Biology

Biodiversity and Evolution

Why are Amphibians Vanishing? (1)

 Habitat loss and fragmentation

 Prolonged drought
 Increased ultraviolet radiation
 Parasites
 Viral and fungal disease

Why are Amphibians Vanishing? (2)

 Pollution
 Climate change
 Overhunting
 Nonnative predators and competitors
 33% of all amphibian species face extinction

What is biodiversity and why is it important?

 The biodiversity found in genes, species, ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is vital to sustaining life on earth.
BIODIVERSITY
 Species Diversity
Species = a set of individuals that can mate and produce fertile offspring
 8-10 million species total; likely 10-14 million
 2 million species identified
 50% of endangered tropical rainforests
Types of biodiversity:

 Genetic Diversity – the variety of genetic animals within a species or a population

 Ecosystem diversity – the variety of terrestrial aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on the earth

Biomes: large regions with distinct climates and certain species especially vegetation.

 Functional diversity – the biological and chemical processes such as energy flow and matter recycling needed
for the survival of species, communities, and ecosystems.

Science Focus: Insects

 Around for 400 million years

 Bad reputation
 Useful to humans and ecosystems
 Vital roles in sustaining life
 Pollinators
 Natural pest control
 Renewing soil

How does the Earth’s Life Change over time?

The scientific theory of evolution – explains how life on earth changes over time through changes in the genes of
populations.

Natural selection – population evolves when genes mutate and give some individuals genetic traits that enhance their
abilities to survive and produce offspring with these traits.

Theory of Evolution

 Most of what we know of the history of life on earth comes from fossils
 Fossils
 Mineralized and petrifies remains
 Skeletons, bones, and shells
 Leaves and seeds
 Impressions in rocks
 Fossil record incomplete: 1% of all species

Charles Darwin, On the origin of species, 1859

Population changes over time

 Populations (not individuals) evolve by becoming genetically different over time

 Genetic variability – mutations
 Random changes in DNA molecules in genes
 Can occur spontaneously
 External agents: radiation
 Can create a heritable trait

Natural Selection

 Adaptive traits – genetically favorable traits that increase the probability to survive and reproduce.
 Trait – heritable and lead to differential reproduction.
 Faced with environmental change
 Adapt through evolution
 Migrate
 Become extinct

Evolution through Natural Selection Summarized

 Genes mutate, individuals are selected, and populations evolve such that they are better adapted to survive and
reproduce under existing environmental conditions.

Formula for
photosynthesis
  Photosynthesis is the process by which autotropic organisms use light energy to make sugar and oxygen gas
from carbon dioxide and water.

Photosynthesis – overview

Overall purpose:

 Photosynthesis – light -> chemical energy

 Complements respiration

Energy for all life on earth ultimately comes from photosynthesis

Light reactions: Dark reactions:

 Thylakoid membrane  Stroma

 Thylakoid space

An overview of photosynthesis

 The light reactions convert solar energy to chemical energy

 Produce ATP and NADPH
ATP = Adenosine triphosphate
NADPH = nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
 The Calvin cycle makes sugar from carbon dioxide
 ATP generated by the light reactions provides the energy for sugar synthesis.
 The NADP produced by the light reactions provides the electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide to glucose.
 The net overall equation for photosynthesis is

Photosynthesis occurs in 2 “stages”:

1. The Light reactions (or Light-dependent Reactions)
2. The Calvin Cycle (or Light-Independent Reactions)
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction. This means it cannot occur without energy (from the Sun).

Phase 2: The Calvin Cycle

 In the Calvin Cycle, chemical energy (from the light reactions) and CO2 (from the atmosphere) are used to
produced organic compounds (like glucose)
 The Calvin Cycle occurs in the stroma of Chloroplasts.
Cell Energy (Photosynthesis and Respiration)

Energy

 Energy for living things comes from food. Originally, the energy in foods comes from the sun.
 Autotrophs (auto = self) = Organisms that use light energy from the sun to produce food.
Ex: Plants and some microorganisms (some bacteria and protist)
 Heterotrophs = organisms that cannot use the sun’s energy to make food
Ex: animals and most microorganisms

Cell Energy:

 Cells usable source of energy is called ATP

 ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate
 All energy is stored in the bonds of compounds – breaking the bond release the energy
 When the cell has energy available it can store this energy by adding a phosphate group to ADP producing ATP
 ATP is converted into ADP by breaking the bond between the second and third phosphate groups and releasing
energy for cellular processes.

Reproductions

Reproduction – the process of living things producing the same type of living things.

2 types of reproduction: asexual and sexual

Asexual Reproduction

 Living things that reproduce from only one parent.

Ex: regeneration, budding and cellular division

Advantages of asexual reproduction

 Animals that live in one place and unable to look for mates reproduced asexually
 Numerous offspring can be produced without a great amount if energy or time
 One single organism can start new colonies in new locations
 Mating partners are not needed to be found
 More reliable (less to go wring in cell division)

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:

 Species may not be able to adapt to a changing environment.

Regeneration example starfish

Budding example hydra

Cellular division (also called binary fission) example protozoa and paramecium

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

 Propagation transplanting parts of a plant to a new growing area (ex. Rhizomes, runners)
 Budding – tiny bud growing off parents’ plant (ex. Potato eyes, branches budding)
 Spores – reproductive cells that produce a new organism (ex. Ferns, mushrooms, molds)
Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction usually requires two parents (partners) (Ex. frogs, humans)

Advantages of Sexual Reproduction

 The offspring will be different than its parents, this allows the species to adapt to its surrounding.

Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

 Often slower than asexual reproduction, and less reliable (more mutations, problems)
 Much energy is used in mating processes
 Can’t always find suitable mate

Two types of Reproduction in action:

1. Internal Fertilization
2. External Fertilization

Internal Fertilization

 Conjugation – Sexual reproduction between microscopic organisms

External Fertilization

 Sex cells dispersed put of the body in water (ex. Fish, salamanders)

Meiosis

 Produces sex cells only (sperm or egg cells)

 Takes place in the reproductive organs of organisms that reproduced sexually