0 ≈ 𝑏𝑖𝑡/𝑠
𝜎
• The information-carrying capacity of the fiber is restricted by the amount of pulse

dispersion per unit length. The pulse broadening increases linearly with fiber length. This
leads to the adoption of a more useful parameter for the information-carrying capacity of
an optical fiber which is known as the bandwidth–length product
𝐵6<A 𝐿
Problem
A multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of 0.1 μs over a distance of
15 km. Estimate:
(a) the maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming no intersymbol interference;
(b) the pulse dispersion per unit length;
(c) the bandwidth–length product for the fiber.
Example 3.5
Dispersion
Dispersion of optical energy within an optical fiber falls into following categories:
• Intramodal Dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion

- Material Dispersion
- Waveguide Dispersion
• Intermodal Delay or Modal Delay
• Polarization –Mode Dispersion
Intramodal/Chromatic Dispersion
• Chromatic dispersion occurs due to wavelength dependence of the refractive index.
• Waves in the guide with different free space wavelengths travel at different group
velocities due to the wavelength dependence of refractive index. The waves arrive at the
end of the fiber at different times and hence result in a broadened output pulse.
Dispersion
• For a given material, the index of refraction

varies with the wavelength.
• This dependence of 𝑛 on 𝜆 is called dispersion.
• The index of refraction for a material generally

decreases with increasing wavelength.
• Optical sources do not emit just a single
frequency but a band of wavelengths,
then there may be propagation delay
differences between the different
spectral components of the transmitted
signal. This causes broadening of each
transmitted mode and hence intramodal
dispersion.
• Intramodal dispersion depends on the wavelength, its effect on signal distortion increases
with the spectral width Δ𝜆 = 𝜆% − 𝜆$ of the light source.
• Δ𝜆 is approximately 4 to 9 percent of a central wavelength, 𝜆8.
• The group velocity 𝜐4 given by:
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣4 = =
𝑑𝑛$ 𝑁4
𝑛$ − 𝜆
𝑑𝜆
where 𝑁4 is the group index of the waveguide.
• The delay differences may be caused by
- material dispersion : dependence of group velocity on the refractive index

- waveguide dispersion : dependence of group velocity on the wavelength/𝑉-number
Intramodal/Chromatic Dispersion - Material
• It arises due to the variation of the refractive index of the core material as a function of
wavelength.
• The rms pulse broadening due to material dispersion is given by
𝜎Q 𝐿 𝑑%𝑛$
𝜎* ≈ 𝜆 %
𝑐 𝑑 𝜆
where 𝜎Q is the rms spectral width, and 𝜆 is the mean wavelength of the source.
,1 50
• Material dispersion for optical fibers is sometimes quoted as a value 𝜆 1 or simply
, Q
,1 50
,1 Q
Intramodal/Chromatic Dispersion - Material
Material dispersion may be given in terms of a material dispersion parameter 𝑀 which is

defined as:
𝜆 𝑑%𝑛$
𝑀=
𝑐 𝑑%𝜆
and which is often expressed in units of ps nm−1 km−1.

Problem
1
, 50
%
A glass fiber exhibits material dispersion given by
𝜆 1 of 0.025. Determine the material
, Q
dispersion parameter at a wavelength of 0.85 μm, and estimate the rms pulse broadening
per kilometer for a good LED source with an rms spectral width of 20 nm at this wavelength.
Intramodal/Chromatic Dispersion - Waveguide
In waveguide dispersion, a wave’s group velocity in a structure depends on its wavelenth
simply due to the structure's geometry.
Intermodal Dispersion
• Pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion (sometimes referred to simply as modal

or mode dispersion) results from the propagation delay differences/multipath
propagation between modes within a multimode fiber.
• In digital transmission, we use light pulse to transmit bit 1 and no pulse for bit 0.
• When the light pulse enters fiber it is breakdown into small pulses carried by individual
modes.
• At the output individual pulses are recombined and since they are overlapped receiver
sees a long pulse causing pulse broadening.
• Multimode step index fibers exhibit a large amount of intermodal dispersion which
gives the greatest pulse broadening.
• Intermodal dispersion in multimode fibers may be reduced by adoption of an optimum

refractive index profile which is provided by the near-parabolic profile of most graded
index fibers.
As the different modes which constitute a pulse in a multimode fiber travel along the
channel at different group velocities, the pulse width at the output is dependent upon the
transmission times of the slowest and fastest modes.
Multimode fiber
L
t t
Intermodal Dispersion-Multimode Step Index Fibers
The delay difference 𝛿𝑇1 between the extreme meridional ray and the axial ray may be
obtained by subtracting the delay time of extreme meridonial ray and the delay time of
axial ray. Hence the delay difference for multimode step index fibers is given as
𝐿𝑛$% 𝑛$ − 𝑛% 𝐿𝑛$%
𝛿𝑇1 = = Δ
𝑐𝑛% 𝑛$ 𝑐𝑛%
The rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion at the output of the multimode
fiber is given as
𝐿𝑛$Δ
𝜎1 ≈
2𝑐 3
Problem
A 6 km optical link consists of multimode step index fiber with a core refractive index of
1.5 and a relative refractive index difference of 1%.
Estimate:
(a) the delay difference between the slowest and fastest modes at the fiber output;
(b) the rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion on the link;
(c) the maximum bit rate that may be obtained without substantial errors on the
link assuming only intermodal dispersion;
(d) the bandwidth–length product corresponding to (c).
Intermodal Dispersion-Multimode Graded Index Fibers
The delay difference 𝛿𝑇1 between the extreme meridional ray and the axial ray for
multimode graded index fibers is given as
𝐿𝑛$ %
𝛿𝑇1 = Δ
8𝑐
The rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion at the output of the multimode
fiber is given as
𝐿𝑛$Δ%
𝜎4 ≈
20𝑐 3
Intermodal Dispersion-Multimode Graded Index Fibers
The best minimum theoretical intermodal rms pulse broadening for a graded index fiber
with an optimum characteristic refractive index profile for the core 𝛼6<A of
12Δ
𝛼6<A =2−
5
Polarization
• A beam of light can be thought of as being
composed of two orthogonal electrical
vector field components that vary in
amplitude and frequency.
• Fiber material is not perfectly uniform

throughout its length, each polarization
mode will encounter a slightly different
refractive index.
• Each mode will travel at a slightly different

velocity. The resultant difference between
the two orthogonal polarization modes will
cause pulse spreading.
Polarization – Fiber Birefringence
• When a material is described as birefringent all it really means is that a light wave
travelling through it can have two distinct velocities. In other words, the material has
two distinct values of refractive index.
• An optical fiber with an ideal optically circularly symmetric core both polarization
modes propagate with identical velocities.
• Manufactured optical fibers, however, exhibit some birefringence resulting from

differences in the core geometry (i.e. ellipticity) resulting from variations in the
internal and external stresses, and fiber bending.
• The fiber therefore behaves as a birefringent medium due to the difference in the
effective refractive indices, and hence phase velocities, for these two orthogonally
polarized modes.
Polarization Mode Dispersion
• Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is a source of pulse broadening which results from
fiber birefringence and it can become a limiting factor for optical fiber communications at
high transmission rates.
• Delay between the fastest and the slowest polarization -> optical pulse broadening
Polarization Mode Dispersion
• PMD is a source of pulse broadening which results from fiber birefringence and it can
become a limiting factor for optical fiber communications at high transmission rates.
• It is a random effect due to both intrinsic (caused by noncircular fiber core geometry and
residual stresses in the glass material near the core region) and extrinsic (caused by stress
from mechanical loading, bending or twisting of the fiber) factors which in actual
manufactured fibers result in group velocity variation with polarization state.
• Unless it is compensated, which is difficult, this ultimately limits the rate at which data
can be transmitted over a fiber.
Signal Distortion/
Dispersion
Intermodal Delay/ Intramodal Dispersion/ Polarization-mode

Modal Delay Chromatic Dispersion Dispersion
Material Waveguide
Dispersion Dispersion
Signal Degradation
in the Optical Fiber
Signal Distortion/ Attenuation

Dispersion
Scattering Radiative
Absorption Losses losses
Intramodal
Intermodal Polarization
Dispersion/
Delay/ -mode
Chromatic
Modal Delay Dispersion Extrinsic
Intrinsic Atomic
Dispersion (Impurity
Absorption Defects
atoms)
Material Waveguide
Absorption Absorption Inhomogeneities Compositional
Dispersion Dispersion in in Microscopic Macroscopic
or defects fluctuations
Infrared Ultraviolet bends bends
in fiber in material
region region
Dispersion Calculation
If 𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑑 , 𝑡𝐶𝐷 , and 𝑡𝑃𝑀𝐷 are the modal, chromatic, and polarization mode dispersion. Then
the total dispersion 𝑡𝑇 can be calculated by the relationship
𝑡P = %
𝑡*6, % + 𝑡%
+ 𝑡EF 2NF
where
𝑡𝑐𝑑 = |𝐷EF | 𝐿 ∆𝜆
𝑡𝑃𝑀𝐷 = 𝐷2NF 𝐿
𝐷𝑃𝑀𝐷 = Polarization dispersion coefficient
𝐷𝐶𝐷 = Chromatic dispersion coefficient
∆𝜆 = Spectral with of the light source.
Note that 𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑑 = 0 for single-mode fibers.

Problem
Consider a single-mode fiber for which DCD = 2 ps/(km nm) and DPMD =0.1 ps/√km. If
a transmission link has a length L = 500 km and uses a laser source with a spectral
emission width of ∆λ = 0.01 nm then find total dispersion.
Special Optical Fibers
Specialty fibers can be of either a multimode or a single mode design.
Optical Sources
Optical Sources
What are the necessary optical sources for optical fiber communication systems?
• Chromatic dispersion can be destructive for the digital signals and is all the more
significant as the fiber length is large
• Need for monochromatic optical source (narrow linewidth) to limit the impact of
chromatic dispersion in long range communication systems è LASER
Optical Sources
• The optical source is an active component in an optical fiber communication

system.
• Its fundamental function is to convert electrical energy in the form of a current into
optical energy (light) in an efficient manner which allows the light output to be
effectively launched or coupled into the optical fiber.
Requirements for Optical Sources
Optical sources to be used in optical fiber communication systems should fulfil the
following characteristics:
1. Size and configuration compatible with launching light into an optical fiber. Ideally,
the light output should be highly directional.
2. Must accurately track the electrical input signal to minimize distortion and noise.
Ideally, the source should be linear.
3. Should emit light at wavelengths where the fiber has low losses and low dispersion
and where the detectors are efficient.
Requirements for Optical Sources
4. Preferably capable of simple signal modulation.
5. Must couple sufficient optical power to overcome attenuation in the fiber plus
additional connector losses and leave adequate power to drive the detector.
6. Should have a very narrow spectral bandwidth (linewidth) in order to minimize

dispersion in the fiber.
7. Must be capable of maintaining a stable optical output which is largely unaffected

by changes in ambient conditions (e.g. temperature).
8. It is essential that the source is comparatively cheap and highly reliable in order to
compete with conventional transmission techniques.
Optical Sources
There are two optical sources which fulfil these requirements:
• Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser)

• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Reminders on Semiconductors
• A perfect semiconductor crystal containing no
impurities or lattice defects is said to be intrinsic.
• The energy band structure of an intrinsic

semiconductor is illustrated in the figure which
shows the valence and conduction bands
separated by a forbidden energy gap or bandgap
𝐸4 , the width of which varies for different
semiconductor materials.
• Using a semi-conductor material: possibility to

change the conductive property of the material by
changing the electron population in the
conduction band.
• At low temperature conduction band is
completely empty
• The figure shows the situation in the

semiconductor at a temperature above absolute
zero where thermal excitation raises some
electrons from the valence band into the
conduction band, leaving empty hole states in
the valence band.
• These thermally excited electrons in the

conduction band and the holes left in the
valence band allow conduction through the
material and are called carriers.
Reminders on Semiconductors – Fermi Level
• Fermi level represents the maximum energy level of electrons at 0 Kelvin (K).
• At temperature 𝑇 > 0 K, the Fermi-Dirac distribution 𝑓(𝐸) gives the probability that a
given available electron energy state is occupied.
Semi conductor material, Semi conductor material,
temperature is 0 K temperature >0 K
E
CB CB
VB
f(E) f(E)
• To create an extrinsic semiconductor the material is doped with impurity atoms which
create either more free electrons (donor impurity) or holes (acceptor impurity).
• These two situations are shown in the figure, where the donor impurities form energy
levels just below the conduction band while acceptor impurities form energy levels just
above the valence band.
𝐸! is the Fermi Level.

Reminders on Semiconductors – n-type semiconductors
• Donors of electrons are added into the semiconductor.
• The Fermi level corresponding to this carrier distribution is raised to a position above the
center of the bandgap, as illustrated in the figure.
Reminders on Semiconductors- p-type semiconductors
• Acceptors of electrons are added to the semiconductor.
• In this case Fermi level is lowered below the center of the bandgap.
Reminders on Semiconductors- the p-n junction
• The p–n junction diode is formed by creating adjoining p- and n-type semiconductor
layers in a single crystal.
• A thin depletion region or layer is formed at the junction which establishes a potential
barrier between the p- and n-type regions and restricts the interdiffusion of majority
carriers from their respective regions.
Reminders on Semiconductors- the p-n junction
• In the absence of an externally applied voltage no current flows as the potential barrier
prevents the net flow of carriers from one region to another.
• When the junction is in this equilibrium state the Fermi level for the p- and n-type
semiconductor is the same.
Absorption and Emission of Radiation
• The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete packets of energy or
quanta, called photons.
• Electrons exist only in certain discrete energy states such that absorption and
emission of light causes them to make a transition from one discrete energy state to
another.
• The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation 𝑓 is related to the difference in

energy 𝐸 between the higher energy state 𝐸% and the lower energy state 𝐸$ by the
expression:
𝐸 = 𝐸% − 𝐸$ = ℎ𝑓
• where ℎ = 6.63 x 10−34 J s is Planck’s constant.

• These discrete energy states for the atom may be considered to correspond to electrons
occurring in particular energy levels relative to the nucleus.
• Different energy states for the atom correspond to different electron configurations, and
a single electron transition between two energy levels within the atom will provide a
change in energy suitable for the absorption or emission of a photon.
• In spontaneous emission the
electron returns to the lower
energy state in an entirely random
manner;
• In stimulated emission, a photon

having an energy equal to the
energy difference between the two
states (𝐸% − 𝐸$) interacts with the
atom in the upper energy state
causing it to return to the lower
state with the creation of a second
photon.
Spontaneous Emission
• An electron in high energy state this state is usually unstable.
• Electron will spontaneously return to a more stable state, i.e., ground state very
quickly emitting a photon as it does so.
• When light is emitted spontaneously:

- Its direction and phase will be random;
- Wavelength will be determined by the amount of energy that the emitting
electron must give up.
Stimulated Emission
• The electron is in the high energy state it can be stimulated by the presence of a
photon of light to emit its energy in the form of another photon.
• When stimulated emission takes place the emitted photon has exactly the same
wavelength, phase and direction as that of the photon which stimulated it.
• The photon that triggered (stimulated) the emission itself is not absorbed and
continues along its original path accompanied by the newly emitted photon.
Spontaneous vs Stimulated Emission
• The random nature of the spontaneous emission process where light is emitted by
electronic transitions from a large number of atoms gives incoherent radiation. A similar
emission process in semiconductors provides the basic mechanism for light generation
within the LED.
• Stimulated emission process gives the laser its special properties as an optical source.
- Firstly, the photon produced by stimulated emission is of an identical energy to the one
which caused it and hence the light associated with them is of the same frequency.
- Secondly, the light associated with the stimulating and stimulated photon is in phase
and has the same polarization. Therefore, in contrast to spontaneous emission, coherent
radiation is obtained.
LASER
• Based on stimulated emission.
Conduction band
1 photon -> 2 photons

2 photons with the same frequency, phase, propagation
Valence band direction…
Main characteristics of the emitted light:

ü Powerful, directive light beam
ü Narrow optical spectrum
ü Directive emission, eye unsafe
Laser Affect
• Stimulated emission based on the probability of interaction between photons and

electrons
• Conditions to increase this probability:

- High density of electrons in the conduction band
- High density of photons to interact with electrons
• LASER = Heterojunction + Resonator

Population Inversion
• Recall that the high energy state is very unstable as electrons can only stay there for few
nanoseconds.
• The idea is to create additional state(s) between the low energy state and high energy
state where the electrons can stay for a longer durations.
• The additional states are called metastable states and are added due to the material
properties.
Population Inversion
Heterojunctions
• A heterojunction is an interface between two adjoining semiconductors and has a

different bandgap energies, i.e., a semiconductor with no doping (active layer)
surrounded by doped semiconductors.
• Simply, a heterojunction is three layer of semiconductors combined together.
Active
N doped layer P doped
SC SC
No doping
Heterojunction at Equilibrium
N doped Active P doped

SC layer SC
P doped
CB
Energy
N doped
D𝐸1
𝐸> D𝐸2
𝐸>
VB
D𝐸1
Active
layer
Heterojunction under Forward Bias
- +
V
N doped Active P doped
SC layer SC
R GY
• Decrease in the the potential N P CB
ENE
barrier for electrons. 𝐸>
Co
nd
uct
io nb
HO an
L d
E
• Electrons and holes are eV
trapped inside the active layer Va 𝐸>

for recombinations
le n
ce
ban
d VB
Active
layer
Laser = Heterojunction + Resonator
Heterojunction: active material (semiconductor) + directly biased PN junction

Resonator: mirrors
Mirror (back)
Heterojunction
Mirror Active material

(thickness »1 µm)
Basic idea: photons & electrons are confined inside the active layer so the probability of
interaction increases.
Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
• It is a two terminal device which is used to emit light.
• The basic working prinicple is to convert the electrical signal into an optical signal.
• Based on spontaneous emission in PN junction or heterojunction without resonator
Main characteristics:
üLarge optical spectrum (not monochromatic) Dl= 40 to 100 nm

üLow modulation bandwidth (<350 MHz)
üIsotropic emission, no phase coherence
üLow cost, resistant, eye safe, no temperature control
Applications: short distance communications (<100 m), home are networks, optics for
intra-vehicle communications (aircrafts, cars), optical wireless communications
Optical Detection
Optical Detection
• The device used for optical detection is the photodiode (PD)
• PDs are opto-electric devices i.e., to convert the optical signal back into electrical
impulses.
• The basic working principle of a PD is to convert light signal to an electrical signal.
• The light detectors are commonly made up of semiconductor material.
• When the light strikes the light detector a current is produced in the external circuit
proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
Requirements for PDs
Optical signal generally is weakened and distorted when it emerges from the end of the
fiber, the photodetector must meet following strict performance requirements.
• A high sensitivity to the emission wavelength range of the received light signal
• A minimum addition of noise to the signal
• A fast response speed to handle the desired data rate
• Be insensitive to temperature variations
• Be compatible with the physical dimensions of the fiber
• Have a reasonable cost compared to other system components
• Have a long operating lifetime
Optical Detection Principles
• The device is reverse biased and the electric field developed
across the p–n junction sweeps mobile carriers (holes and
electrons) to their respective majority sides (p- and n-type
material).
• A depletion region or layer is therefore created on either side

of the junction.
• This barrier has the effect of stopping the majority carriers

crossing the junction in the opposite direction to the field.
• However, the field accelerates minority carriers from both

sides to the opposite side of the junction, forming the
reverse leakage current of the diode.
• A photon incident in or near the depletion region

of this device which has an energy greater than or
equal to the bandgap energy 𝐸4 of the fabricating
material (i.e. ℎ𝑓 ≥ 𝐸4 ) will excite an electron
from the valence band into the conduction band.
• This process leaves an empty hole in the valence

band and is known as the photogeneration of an
electron–hole (carrier) pair, as shown in Figure.
• Carrier pairs so generated near the
junction are separated and swept
(drift) under the influence of the
electric field to produce a
displacement by current in the
external circuit in excess of any
reverse leakage current (Figure (b)).
• Photogeneration and the separation

of a carrier pair in the depletion region
of this reverse-biased p–n junction is
illustrated in Figure (c).
PDs – Performance Parameters
Some important performance parameters for photodetectors are:
1. Material band gap

2. Operating wavelength
3. Doping
4. Thickness of the p, i, and n regions of device
PDs Performance Parameters: Quantum Efficiency
The quantum efficiency 𝜂 is defined as the fraction of incident photons which are absorbed
by the photodetector and generate electrons which are collected at the detector terminals
𝑟+
𝜂=
𝑟<
where
𝑟< is the incident photon rate (photons per second)
𝑟+ is the corresponding electron rate (electrons per second).
Note that 𝑟+ = 𝐼< /𝑞 and 𝑟< = 𝑃8/(ℎ𝑐/𝜆), where 𝐼< is the average photocurrent, 𝑞 is the
charge on the electron and 𝑃8 is the average optical power incident on the photodetector.
PD Performance Parameters: Quantum Efficiency
• The quantum efficiency is generally less than unity as not all of the incident photons
are absorbed to create electron–hole pairs.
• It is often quoted as a percentage (e.g. a quantum efficiency of 75% is equivalent to 75

electrons collected per 100 incident photons).
• The quantum efficiency is a function of the photon wavelength and must therefore
only be quoted for a specific wavelength
PD Performance Parameters: Responsivity
• This is the ratio of output current to input optical power.
• 𝑅 is often of more use when characterizing the performance of a photodetector. It is defined

as:
𝐼< !$
𝜂𝑞𝜆
𝑅= 𝐴𝑊 =
𝑃8 ℎ𝑐
where 𝐼< is the output photocurrent in amperes, 𝑃6 is the incident optical power in watts (i.e.
output optical power from the fiber) and 𝑞 is the charge on an electron.
• The responsivity is a useful parameter as it gives the transfer characteristic of the detector
(i.e. photocurrent per unit incident optical power).
PD Performance Parameters : Responsivity
• Responsivity drops rapidly at the cutoff
wavelength for each of the photodiode
materials.
• For a particular material, as the wavelength of

the incident photon becomes longer the photon
energy eventually is less than the energy
required to excite an electron from the valance
band to the conduction band and at this point
the responsivity falls to zero.
• Higher the responsivity better the sensitivity of

the receive.
PD Performance Parameters: Noise Characteristics
• The level of noise produced in the device is critical to its operation at low levels of
input light.
• Detection of the weakest possible optical signals requires that the photodetector and
its associated electronic amplification circuitry be optimized so that a specific signal-
to-noise ratio is maintained.
• To achieve a high SNR, the following conditions should be met:

o The photodetector must have a high quantum efficiency to generate a large
signal power.
o The photodetector and amplifier noises should be kept as low as possible.
PD Performance Parameters: Noise Characteristics
• The main noises associated with pin photodiode receivers are quantum or shot noise, dark
current associated with photodetection, and thermal noise occurring in the electronics.
• Shot noise arises from the statistical nature of the production and collection of
photoelectrons.
• The photodiode dark current arises from electrons and holes that are thermally generated
at the p-n junction of the photodiode.
• Thermal noise arises from the random motion of electrons that is always present at any
finite temperature.
PD Performance Parameters : Response Time
• This is a measure of how quickly the detector can respond to variations in the input
light intensity.
• Carrier Drift time across the depletion layer determines the response speed of the
photodiode.
• To achieve high quantum efficiency the depletion region must be thick enough to
permit a large fraction of the incident light to be absorbed.
But
• Thicker the depletion layer, the longer it takes for the photo generated carriers to drift
across the reversed biased junction. So, a compromise has to be made between
response speed and quantum efficiency.
PD Performance Parameters: Cutoff-Wavelength
It is essential when considering the intrinsic absorption process that the energy of incident
photons be greater than or equal to the bandgap energy 𝐸4 of the material used to fabricate
the photodetector. Therefore, the photon energy:
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
≥ 𝐸4 ⇒ 𝜆 ≤
𝜆 𝐸4
Thus the threshold for detection, commonly known as the wavelength cutoff point 𝜆) , is:
ℎ𝑐
𝜆) =
𝐸4
This allows the calculation of the longest wavelength of light to give photodetection for the
various semiconductor materials used in the fabrication of detectors.
PDs Materials
Operating Wavelength Ranges for Several Different Photodetector Materials
InGaAs is used most commonly for both long-wavelength pin and avalanche photodiodes
PDs Types
There are two types of PDs
• PIN PD
• Avalanche PD
PIN photodiode
Avalanche photodiode
The PIN Photodetector
• Incident photon generates free electron-
hole pairs in the intrinsic region. These
charge carriers are known as photocarriers,
since they are generated by a photon.
• The electric field across the device causes

the photocarriers to be swept out of the
intrinsic region, thereby giving rise to a
current flow in an external circuit. This
current flow is known as the photocurrent.
• Photons with energies greater than or equal to the band-gap energy 𝐸𝑔 can generate
free electron hole pairs which act as photocurrent carriers.
• An incident photon is able to boost an electron to the conduction band only if it has an
energy that is greater than or equal to the bandgap energy
• Beyond a certain wavelength, the light will not
be absorbed by the material since the
wavelength of a photon is related to its energy
• Thus, a particular semiconductor material can

be used only over a limited wavelength range
• The upper wavelength 𝜆𝑐 cutoff is determined

by the band-gap energy 𝐸𝑔 of the material.
Problem
A photodiode constructed of GaAs, which has a band-gap energy of 1.43eV. Find the cutoff
wavelength?
where,
1 electron volt = 1.6 x 10-19 joules
Planck's Constant h = 6.625 x 10-34 joules.second

𝑐 = 3 x 108 m/s
𝜆) = ?
Problem
A photodiode constructed of GaAs, which has a band-gap energy of 1.43eV. Find the cutoff
wavelength?
Answer
869 nm, which means that GaAs will not operate for photons of wavelength greater than
869 nm.
As wavelength of a photon is inversely proportional to its energy
The Avalanche Photodetector
• An avalanche photodiode (APD) internally multiplies the primary signal photocurrent

before it enters the input circuitry of the following amplifier.
• This process in APDs typically results in an internal amplification of between 10 and

100 times.
• In its basic form an APD is just a p-i-n diode with a very high reverse bias.
• This has a more sophisticated structure than the p–i–n photodiode in order to create an
extremely high electric field region
• Therefore, as well as the depletion region where most of the photons are absorbed and
the primary carrier pairs generated, there is a high-field region in which holes and
electrons can acquire sufficient energy to excite new electron–hole pairs. This process is
known as impact ionization and is the phenomenon that leads to avalanche breakdown in
ordinary reverse-biased diodes.
• The newly created carriers form impact ionization are also accelerated by the high
electric field, thus gaining enough energy to cause further impact ionization.
• This phenomenon is the avalanche breakdown.

The Avalanche Photodetector-Multiplication Factor
• The multiplication 𝑀 for all carriers generated in the photodiode is defined by:
𝐼N
𝑀 =
𝐼2
where,
𝐼𝑀 is the average value of the total multiplied output current
𝐼𝑃 is the primary unmultiplied photocurrent
• Avalanche mechanism is a statistical process, not every carrier pair generated in the diode
experiences the same multiplication .
Generic Operating Parameters of an InGaAs Avalanche Photodiode

Link Budget Analysis
Link Budget Analysis
Another important factor when estimating the permissible separation between

regenerative repeaters or the overall link length is the total loss encountered between
the transmitter(s) and receiver(s) within the system.
There are two types of link budget analysis:

(i) Optical Power Budget Analysis
(ii) Rise Time Budget Analysis
Point-to-Point Optical Links
A simple point-to-point optical fiber link is as follows
Transmitter Receiver
Fiber of length, 𝐿
Connector Connector
What kind of losses should we expect in the depicted fiber link?

Point-to-Point Optical Links
A simple point-to-point optical fiber link is as follows
Transmitter Receiver
Fiber of length, 𝐿
Connector Connector
The following losses occur in the fiber link
• The fiber causes attenuation which is a function of the length of the fiber.
• Losses due to joints in the fiber -> depends on number of joints.
• Coupling losses: optical source and detector
Channel Losses
Assuming there are no dispersion penalties on the link, the total channel loss may be
obtained by simply summing in decibels the installed fiber cable loss, 𝛼, the fiber–fiber
jointing losses, 𝛼S and the coupling losses of the optical source, 𝛼1 and detector, 𝛼, .
Let us assume that the length of the fiber is 𝐿, the number of joints is 𝑁, the coupling
loss of source is 𝛼1 and the coupling loss of the detector is 𝛼, , then the total channel
loss is given as
𝐶T = 𝛼𝐿 + 𝑁𝛼S + 𝛼1 + 𝛼,
Channel Losses
In the previous case, we considered that there is no dispersion, however, when the
dispersion penalty is considered, then, the channel loss is given as
𝐶TF = 𝛼𝐿 + 𝑁𝛼S + 𝛼1 + 𝛼, + 𝐷T
where 𝐷T is the dispersion penalty.

Optical Power Budgeting
• Power budgeting for a digital optical fiber communication system is performed in a

similar way to power budgeting within any communication system.
• When the transmitter characteristics, fiber cable losses and receiver sensitivity are
known, the relatively simple process of power budgeting allows the repeater spacing
or the maximum transmission distance for the system to be evaluated.
• It is also necessary to incorporate a system margin into the optical power budget so
that small variations in the system operating parameters do not lead to an
unacceptable decrease in system performance.
• The operating margin is often included in a safety margin 𝑀( which also takes into
account possible source and modal noise, together with receiver impairments such as
equalization error, noise degradations and eye-opening impairments.
• The safety margin depends to a large extent on the system components as well as
the system design procedure and is typically in the range 5 to 10 dB.
The optical power budget in dB for a system is given by the following expression:
𝑃3 = 𝑃6 + 𝐶T + 𝑀(
where
𝑃3 is the mean input optical power launched into the fiber,
𝑃6 is the mean incident optical power required at the receiver
𝐶T (or 𝐶TF when there is a dispersion penalty) is the total channel loss
Incorporating 𝐶T in the above equation yields
𝑃3 = 𝑃6 + 𝛼𝐿 + 𝑁𝛼S + 𝛼1 + 𝛼, + 𝑀(
Alternatively, when a dispersion penalty is included, the above equation becomes:

𝑃3 = 𝑃6 + 𝛼𝐿 + 𝑁𝛼S + 𝛼1 + 𝛼, + 𝐷T + 𝑀(
Rise Time Budget Analysis
• The rise time budget analysis is used to determine the dispersion limitation of an
optical link.
• Total rise time of an optical link is given as
G
𝑇1C1 = Œ 𝑇3%
3U$
where 𝑇3 is the rise time of each element of the optical link.

Rise Time Budget Analysis
These elements in an optical link which contributes towards the dispersion
• Transmitter rise time (𝑇A0 )
• Group velocity dispersion rise time (𝑇4', )
• Modal dispersion rise time (𝑇*6, )
• Receiver rise time (𝑇?0 )
Thus 𝑇1C1 is essentially equal to

𝑇1C1 = % + 𝑇% + 𝑇%
𝑇A0 + 𝑇 %
4', *6, ?0
Transmitter Rise Time
• Contributed by the light source (Laser/LED) and its associated circuitry.
• The value of transmitter rise time (𝑇A0 ) is generally known to the designer.
Group Velcoity Dispersion Rise Time
The rise time due to intramodal (material) dispersion is equal to the rms pulse
broadening which is given by
𝑇4', = 𝑀𝐿𝜎Q
where
𝑀 is the dispersion coefficient of the optical link

𝐿 is the length of the fiber
𝜎Q is the spectral width of the optical source
Modal Dispersion Rise Time
• Modal dispersion depends on the modes in the optical fiber link

• Single mode fibers have zero modal dispersion
• The modal dispersion for multimode fibers is given as
440
𝑇*6, =
𝐵*
𝐵* is the bandwidth of 1km link of the optical fiber.

Receiver Rise Time
• Receiver rise time (𝑇?0 ) depends on the type of receiver which is used.
• Will be known to the designer.
• An approximation for receiver rise time can be made if we consider the 3dB electrical
bandwidth, 𝐵",7 of the receiver, then we have
350
𝑇?0 =
𝐵",7
Total Rise Time and Data Rate
For NRZ pulse, the maximum bit rate is given as
0.7
𝐵P =
𝑇1C1
Whereas for RZ pulse, the maximum bit rate is given as
0.35
𝐵P =
𝑇1C1
The data rate is inversely proportional to the total system rise time.
Optical Receiver Operation
Optical Receiver Operation and Receiver Tasks
Optical receiver consist of:

1. Photodetector : Converting the optical energy emerging from the end of a fiber into
electrical signal.
2. Amplifier: Amplifying the signal after the photodetection process.
3. Signal Processing circuitry: Signal processing by electronic circuit following the
receiver amplifier with an ultimate aim to determine the transmitted information.
Noise at the Receiver
• Various noises and distortions will unavoidably be introduced due to imperfect

component responses that leads to errors in the interpretation of the received
signal.
• Noise considerations are thus important in the design of optical receivers as the
noise sources operating in the receiver generally set the lowest limit for the signal
that can be processed -> Sensitivity
Performance Parameters
• The most meaningful criterion for measuring the performance of a digital

communication system is the average error probability.
• The average error probability is also linked to the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the
receiver. The higher the SNR, the lower the average error probability.
Fundamental Receiver Operations
The design of optical receiver is more complicated than that of an optical transmitter.
Why?
Because the:
1. Receiver has to detect weak signal.
2. Receiver has to detect distorted signal.
3. Decision making on the basis of amplified and reshaped version of distorted signal.
Signal Path Through and Optical Link
Modulation Formats
• Simplest techniques for sending data is amplitude shift keying (ASK) or on off
keying (OOK).
• Voltage level is switched between two values, which are usually on and off.
Basic Components of Optical Receiver
• Photodetector: The first element is either a pin or avalanche photodiode. It

produces an electric current that is proportional to the received power level.
• Front End Amplifier: As the electric current is very weak , a front-end
amplifier is used to boost it to a level that can be used in next electronic
components.
• Low Pass Filter: The amplified signal is passed through the low pass filter to
reduce the noise that is outside the signal bandwidth.
• Sampling Circuit: It samples the signal level at the mid point of each time slot
• Decision Circuit: It compares the samples with a certain reference voltage

known as the threshold level.
o If the received signal level is greater than the threshold level, 1 is received.
o If the received signal level is below the threshold level, 0 is received.
• Clock and Timing Recovery: To accomplish bit interpretation, the receiver
must know where the bit boundaries are.
Filter/ Sampling Decision

Equalizer Circuit Circuit
hv
Front end
amplifier Clock recovery
Error Souces
• Errors in the detection mechanism can arise from various noises and disturbances
associated with the signal detection system.
• Noise: Unwanted components of an electric signal that tend to disturb the
transmission and processing of the signal in a physical system, over which we have
incomplete control.
o External Noise: The noise source which is external to the system, for example,
electric power lines, motors, radio transmitters, lightning.
o Internal Noise: The noise source which is internal to the system, for example, thermal
noise, shot noise, dark current, etc.
Error Souces
Probability of Error
• Measuring the rate of error occurrences in a digital data stream.

• A simple approach is to divide the number 𝑁𝑒 of errors occuring over a certain time
interval t by the total number 𝑁𝑡 of transmitted bits during this interval.
• This is called either error rate or the bit-error rate (BER) and is given as
𝑁+
BER =
𝑁A
• The error rate is expressed by a number such as 10-9 (one error occurs for every billion
bits sent)
• Standards which define acceptable bit error rates
Receiver Sensitivity
• To achieve a desired BER at a given data rate, a specific minimum average optical
power level must arrive at the photodetector.
• The value of this minimum power level is called the receiver sensitivity.
• A common method of defining the receiver sensitivity is as an average optical power
(Pave) in dBm incident on the photodetector.
• The receiver sensitivity gives a measure of the minimum average power needed to
maintain a maximum (worst case) BER at a specific data rate.
Receiver Sensitivity
- 20
pin
- 30 photodiode
Sensitivity (dBm)
Avalanche
- 40 photodiode
- 50
0.01 0.1 1 10
Bit rate (Gb/s)
The Quantum Limit
• Assuming ideal system parameters, the minimum received power level is known as
the quantum limit.
• It is the minimum received optical power required for a specific BER performance in a
digital system.
• Sensitivity of most receivers is around 20 dB higher than the quantum limit because of
various nonlinear distortions and noise effects in the transmission link.
The Eye Diagram
• The eye diagram is measurement tool for assessing the data handling ability of a
digital transmission system.
• It is used extensively for evaluating the performance of optical fiber data links and
other communication systems.
• The eye pattern measurements allow the effects of waveform distortion to be shown
on the test equipment.
Eye Pattern Features – Eye Width
• The wider the eye, the cleaner the channel.

• Channel distortion decreases the eye width.
• It gives an idea of the time interval over
which the received signal can be sampled
without error due to ISI.
• The best time to sample the received
waveform is when the height of the eye
opening is largest.
Eye Pattern Features – Timing Error
• A timing error occurs when the eye is not

sampled at maximum average opening.
• For a data waveform, it means that the ideal
sample is not at the peak of the auto-
correlation and hence the timing instant is
either early or late.
Eye Pattern Features – Timing Jitter
• Timing jitter is a measure of average

deviation around the mean zero crossings.
• It arises from the noise in the receiver and
pulse distortion in the optical fiber.
• Impact: Bit errors, produce uncertainties in
clock timing, receiver can lose
synchronization.
Eye Pattern Features – Noise Margin
• If a timing error occurs, the signal is

sampled closer to the decision boundary.
• This causes the noise margin to be
reduced.
Optical Amplifiers
Conventional Amplifiers
The conventional amplifiers perform the following tasks for amplification of an
optical signal.
1. Photon to electron conversion
1. Electrical amplification
2. Retiming
3. Pulse shaping
4. Electron to photon conversion
This process works well for moderate speed single wavelength operation.
This process is fairly complex and expensive for high-speed multiple wavelength
systems.
Optical Amplifiers
Optical amplifiers operate completely
in the optical domain to boost the
power levels of multiple light-wave
signals over different spectral bands.
Three Fundamental Types of Optical
Amplifiers:
1. Semiconductor optical amplifiers
(SOAs)
2. Doped Fiber amplifiers (DFAs) or
REDFAs (Rare Earth Doped Fiber
Amplifiers)
3. Raman amplifiers
Applications of Optical Amplifiers
Used in diverse applications ranging from:

• Ultra-long undersea links to short links access networks.
• In long distance undersea and terrestrial point to point links the traffic patterns are
relatively stable, so that input power levels to an optical amplifier do not vary significantly.
• Optical amplifier used in metro and access network need to be able to recovery quickly
from rapid input power variations, due to the burst nature of traffic.
Optical Amplifier Categories
In-line optical amplifiers: It can be used to compensate for transmission loss and to increase
the distance between regenerative repeaters.
Preamplifier: Used as front-end pre-amplifier for an optical receiver. Weak optical signal is
amplified ahead of the photodetection process so that the signal-to-noise ratio degradation
caused by thermal noise in the receiver electronics can be suppressed.
Power Amplifier: Placing an amplification device immediately after the optical transmitter
gives a boost to the light level right at the beginning of a fiber link and serves to increase the
transmission depending on the amplifier gain and fiber loss.
Amplification Mechanism
• For stimulated emission to occur for amplification, there must be a population inversion
of carriers.
• Population inversion is achieved by supplying external energy to boost electrons to a
higher energy level.
• An incoming signal photon will trigger these excited electrons to drop to lower levels
through a stimulated emission process, thereby producing an amplified signal.
• One of the most important parameters of an optical amplifier is the signal gain or
amplifier gain 𝐺, which is defined as
𝐺 = 𝑃6VA /𝑃35
Noise
• The electronic components in the amplifier also add thermal noise.
• The magnitude of this additional noise depends on the design of the amplifier
(incorporation of bipolar or field effect transistor in design)
• This noise increase can be accounted for by introducing an amplifier noise figure that is
the ratio of input SNR to the out put SNR of the amplifier.
• Typical values of the amplifier noise figure range from 3 to 5 dB
Optical Receivers
Optical Receivers
• The type of light produced by the transmitter is also important. Light can be split into
two categories, namely coherent and incoherent light.
• Coherent light has a single frequency, whereas incoherent light contains different
frequencies, i.e., there is no single frequency present.
• This is in contrast to radio communication where term coherent refers to detection

techniques in which the carrier is generated locally at the receiver for detection of
signal.
Coherent Optical Communication
• Often fiber optic systems will operate around a given wavelength, so we go for coherent
optical communication.
• In optical fiber communication the term coherent refers to any technique which employs
non linear mixing between two optical waves, i.e., there is an optical carrier.
• To send the information signal it can be modulated either by amplitude, frequency or

phase of the optical carrier. Therefore modulation techniques used are ASK, FSK, PSK.
Coherent Receiver
• At the receiver in coherent optical systems, the

receiver first adds a locally generated optical wave to
the incoming signal and then detects the
combination.
• In other words, the light is added at the receiver as

part of the detection process.
• There are four demodulation formats depending on

how optical signal is mixed with local oscillator
(which gives homodyne or heterodyne detection)
and how electrical signal is detected (either
synchronously or asynchronously).
Coherent Receiver
Homodyne Detection: The received signal is directly converted to baseband, i.e., the
frequency of local oscillator is same as the optical carrier.
Heterodyne Detection: The signal is first brought to an intermediate frequency prior to

being converted to baseband.
Synchronous detection recovers information from a modulated signal by mixing the signal
with a replica of the un-modulated carrier. Synchronous detection preserves any phase
information originally present in the modulating signal.
Asynchronous detection recovers information from a modulated signal by mixing the signal
with a signal that is not locked in phase with the un-modulated carrier and can experience
frequency mismatch.
Intensity Modulation and Direct-Detection
• In the direct detection system the electrical signal coming into the transmitter,
amplitude modulates the optical power level of the light source.
• Thus the optical power is proportional to signal current level.
• At the receiver the incoming optical signal is converted directly into a

demodulated electrical output.
• Thus the directly detected current is proportional to the intensity of the optical
signal.
Introduction to Optical Wireless Communications
Optical Wireless Communications
The acquisition of information by exploiting the variations in light intensity through an

unguided medium.
Optical Wireless Communications
• Optical wireless communication (OWC) is based on Intensity Modulated and Direct

Detection Systems.
• OWC can be used in

o indoor environments (Visible Light Communication)
o outdoor environments (Free Space Optics).
Free Space Optics
• Free Space Optics (FSO) is the optical communication technology that uses light
propagation in free space to transfer data.
• Lasers are used for FSO.
• It’s a line-of-sight technology.

Why Free Space Optics
• Why not bury more fiber?
• It requires huge cost, permits, time, trenching, etc.
• With FSO, no permits, no digging and no fee is required.

How Free Space Optics Works?
The End
Best of Luck

Optical Fiber Communications: Dr. Ali Waqar Azim

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Optical Fiber

will only answer legitimate queries.

• Class/lecture related queries should go through the CR.

• Office Hours: Monday and Thursday

• Mid Term: 25%

• End Semester Examination: 50 %

• Two assignments (5 marks each).

J. Senior, “Optical Fiber

J. Ahmed, M. Y. Siyal, F. Adeel and

• In general, the course content develop by the HEC will be

• Examples: fires, reflecting mirrors, signalling lamps, etc.

• Alexander Graham Bell’s – photophone - modulated sunlight with a diaphragm giving

• Low capacity communication links

- light transmission in the atmosphere is restricted to line of sight and severely

• High frequencies communication systems- e.g., UHF, millimeter-wave sytems-

- Coherent light source - same frequency and wavelength

- Capable to modulate high frequency - higher bandwidth

Limitations: Light transmission in the atmosphere tended to restrict

• Limitations: The guided media available

• Solution: This issue was solved with the

• Components of Communication Systems

Example: Electrical Communication System

Example: Optical Communication System

• Attenuation- fiber attenuation depends on the material

Optical Communication Systems Radio Frequency Communication Systems

- Newton (18th Century) was the chief architect of the

- Light was considered a stream of particles.

- Light is emitted by the object being viewed or emanated

- Light moves faster in transparent mediums.

- Christian Huygens argued that light might be some sort

- Thomas Young (in 1801) provided the first clear

- He showed that light rays interfere with each other.

- Such behavior could not be explained if we consider the

Two Theories could explain these Phenomena.

• During the nineteenth century, other developments led to the general

• Maxwell asserted that light was a form of high-frequency electromagnetic

• Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s predictions.

• Some experiments could not be explained by the wave model of light.

• Photoelectric effect - when light strikes a metal surface,

• Einstein (in 1905) proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect - assumes

- ℎ is Planck’s Constant and = 6.63 𝑥 10!"# J.s

• Light must be regarded as having a dual nature.

• Light exhibits the characteristics of a wave in some

• Light is radiant energy transported in photons that

Number of photons, minimum energy: 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

• Galileo tried by using two observers separated by about

• Since light travels at a very high speed, early attempts to

• The light enters from the left.

• The light may encounter an electron.

• The electron may absorb the light, oscillate, and

• The absorption and radiation cause the average speed of

We will observe that

Energy and wavelength of light have an inverse relationship

• It uses the following assumptions

• The ray approximation is used to represent beams of light.

• The rays are straight lines perpendicular to the wave

• With the ray approximation, we assume that a wave

• If a wave meets a barrier, with 𝜆 << 𝑑, the wave

• This approximation is good to simplifies the study.

• This means it is directed backward into the first medium.

• The incident ray makes an angle of 𝜃1 with the normal.

• The reflected ray makes an angle of 𝜃1’ with the