Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

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Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Full length article

Axial and bending behaviour of steel tubes infilled with rubberised concrete
A. Mujdeci a , Y.T. Guo a,b ,∗, D.V. Bompa a,c , A.Y. Elghazouli a
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, UK
b
Institute for Ocean Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, China
c Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Surrey, UK

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This paper presents an experimental and numerical study into the behaviour of rubberised concrete-filled steel
Infilled steel tubes tubes (RuCFST), incorporating concrete with relatively high rubber replacements of up to 60% of mineral
Rubberised concrete aggregates by volume. Axial compression, eccentric compression, and three-point bending tests on circular
Composite sections
specimens are carried out and the results are used to validate the nonlinear procedures adopted in continuum
Experimental assessment
finite element (FE) models of RuCFST members. A constitutive material model specific for confined rubberised
Finite element modelling
Structural design
concrete and associated modelling techniques, developed from existing procedures for concrete-filled steel
tubes (CFST), is proposed for RuCFST members. The modelling techniques involve different damage definitions
including low strength concrete with high rubber replacements in compression and bending. It is shown that the
proposed modelling procedures can predict reliably the structural behaviour of circular RuCFST members under
combined axial-bending conditions. The numerical procedures are then employed in undertaking a detailed
parametric assessment for RuCFST cross-sections. The results are used to appraise current design procedures
and to propose modifications that provide improved capacity predictions for a wide range of properties and
loading conditions.

1. Introduction the rubber. Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) confined concrete members

The use of recycled rubber particles as partial replacements of
both coarse and fine aggregates in concrete is considered a sustainable
solution to reduce the detrimental impact of rubber waste on the
environment [1–3]. RuC can be an efficient alternative to conventional
concrete materials (CCM) for some applications, although RuC is char-
acterised by a low elastic modulus, compressive capacity and tensile
strength in comparison with CCM [4–8]. Rubberised concrete (RuC)
has the potential for being used in structural applications and has good
performance in terms of ductility, energy dissipation, durability, and
sound insulation [9–11].
To date, comprehensive experimental investigations focusing on the
material and structural behaviour of RuC members under monotonic
and cyclic loading were reported. These showed that a higher ductility
and energy absorption are associated with large rubber replacements.
Large-scale circular reinforced concrete columns with up to 60% rub-
ber particles as a replacement for mineral aggregates had improved
performance with lower load carrying capacity and elastic modulus
in comparison to CCM counterparts [1]. To address this issue, recent
investigations pointed out that confinement is a feasible method to
enhance the mechanical properties of RuC [1,3,7,8,12–18]. Lateral
confinement can recover the elastic modulus and strength loss due to
and concrete-filled steel tubular members (CFST) had enhanced perfor-
mance compared with conventional RC members [1,7]. FRP confined
members are often prone to sudden brittle failure response due to the
relatively linear elastic performance of FRP sheets.
CFST members retain the advantages of the steel tube, which serves
not only as a confining component but also as a stay-in-place form-
work for concrete. The formwork and confinement effectiveness of the
structural system can also minimise the congestion of reinforcement in
the connection zone and save labour costs. Most investigated RuCFST
structural configurations were typically in axial compression and in-
corporating concrete with rubber replacement of up to 30%. RuCFST
sections combine the benefits of both RuC and steel hollow sections and
have potentially improved structural performance in compression, for
both capacity and deformation [12–20]. Studies into the confinement
level of RuCFST members subjected to axial loading indicated that an
increased confinement level is produced by high rubber replacement in
circular sections compared with relatively lower rubber contents [3].
Previous numerical studies on RuCFST members focused on relatively
low rubber replacements and included models for either pure axial
compression or bending loading [8,19–21]. More recent numerical
studies considering the cyclic behaviour of short RuCFST with square

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: a.mujdeci18@imperial.ac.uk (A. Mujdeci), guoyutao@imperial.ac.uk, guoyutao@sz.tsinghua.edu.cn (Y.T. Guo), d.bompa@surrey.ac.uk
(D.V. Bompa), a.elghazouli@imperial.ac.uk (A.Y. Elghazouli).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2022.110125
Received 2 June 2022; Received in revised form 4 August 2022; Accepted 5 September 2022
Available online 22 September 2022
0263-8231/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

List of notations 𝜀rc,1 Concrete axial strain at crushing

𝜀rc,2 Concrete lateral strain at crushing
Latin uppercase 𝜀ps The strain of steel at the end of the yielding
plateau
𝐴c Concrete area
𝜀yi Yield steel strain
𝐴s Steel cross-sectional area
𝜀u Ultimate steel strain
𝐷 Diameter
𝜂s Steel confinement coefficient
𝐸c0 Concrete elastic modulus
𝜂c Concrete confinement coefficient
𝐸rc Rubberised concrete elastic modulus
𝜃 Chord rotation
𝐸s Steel elastic modulus
𝜃peak Peak rotation
𝐸ps The initial modulus of steel elasticity at the
𝜃max Maximum rotation
onset of strain-hardening
𝜆rcc Confinement effectiveness factor at point A
𝐿 Specimen length
𝜇v Viscosity parameter
𝑀, 𝑀i Bending moment
𝜈c0 Poisson’s ratio of concrete
𝑀max,R Maximum moment
𝜈r Poisson’s ratio of rubber
𝑀pl,R, Mu,i Bending moment capacity
𝜈rc Poisson’s ratio of rubberised concrete
𝑀test Test bending moment
𝜉c Confinement parameter
𝑁pl,R , 𝑁u,i , 𝑁D Axial capacity
𝜌vr Volumetric rubber ratio
𝑁test Test axial strength
𝜎 Stress
𝑉c0 Volume of the concrete in the mixture
𝜎c,i Uniaxial compressive stress of concrete
𝑉rc Volume of the concrete in the mixture
𝜎true Nominal engineering stress of steel
𝑊pl Plastic section modulus
𝜎true True stress of steel
𝑊ps Steel plastic section modulus
𝜔rcc Modification factor at point C
𝑊psn Steel plastic section modulus in middle
region 𝛶rcc Modification factor at point C
𝑊pc Concrete plastic section modulus 𝜒rcc Modification factor at point D
𝑊pcn Concrete plastic section modulus in middle 𝜓 Dilation angle
region Ø Diameter

Latin lowercase

𝑒 Eccentricity
empirical-based modifications to account for the nonlinear material
𝑒test Test eccentricity
response of RuC.
𝑑c Compression damage factor Specific modelling approaches to predict RuCFST behaviour with
𝑑max,c Maximum compression damage factor high rubber ratios, as well as suitable representations of the bending–
𝑓c,28d Concrete compressive strength compression interactions, which are essential for sectional design, are
𝑓ctr, Concrete splitting tensile strength needed. Eurocode 4 [23] covers the design of conventional CFST and
𝑓rc Rubberised concrete compressive strength estimates of this approach have typically led to reliable predictions for
𝑓c0 Reference concrete compressive strength RuCFST members with relatively low rubber content [13,24]. However,
this may not be the case when relatively high rubber ratios, for which
𝑓yi 0.2% steel proof yield strength
improved design procedures are needed [3]. Validation of such proce-
𝑓ui Testing ultimate steel strength of steel
dures requires a relatively large database that includes configurations
𝑓usm The modified ultimate strength of steel representative of a wide range of material parameters, cross-sections
ℎn The distance between the neutral axis and and loading conditions. To complement experimental datasets, nonlin-
the cross-section centreline ear modelling is typically employed to develop databases with ranges
𝑢 Axial shortening that are of practical interest [3]. Developing full three-dimensional
𝑢i Shortening (3D) continuum finite element (FE) models of RuCFST members under
𝑡 Thickness of steel tube combined loading would be required for this purpose, but is lacking to
date. Such numerical modelling approaches would also need to adopt
Greek letters material models that capture closely the effects of high rubber content
and confinement.
𝛿 Displacement
This paper presents an experimental and numerical study on rub-
𝜀co Crushing strain of concrete
berised concrete-infilled circular steel tubes subjected to combined
𝜀c0,1 Reference concrete axial strain at crushing loading conditions, and proposes modified design procedures for RuCF-
𝜀crush Crushing strain STs with high rubber content of up to 60%. The experimental pro-
pl
𝜀ln True plastic strain gramme includes axial compression tests with aspect ratios of 2 and
𝜀rc,e1 Rubberised concrete proportionality limit 4, bending tests with a shear span-to-depth ratio of 3.4, as well as
specimens tested in combined loading. The tests from this investigation
and previous related studies are used to validate detailed nonlinear
finite element (FE) procedures. To reliably represent the RuC response,
cross-section were carried out, although the rubber ratio was still modelling techniques which are suitable for low strength concrete with
high rubber replacements in compression and bending, are proposed.
moderate with less than 15% [22]. Since existing numerical studies After gaining confidence in the reliability of the modelling procedures,
extensive parametric assessments including over five hundred mod-
focused on relatively low rubber ratios, most of them included several els are carried out. In these models, the cross-section size, material

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A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al.
properties, and load combinations were varied. The experimental and
numerical results are then used to assess the adequacy of current
codified cross-section design approaches for RuCFST, and modifications
are proposed in order to provide a reliable prediction for the behaviour
rubberised concrete-infilled tubes.
2. Experimental programme
RuCFST specimens with three different rubber contents, 0%, 30%,
or 60%, as a replacement of both fine and coarse mineral aggregates by
volume, were prepared. The rubber contents correspond to a volumetric
rubber ratio (𝜌vr ) of 0, 0.30, and 0.60 and are referred to as R00, R30,
and R60. Compression tests on unconfined concrete cylinders, steel
circular hollow section (CHS) elements and concrete-filled steel tubes
(CFST), as well as bending tests on CHS and CFST, as listed in Table 1,
were carried out. Moreover, additional tests under axial compression,
eccentric compression and bending, which were previously carried out
by authors [3] in a separate study, are also included in Table 1 in
order to provide a wider database for validation. All CHS and CFST test
results and observations are used for the validation of the numerical
procedures described in Section 3 and for the analytical assessments
discussed in Section 4. In Table 1, the first 9 specimens marked with C
or ST were pure concrete cylinders or steel tubes, respectively, which
were complementary material tests and are discussed in Section 2.1
The specimen reference adopts the following format: XX RyyEzzLt,
which includes: the member type (CF or ST for concrete-filled tubes
and steel hollow sections, respectively), rubber content (R00, R30, R60
for 0, 0.3 and 0.6, respectively), the loading type (E for eccentricity,
E00 or E∞ for axial tests and bending tests, respectively) and the
nominal length of specimens (L1, L2, or L3 for 300, 600, or 1200 mm
of length). Although the tests reported in this paper only had E00 and
E∞ cases, the labelling E for eccentricity is still adopted to be consistent
with previous tests [3], and are used for the numerical and analytical
assessments described later in the paper. The aspect ratio (L/D) of
columns is 2, 4 for L1 and L2, respectively, while the shear span-
depth ratio (Ls /B) of beams is 3.4 for L3. For example, ‘‘CFR60E00L1’’
represents a 300 mm length of RuCFST, with 60% rubber content,
under axial compression loading.
2.1. Constituent materials
Three different rubber ratios of 0, 0.3 and 0.6 in concrete were
assessed. The rubber particles, in six different size ranges, were as
follows: 0–0.5 mm, 0.5–0.8 mm, 1.0–2.5 mm, 2–4 mm, 4–10 mm and
10–20 mm, based on an optimisation study [5]. The rubber aggregates
with sizes up to 10 mm were produced from car tyre recycling, whilst
those with sizes greater than 10 mm were obtained from truck or bus
tyre recycling [9]. As reported by manufacturers, the rubber used in
truck or bus tyres typically has a higher density than that used in car
tyres. All rubber particles are reported to have 25% content of carbon
black, and polymers in the range of 40%–55%, whereas the remaining
constituents are softeners and fillers. The specific gravity of rubber was
1.1, whereas the water absorption was on average 7.1% for 4–10 mm
particles and 1.05% for 10–20 mm particles [5]. Based on an in-depth
database analysis, it was shown that the replacement of only fine, only
coarse, or both fine and coarse mineral aggregates, influences the me-
chanical properties to a different degree [9]. Moreover, provided that
the rubber blend is adequately proportioned, the rubber replacement
ratio has a similar influence on the mechanical properties regardless of
the maximum rubber particle size [10].
The mix proportions shown in Table 2 were employed in this study,
assuming a target grade of C60 for conventional concrete. These were
placed in a rotary mixing machine with a capacity of 40 L in the
following order: (i) the mineral aggregates with half of the water were
mixed together for 1 min, (ii) the rubber blend was then added and
mixed with the existing wet aggregate blend for another 1 min, and
3
Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125
Fig. 1. Coupon specimens: (a) without polyester putty infill, (b) with polyester putty
infill; (c) tensile coupon test setup (notations: (1) camera, (2) coupon specimen, (3)
speckled area.
(iii) the binders and a mix of admixtures with the remaining water were
mixed for at least 3 min. Finally, a supplementary plasticiser was added,
where necessary, to ensure acceptable levels of workability and mixed
for another 2 min. The concrete was then either poured in cubic and
cylindrical forms and compacted on a vibrating table, or poured into
the steel tubes and vibrated with a hand-held concrete vibrator until
the air content in the fresh concrete was at a minimum.
The material properties of the concrete infill were obtained through
51 concrete cubes of 100 mm and 96 concrete cylinders with Ø100 mm
× 200 mm (diameter × length) at 28 days after casting and on the days
of the corresponding member tests. The samples followed standard me-
chanical testing procedures stipulated in EN 12390-2 [25] as follows:
compressive strength (𝑓c,28d ) and splitting tensile strength (𝑓ctr ). The
average measured material properties from a minimum of 3 samples at
28 days for each rubber level are summarised in Table 3. According to
the density assessment tests, the average densities of the R00, R30, and
R60 concrete were 2357, 2216, and 2134 kg/m3 , respectively; therefore
the rubberised concrete was lighter than the conventional concrete
counterpart. Considering a typical 152 × 300/2.8 mm (diameter ×
length/thickness) RuCFST specimen, the total weight was 15.0, 14.3,
and 13.8 kg for R00, R30, and R60, respectively. Accordingly, the
RuCFSTs were 4.7%–7.5% lighter than the R00 counterparts.
To assess steel material properties, six tensile coupon samples were
also tested. The samples were extracted from cut-offs of the same
tubes used for the specimens, which had Class 2 steel sections (D/t
⩽ 70(235/fy ) in compression and in bending according to the cross-
section classification limits in Eurocode 3 [26] and Eurocode 4 [23].
The coupon samples were dimensioned in accordance with EN 10002-
1 [27]. The concave side of gripped ends of coupon specimens were
filled with polyester putty to avoid the rounded geometry effect on the
material behaviour and any squashing effect due to the gripping jaws as
shown in Fig. 1a–b. The tensile coupon tests were performed using an
Instron 250 kN hydraulic testing machine under displacement control
following the procedures stipulated in ISO 6892-1 [28].
A four-camera LaVision Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system was
employed, with two cameras at each of the two faces of the coupons, to
record the detailed deformations and strains. The coupons were sprayed
by applying black paint and speckle patterns at the front and back
faces of the specimen (Fig. 1c). The images were taken at a recording
rate of 0.25 Hz and processed using DaVis 10 [29]. The key material
properties, including the elastic modulus 𝐸s , the 0.2% steel proof yield
strength 𝑓y , the ultimate steel strength 𝑓u , and the ultimate strain 𝜀u ,
are given in Table 3.
2.2. Specimen details and testing arrangements
To assess the axial behaviour, 24 × Ø150 × 300 mm and 9 ×
Ø150 × 600 mm unconfined CC and RC cylinders, 2 × Ø152 × 300 mm
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Table 1
Specimen details and test results.
Type of test (–) Specimen type (–) Specimen ID Size (D × L)/t 𝜌vr (–) etest (mm) Ntest or Ptest (kN) Mtest (kN m) 𝜃peak /𝜃max (mrad)
(mm × mm/mm)
Axial C R00E00L1a 150 × 300/2.8 0.0 0 1314 – –
C R30E00L1a 150 × 300/2.8 0.3 0 311 – –
C R60E00L1a 150 × 300/2.8 0.6 0 113 – –
C R00E00L2a 150 × 600/2.8 0.0 0 1151 – –
C R30E00L2a 150 × 600/2.8 0.3 0 384 – –
C R60E00L2a 150 × 600/2.8 0.6 0 127 – –
ST STE00L1A 152 × 300/2.8 – 0 448 – –
ST STE00L1B 152 × 300/2.8 – 0 445 – –
ST STE00L2 152 × 600/2.8 – 0 440 – –
CF CFR00E00L1A 152 × 300/2.8 0.0 0 1944 – –
CF CFR00E00L1B 152 × 300/2.8 0.0 0 1970 – –
CF CFR00E00L1C 152 × 300/2.8 0.0 0 1904 – –
CF CFR00E00L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 0 1929 – –
CF CFR30E00L1A 152 × 300/2.8 0.3 0 920 – –
CF CFR30E00L1B 152 × 300/2.8 0.3 0 915 – –
CF CFR30E00L1C 152 × 300/2.8 0.3 0 863 – –
CF CFR30E00L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 0 866 – –
CF CFR60E00L1A 152 × 300/2.8 0.6 0 680 – –
CF CFR60E00L1B 152 × 300/2.8 0.6 0 685 – –
CF CFR60E00L1C 152 × 300/2.8 0.6 0 560 – –
CF CFR60E00L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 0 551 – –
Bending ST STE∞L3 152 × 1200/2.8 – – 73 18.9 19
CF CFR00E∞L3 152 × 1200/2.8 0.0 – 104 27.0 >85
CF CFR30E∞L3 152 × 1200/2.8 0.3 – 90 23.4 >85
CF CFR60E∞L3 152 × 1200/2.8 0.6 – 82 21.4 >85
Axial [3] ST STE00 152 × 300/2.8 – 0 426 – –
CF CFR00E00L1A 152 × 300/2.8 0.0 0 1688 – –
CF CFR00E00L1B 152 × 300/2.8 0.0 0 1637 – –
CF CFR30E00L1A 152 × 300/2.8 0.3 0 941 – –
CF CFR30E00L1B 152 × 300/2.8 0.3 0 944 – –
CF CFR60E00L1A 152 × 300/2.8 0.6 0 618 – –
CF CFR60E00L1B 152 × 300/2.8 0.6 0 628 – –
Eccentric [3] CF CFR00E10L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 12 1330 15.9 14/45
CF CFR00E25L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 24 986 23.7 19/58
CF CFR00E50L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 53.5 592 31.7 23/73
CF CFR30E10L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 12 859 10.3 7/46
CF CFR30E25L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 23 679 15.6 17/67
CF CFR30E50L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 50.5 448 22.3 25/115
CF CFR60E10L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 12 525 6.3 34/67
CF CFR60E25L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 25 415 10.3 37/112
CF CFR60E50L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 53.5 307 16.5 35/115
Bending [3] ST STE∞L2 152 × 600/2.8 – – 140 15.5 >110
CF CFR00E∞L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 – 217 24.9 >115
CF CFR30E∞L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 – 219 24.7 >115
CF CFR60E∞L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 – 187 21.0 >115

Notes: (i) the notations for the type of specimens refer to: C — concrete cylinder, ST — circular hollow steel tube, CF — circular concrete filled steel tube; (ii) Ptest corresponds
to the peak axial load for compression tests, or the peak load applied at midspan in three-point bending tests, Ntest for concentric compression tests; (iii) symbol ‘‘>’’ indicates
that 𝜃max was not achieved and the test was halted due to test rig constraints; (iv) 𝜃peak = 𝜃max in bending tests due to bi-linear hardening response.
a Refers to average values of three tests.

Table 2 loading is typically recommended as three times the outer diameter

Mix proportions per cubic metre.
(D) of a steel tube to avoid global buckling [30,31]. However, the
Constituents R00 R30 R60 local buckling is influenced by the end effects, and short specimens can
Cement (kg) 340 340 340 develop elephant foot-type buckling [32]. To assess the influence of end
Fly ash (kg) 85 85 85
effects, the tests were designed to cover two different lengths, 300 mm
Aggregates (kg) 0–5 mm 820 574 328
5–10 mm 1001 700.7 400.4 and 600 mm, corresponding to a length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) of 2 and
Rubber (kg) 0–4.0 mm – 74.3 148.5 4, respectively. To investigate the flexural performance in three-point
4.0–10.0 mm – 16.5 33 bending, 1 × Ø152 × 1200 mm CHS and 3 × Ø152 × 1200 mm CFST
10–20.0 mm – 74.25 148.5 and RuCFST specimens were also tested.
Admixture (L) (PL+SPL) 7.6 7.6a 7.6a
w/c 0.35 0.35 0.35
The compression tests were performed to investigate the axial load-
carrying capacity and local buckling response. The top of the specimens
a
Adjusted to ensure appropriate workability levels. was capped with mortar and ground flat to avoid non-uniform loading.
The compression tests were undertaken in an Instron 3500 kN hydraulic
machine (Fig. 2a–b). Two parallel ring end plates with 25 mm depth
and 1 × Ø152 × 600 mm steel circular hollow section (CHS) elements, were used to achieve reliable boundary conditions. The axial deforma-
as well as 9 × Ø152 × 300 mm and 3 × Ø152 × 600 mm CFST/RuCFST tion was monitored by three displacement transducers (LVDTs) and two
cylinders, were examined. The length of a CFST member can influence strain gauges were attached to the mid-height of the specimens in a 𝑇
the initiation of plasticity, the onset of local and global buckling and the shape. The hydraulic testing machine was driven under displacement
cross-section capacity. The nominal length (L) of columns under axial control at a rate of 0.25 mm/min, and the displacement rate was

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A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Table 3
Material properties.
Unconfined concrete fc,28d (MPa) fctr (MPa) 𝜀rc,1 (%) 𝜀rc,2 (%) Erc (GPa) Slump (mm)
R00 70.7 ± 0.09 5.60 ± 0.10 – – 49.0 125
R30 18.1 ± 0.05 2.30 ± 0.13 0.13 0.09 15.2 115
R60 6.2 ± 0.14 0.9 ± 0.12 0.15 0.10 8.2 50
Steel tube D/t (mm/mm) fy (MPa) fu (MPa) 𝜀u (%) Es (GPa)
ST 152/2.8 297 388 0.18 200

Table 4
Damage factor definitions.
Damage definitions Type of test (–) 𝑓rc ≤ 30 MPa 𝑓rc > 30 MPa
Axial dc = 1 − (fc ∕fcu )
Compression damage Eccentric Linear to (𝜀crush , dc,max ) Ignored
Bending Ignored
Tension damage Ignored

Fig. 3. Set-up of Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system.

Fig. 2. Testing arrangement: (a) axial tests for stub-columns, (b) axial tests for short
columns, (c) bending tests (Legend: (1) specimen; (2) transducer; (3) end plates; (4)
inclinometer; (5) bearing; (6) strain-gauges).
be ignored. For hollow section steel tube specimens, timber blocks were
inserted at the ends and at the mid-span to obtain stiffened regions.
These blocks and steel saddles at mid-span had the same width of
60 mm, whilst the timber blocks were 20 mm at the ends.
Three LVDTs were placed vertically beneath the specimen to mon-
itor deflection, and three inclinometers were used to measure the
rotations at the ends and at the mid-span. Strain gauges were attached
to the top and bottom fibres to obtain extreme strain values at a
distance of 50 mm from the mid-span of the beams. The tests were
performed following the same displacement control of 0.25 mm/min,
and the rate was increased to 1.0 mm/min in the inelastic regime. The
tests were terminated when the support rotation limit was reached. A
digital image correlation (DIC) system was used for the axial and bend-
ing tests, whereby a speckle pattern was applied to the required area
as illustrated in Fig. 3 for bending tests. Two cameras with 35 mmf/2D
lenses Strain Master DIC system from LaVision were employed to record
the detailed deformations and strains. The images were taken at a
recording rate of 0.25 Hz and processed using DaVis 10 [29].
2.3. Test results

2.3.1. Compression tests

increased to 1.0 mm/min in the post-peak range up to failure. The test
output, including the machine load and displacements, LVDT and strain
gauge readings, was recorded.
Three-point bending tests were carried out on CHS, CFST and
RuCFST to assess the moment resistance and rotation capacity. Tests
were performed in a 750 kN Mayes testing machine, and the loads
were applied to the beam specimens. A view of the test rig is shown in
Fig. 2c. The 1200 mm-long beam specimens were seated symmetrically
at the ends on a pair of saddles, and a saddle-shaped steel seat with
rubber sheets was employed to prevent a localised failure under the
loading saddle. The shear span length (𝐿s ) was the clear distance
between the loading saddle edge to the bearing support (𝐿s = 520 mm).
Some studies pointed out that the low shear span to dept ratio (𝐿s /B)
can influence the diagonal shear crack and shear capacity [33] of CFST
beams under bending, whilst others showed that the flexural behaviour
is not affected by shear for 1.82 ≤ 𝐿s /B ≤ 2.42 [34]. The span 𝐿s of
520 mm was sufficiently long to ensure that the influence of shear can
The experimental load-shortening (N-u) curves shown in Fig. 4a
and test results in Table 1 indicate a significant decrease in capacity
with increasing rubber content. The ultimate capacities of 300 mm
and 600 mm long specimens (L/D = 2 and L/D = 4, respectively)
were almost the same for all rubber contents, and end effects had a
marginal influence on the capacity and overall response of RuCFST. A
small difference was observed in the post-peak region of CFST tests with
conventional concrete infill due to local buckling as shown in Fig. 4b–c,
yet the capacities were nearly identical.
All the CFRyyE00L1 stub columns failed under compression by
developing a bulge either at the top or bottom, as indicated in Fig. 4b,
whilst CFRyyE00L2 had distinct behaviour depending on the rubber
content (Fig. 4c). For CFR00E00L2, the local bulges were triggered
by concrete cracks along the diagonal direction, while CFR30E00L2
column failed by the formation of a bulge near the top. CFR60E00L2
developed global buckling, accompanied by some local buckling near
the mid height and bottom end.

5
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al.
Fig. 4. (a) Comparative applied load-shortening curves for columns under axial loading, (b) deformed shapes of stub columns, (c) deformed shapes of short columns.
Fig. 5. Comparative stress–strain curves for CFST with different lengths (L1 = 300 mm,
L2 = 600 mm).
Local buckling and the deformed shape at the end of the test were
influenced by the rubber content and length of the specimen as shown
in Fig. 4c. The views in Fig. 4c were taken after reaching nearly 100 mm
compression displacement to show the spring-back response of RuC.
Based on these images, it appears that the softer the infill material
(e.g., R60), the more severe the buckling was, i.e. harder infill material
tended to delay the buckling. However, since the concrete was the
main load-bearing component and buckling would not influence lateral
confinement significantly, specimens with softer rubberised concrete
infill were very ductile even after buckling. It should be noted that these
failure patterns involving bulge and buckling in Fig. 4c for 600 mm
specimens occurred at large plastic deformations, thus having little
influence on the response before peak.
Comparative stress–strain curves for RuCFST with different lengths
are shown in Fig. 5. It could be seen that the lateral strains were also
influenced by the presence of rubber and confinement, with improved
energy dissipation levels occurring for relatively high 𝜌vr . The above ob-
servations suggest that confinement effectiveness increases significantly
with the increase in 𝜌vr ; hence, a highly beneficial effect in terms of
overall behaviour is obtained from the presence of rubber. Additionally,
RuCFST with different lengths had similar confined stress–strain devel-
opment; however, the critical local buckling mode shapes influenced
the constitutive curve in the post peak region, as discussed above.
6
Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125
2.3.2. Bending tests
The moment-chord rotation (M-𝜃) responses of the RuCFST speci-
mens tested under three-point bending are presented in Fig. 6a, whilst
the main results are summarised in Table 1. The chord rotation was
determined from the measured vertical deformations at mid-span. The
moment capacity 𝑀test was assessed based on the deformation char-
acteristics when the maximum tensile strain of the steel tube reached
0.01 mm/mm [35]. All the M-𝜃 curves indicate ductile responses,
and the ductility of RuCFST is slightly influenced by rubber content.
The outer tube had a substantial influence and dominated the overall
structural response of RuCFST under bending. It is shown that there is a
proportional reduction in the plastic moment resistance of the RuCFST
with an increase in rubber content, but to a lesser extent than that in
the case of axial compression.
All beam specimens failed with a typical flexural failure mode. Local
buckling was observed around the loading plate at the compression
zone, and there was no fracture of the steel tube at the tension zone.
After testing, the outer steel tube was cut and removed to assess the
damage of the concrete core. As shown in Fig. 6b–c, the developed
crack patterns depended on the presence of rubber particles and rubber
content. Specimens CFR00E∞L3 and CFR30E∞L3 had relatively wide
concrete cracks along the mid-span, while finer and denser cracks
were observed at the mid-span of CFR60E∞L3. A greater ductility is
developed when the tensile cracks are finer and densely spaced [34].
This is confirmed by the M-𝜃 curves and the observed failure mode of
the CFR60E∞L3 specimen with the highest rubber content that showed
high ductility.
The spacing of concrete cracks for CFR00E∞L3 was about 60–
70 mm and had wider cracks compared to RuC infill, while it was
around 20 mm for CFR30∞L3 and about 10–20 mm for CFR60∞L3.
CFR00E∞L3 had the lowest number of cracks with the greatest width
compared to RuCFST specimens. With an increase in rubber content,
as observed after the removal of the steel tube, the length of cracks
became shorter. This can be attributed to the rubber particles crossing
the cracks and delaying potential crack propagation [36].
Experimental observations from a previous study by the authors [3]
indicated largely similar responses for CHS, CFST and RuCFST speci-
mens under compression loading. Radial expansion and outward fold-
ing failure modes were observed in the axial tests on short specimens
(𝐿∕𝐷 = 2), which were dependent on the rubber content. In the
eccentric tests (𝐿∕𝐷 = 4), a combination of axial and flexural buckling
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al.
Fig. 6. (a) Moment (M) versus chord rotation (𝛩), (b) crack distribution of CFST beams, (c) Failure modes of CFST beams under bending.
Fig. 7. Moment (M) versus strain (𝜀) at mid-span at the extreme tensile fibre.
was observed without steel fracture in tension, whilst the failure was
characterised by a folding failure mechanism. The failure mechanism
was largely similar for specimens with 𝐿∕𝐷 = 4 subjected to three-point
bending, and crack patterns of the concrete core showed flexural type
failure modes without influence from shear.
The moment (M) versus strain (𝜀) at mid-span at the extreme tensile
fibre is depicted in Fig. 7 for the members tested in bending only. As
shown in the figure, the inelastic stage was characterised by hardening.
For consistency, the moment capacity of these members is considered
as the test bending moment at a longitudinal flexural strain of 1.0%.
In general, by comparing the material properties and the member
capacities, a high rubber content in the concrete core results in good
confinement performance, suggesting that RuC benefits to a greater
extent from the confinement offered by the steel tube compared with
conventional concrete. This is especially obvious in the axial-load
dominated cases since the concrete is under compression. An increase
in rubber content also provided an enhancement in ductility which was
attributed to the composite interaction between the RuC and the steel
tube.
3. Numerical assessments
A numerical study was carried out using the three-dimensional (3D)
nonlinear finite element (FE) analysis software programme ABAQUS
7
Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125
[37] to simulate the experimental response of circular hollow section
steel tubes (CHS) and concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST) as well as to
expand the results database. Detailed FE models were constructed, and
the adopted modelling procedures were validated against the results
from the tests depicted in Table 1. The numerical response is validated
in terms of stiffness, capacity, and failure modes, and is described in
the following sections. Following successful validation of the modelling
procedures, parametric studies were carried out on more than five
hundred models incorporating a wider range of rubber replacement
levels, concrete grades, steel grades, geometries and loading conditions.
3.1. Modelling procedures
Four-node shell elements with reduced integration (S4R), and eight-
node solid elements with reduced integration (C3D8R) were used for
the thin-walled steel tubes and concrete, respectively. To optimise the
models, a mesh sensitivity study was undertaken. Mesh element sizes
between D/10 and D/20 were considered, and based on the results, the
most efficient geometry was incorporating a 10 mm (D/15) mesh size
for both concrete and steel tubes, which was adopted in all models.
A finer mesh of less than 5 mm was applied in regions where local
buckling was expected. The Newton–Raphson method was employed,
and the measured geometric and material properties were considered.
The adopted Newton–Raphson implicit method, rather than the dy-
namic explicit method used in other studies [22], has higher accuracy
but lower efficacy, which is more suitable for monotonic cases. The
latter might be more useful to deal with more complex geometries and
loading histories, where higher efficiency is required.
For validation of the numerical procedures, the interaction be-
haviour between the steel tube and the concrete was defined as a
‘‘surface-to-surface contact’’. The external surface of the concrete core
and the internal surface of the steel tube were defined as the slave
and master surfaces, respectively. Through this procedure, the master
surface can penetrate the slave surface, but not vice versa [37]. Fur-
thermore, the normal behaviour was defined as ‘‘hard contact’’ allowing
for separation after contact, and the tangential behaviour was defined
as the ‘‘penalty’’ algorithm with a friction coefficient. The friction
coefficient was considered first within a range of 0.2–0.8 based on
existing literature [38,39], then taken as 0.5 based on a sensitivity
analysis. As the main objective is to obtain stiffnesses and strengths of
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Fig. 8. CFST member FE models under eccentric and bending, respectively in ABAQUS.
Fig. 9. Comparisons of elastic modulus.

various configurations, for the parametric investigations, the surface- presence of rubber, the Poisson’s ratio of RuC is evaluated by the ‘‘rule
to-surface contact was replaced by a tie. Up to peak, both contact of mixtures’’ [19], given in Eq. (3), in which 𝑉c0 and 𝑉r are the volume
modelling approaches provided identical stiffness and strength, as a
of the concrete and rubber in the mixture, respectively. The 𝜈c0 and 𝜈r
highly non-linear response is associated with large deformations.
parameters are the Poisson’s ratios of concrete and rubber, taken as 0.2
The displacements and rotations of the end boundary conditions of
and 0.5, respectively [19]. Based on this expression and the RuC mix
the specimens were linked with reference points, and suitable repre-
ratios, Poisson’s ratio of RuC (𝜈rc ) are 0.27 and 0.33 for R30 and R60,
sentations reflecting the test setup were applied as shown in Fig. 8.
respectively.
For axial or eccentric compression tests, all degrees of freedom at the
√
end of the models were coupled with a reference point using kinematic Ec0 = 4700 fc0 (1)
constraints, coupling the motion of the nodes at the end of the spec- ( )2∕3
f
imen (cross-section of concrete and steel together) to the condition Erc = 12000 rc (2)
10
of the reference point [37]. For bending tests, only a quarter of the
𝜈 V + 𝜈r Vr
member length was modelled to enhance the computational efficiency, 𝜈cr = c0 c0 (3)
Vc0 + Vr
as suggested in previous numerical studies [40]. The region under the
loading point was restrained against all degrees of freedom, while the
3.2.1.2. Constitutive curves. The CFST response shown in Fig. 10a can
end of the beam was coupled with a reference point using kinematic
be represented by three stages: the elastic stage (points O to A), a
coupling constraints. The coupling was only applied to the steel tube
plateau where the peak strain of concrete increases from 𝜀c0 to 𝜀cc due
at the end of the beam section to allow sliding between the steel and
to the confinement (Points B to C) and a softening response beyond
concrete to reliably represent the test. The reference point at the axis
𝜀cc (Point C). The lateral expansion of the concrete core is less or
of symmetry was fixed, assuming rigid end boundary conditions, whilst
similar to the expansion of the steel tube before the concrete stress
vertical displacements were applied through an end reference point to
simulate the testing procedure, as illustrated in Fig. 8. Interfacial sliding reaches the peak strength. At this stage, the confining stress is small,
was possible in the bending test since the end of the beam was not fixed and the stress–strain behaviour of confined concrete is similar to that
and only had lateral support. of unconfined concrete. Eqs. (4)–(9) give a constitutive law suitable
for both unconfined CC and RuC and are employed for modelling the
3.2. Material models elastic response [9]. By considering 𝜌vr = 0, the RuC strength (𝑓rc )
reverts to CC strength (𝑓c0 ), and the RuC crushing strain 𝜀cr,1 to that
3.2.1. Concrete materials of CC (𝜀c0 ). The parameter 𝜆 in Eq. (7) is function of the replaced
The concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model was employed in mineral aggregate size 𝑑g,repl (𝜆 = 2.43 for 𝑑g,repl = 0 − 5, 𝜆 = 2.90 for
this numerical investigation as this was typically used in CFST mod- 𝑑g,repl = 0 − 𝑑g,max , 𝜆 = 2.08 for 𝑑g,repl = 5 − 𝑑g,max , in mm).
elling [41,42] incorporating confined conventional concrete (CC) [43– 𝜎
= Erc 𝜀 → 𝜀 ≤ 𝜀rc,el = 0.3frc ∕Erc . (4)
45]. These approaches are well accepted for CFST, yet they need to frc
[ ]
be modified to reliably capture the response of confined rubberised 𝜎 5
= 𝜂1 − 𝜂12 + 0.3 → 𝜀rc,el < 𝜀 ≤ 𝜀rc (5)
concrete (RuC). In the following sections, the parameter definitions for frc 3
( )
reference CC and RuC modelling are given. The former adopts ‘c0’ as a 𝜀 − 𝜀rc,el
subscript, whilst the latter uses ‘rc’. 𝜂1 = (6)
𝜀rc
3.2.1.1. Elastic parameters. Tao et al. [45] suggested that the elastic 1
frc = ( ) fc0 . (7)
modulus of CC (𝐸c0 ) can be estimated with Eq. (1), and the elastic 3𝜆𝜌vr 3∕2
1+2 2
modulus of RuC (𝐸rc ) can be determined with Eq. (2) [9], where 𝑓c0
and 𝑓rc are the CC or RuC strength, respectively. Direct comparison 𝜀𝑟𝑐 = (1 − 𝜌vr )𝜀𝑐0 (8)
between the predictions of Eqs. (1)–(2) and experimental data (𝐸Test ) 0.31
𝜀𝑐0 = 0.7fc0 (9)
show that Eq. (1) provides good agreement with tests for 30 MPa
≤ 𝑓c ≤ 60 MPa, whilst Eq. (2) estimates are more reliable for low After the concrete stress reaches its peak, the concrete shows ob-
strength RuC (𝑓c ≤ 30 MPa). The comparison is given in Fig. 9, and vious inelastic characteristic properties, and the lateral expansion in-
Eq. (2) is adopted in the FE for material modelling of RuC. Due to the creases significantly. The behaviour of the confined concrete is more

8
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Fig. 10. (a) Material model of concrete infill [45], (b) Steel constitutive model [45].

ductile than the unconfined counterpart due to the confinement pro- which is referred to as low strength concrete in this paper. Thus, the
vided by the outer tube. The enhancement in ductility can be taken dilation angle requires a modification for 𝑓c ≤ 30 MPa. Based on
into account by modifying the descending branch of the unconfined the experimental data, 𝑛l factor is proposed to consider confinement
concrete stress–strain curve. To address this, the definition of a more affected by the low strength concrete in Eq. (22) and multiplied with
ductile post-peak curve rather than the unconfined curve is derived 𝜓0 .
from plain concrete tests and can be adopted in the FE modelling [45] Eq. (23) is used to estimate the fb0 ∕frc ratio, whilst Eq. (24) is
(Eqs. (10)–(15)). The parameter 𝜀rcc is the strain at Point B, fB is the employed to determine 𝐾c [45]. The default parameter 0.1 [37] is
confining stress at point B, fy is the yield strength of steel, fres is the adopted for the flow potential eccentricity. The numerical integration is
residual stress, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the parameters do define the softening sensitive to the softening behaviour and the stiffness degradation in the
branch. The parameter 𝛽 can be taken as 1.2 for a circular section [45], constitutive material model, which means that the accuracy of results
whilst 𝜉𝑐 is a confinement factor. The latter is the ratio between the can be influenced by the convergence rate of the model. To improve
yield strength and the cross-sectional area of the steel tube (fy As ), the rate of convergence in the softening regime, a smaller viscosity
and concrete compressive strength and the cross-sectional area of the parameter than the increment is suggested [37]. This was taken as
concrete core (frc Ac ). 𝜇v = 2 × 10−4 for the simulations in this paper.
( )
𝜀rcc ( ) fB 0.3124+0.002frc 𝜓 = 𝜂l 𝜓0 (20)
= 𝑒𝑘 𝑘 = 2.9224 − 0.00367frc (10) ( )
𝜀rc frc ⎧
⎪56.3 1 − 𝜉𝑐 for 𝜉c ≤ 0.5
( ) −0.02 D
1 + 0.027fy ⋅ 𝑒 t 𝜓0 = ⎨ 7.4 (21)
fB = ( )4.8 (11) ⎪6.672𝑒 4.64+𝜉c for 𝜉c > 0.5
1 + 1.6𝑒 −10⋅ frc ⎩
[ ( ]
𝜀 − 𝜀rcc )𝛽
1∕2
( ) 𝜂l = 0.2frc ≤ 1.0 (22)
𝜎 = fres + frc − fres exp − 𝜀 ≥ 𝜀rcc (12) ( )−0.075
𝛼 fb0 ∕frc = 1.5 frc (23)
( )
fres = 0.7 1 − 𝑒−1.38𝜉𝑐 frc ≤ 0.25frc (13) 5.5
Kc = ( )0.075 (24)
0.036 5 + 2 frc
𝛼 = 0.04 − (14)
1 + 𝑒6.08𝜉𝑐 − 3.49
3.2.1.4. Damage modelling. Compression damage definitions for low
fy As
𝜉𝑐 = (15) strength concrete (i.e. RuC in this paper), are categorised into three
frc Arc loading cases: (1) for pure bending, the damage definition can be dis-
The stress–crack displacement curve given by Eqs. (16)–(19) is regarded since the tensile behaviour of the steel dominates the overall
adopted for material modelling in tension [9]. As for the compression response, while the contribution of the concrete infill in compression is
constitutive response, this converges to CC when the 𝜌vr = 0. The marginal; (2) for axial compression, the common definition of compres-
parameter fctr,sp is the splitting tensile strength of concrete, fctr is sion damage 𝑑c = 1 − 𝑓c ∕𝑓cu is considered [38,39], having maximum
the tensile strength of concrete, 𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥,i is the maximum crack width values around 0.7–0.8 due to the residual strength; (3) for eccentric
(𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥,0 = 0.18 mm when 𝜌𝑣𝑟 = 0). These parameters were employed compression, to consider concrete crushing at the buckling region, a
to obtain the lowest fracture energy (𝐺f ) [9,46]. linear damage towards crushing strain (the compression damage factor
𝑑c reaches values close to 1.0) is suggested. For case (3), the crushing
fctr,sp = 0.9fctr (16) strain is suggested considered as 𝜀rc = (90 − 1.6frc )𝜀c0 for 𝑓rc ≤ 30 MPa.
2∕3
fctr = 0.26fcr (17) With this assumption, the ductility decreases when strength increases.
The maximum damage factor, in practice, can be taken as 0.98–0.99
𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑟 = 𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥,0 + 0.3𝜌𝑣𝑟 (in mm) (18) since the limit in the programme is defined as 0.99. For CC with 30 MPa
𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥,0 = 0.18 mm (19) ≤ 𝑓c ≤ 100 MPa, the damage definition can be neglected as suggested
by existing studies [45]. Damage definitions for different cases are
3.2.1.3. Plasticity parameters. For both CC and RuC, the dilation angle summarised in Table 4. In all cases, the tension damage definition is
(𝜓) was initially estimated using Eqs. (21) [45], in which 𝜉𝑐 is the not considered since the tensile response is governed by the steel tube.
confinement factor for each configuration given by Eq. (15). As this
model is mainly validated for a CC with a strength range of 30 MPa 3.2.2. Steel materials
≤ 𝑓c ≤ 100 MPa, a sensitivity study [19] indicated that Eqs. (21) The elastic modulus of steel was considered as 200 GPa. The mea-
provide unreliable responses for R30 and R60 RuC as 𝑓c ≤ 30 MPa, sured engineering stress–strain response from tensile coupon tests is

9
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

For the parametric studies, an elastoplastic bilinear curve without

hardening was considered for modelling the steel as a result of a sen-
sitivity study and as recommended by Eurocode 4 [23] (i.e. 𝑓ys = 𝑓us ).
As the main aim of the parametric studies was to assess the strength
and stiffness of various configurations to validate design expressions,
the concrete compression damage was ignored since the compression
damage is mainly associated with hardening in the post-peak region
as shown in Fig. 11 and discussed below, with no influence on the
pre-peak response.

3.3. Simulation results

3.3.1. Damage modelling

Fig. 11. Stress–strain curve results for single element test considering damage influence The damage definition can influence the stiffness and strain distri-
under monotonic loading. bution in the post-peak region due to the plastic evolution that affects
the 3D stress states related to confinement, though this is sometimes
disregarded for CFST [19,45]. To investigate the influence of damage
converted into true stress–strain according to Eqs. (25) and (26) [47], modelling on material behaviour under monotonic loading, a single
in which 𝜎true is true stress, 𝜎nom is the nominal engineering stress, cube element model was constructed with and without accounting for
pl damage using the same modelling procedures described before.
𝜀nom is the nominal engineering strain, and 𝜀ln is the true plastic strain,
𝐸s is the elastic modulus. Through validation, the full test stress– As shown in Fig. 11, the model with damage indicates more soften-
strain curves can be also estimated by the constitutive model given ing behaviour in the post-peak region, and it indicates that the damage
by Eqs. (27)–(28) and shown in Fig. 10b [45]. The parameter fus is definition can have a significant influence when the material undergoes
the ultimate strength, fys is the yield strength, p is the strain-hardening large deformations, which is expected for RuC. Moreover, modelling
exponent, 𝜀ys is the yield strain, 𝜀ps is the strain at the end of the yield without damage definition can exhibit a ‘confinement locking’ for RuC,
strength, 𝜀us is the ultimate strain, Es is the modulus of elasticity, Eps which can be addressed by adopting the above approach. Fig. 12a
is the initial modulus of elasticity at the onset of strain-hardening. shows the axial stress evolution in the outmost compression fibre in
( ) the FE model against the step time for CFR60E25L2 without concrete
𝜎true = 𝜎nom 1 + 𝜀nom (25)
damage definition. As shown in Fig. 12a, the concrete stress initially
pl ( ) 𝜎true
𝜀ln = ln 1 + 𝜀nom − (26) increases in the elastic stage from Point 0 then achieves the peak
Es
stress at point A. Then, the stress decreases very rapidly through a
⎧E 𝜀 0 ≤ 𝜀s < 𝜀ys degradation stage represented by a descending branch between Points
⎪ s s
⎪fys 𝜀ys ≤ 𝜀s < 𝜀ps A and B.
⎪ ( ) After Point B, the concrete infill exhibits higher stress with in-
𝜎s = ⎨ ( ) 𝜀us − 𝜀s p (27)
f
⎪ us − fus − f ys 𝜀ps ≤ 𝜀s < 𝜀us creasing confinement provided by the steel tube. This effect is clearly
⎪ 𝜀us − 𝜀ps
seen with low strength concrete infill due to the existing high level
⎪𝑓 𝜀s ≥ 𝜀us
⎩ us of confinement. As a result of the existing high concrete stress, the
𝜀us − 𝜀ps concrete is in a hardening regime and does not crush, leading to a
p = Eps ( ) (28) stiffer post-peak behaviour from Point B to Point C in Fig. 12a, and
fus − fys

Fig. 12. Comparative assessment between existing data and FEM models with/without damage definition; (a) ‘confinement locking’ behaviour of low strength concrete, (b) axial
load–strain curves, (c) failure mode of CFR60E25 under eccentric loading [3], (d) failure mode without damage, (e) failure mode with damage.

10
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Table 5
Comparison between current test results and FE predictions.
Type of test Type of Specimen ID Size (D × L)/t 𝜌vr etest (mm) Ntest or Ptest NFEM or PFEM Ntest /NFEM or
(–) specimen (–) (mm × mm/mm) (kN) (kN) Ptest /PFEM
Axial CF CFR00E00L1 152 × 300/2.8 0.0 0 1939 1955 0.99
CF CFR30E00L1 152 × 300/2.8 0.3 0 899 881 1.02
CF CFR60E00L1 152 × 300/2.8 0.6 0 687 652 0.99
CF CFR00E00L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 0 1930 1708 0.85
CF CFR30E00L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 0 866 861 1.00
CF CFR60E00L2 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 0 551 566 0.97
Bending CF CFR00E∞L3 152 × 1200/2.8 0.0 – 104 109 0.95
CF CFR30E∞L3 152 × 1200/2.8 0.3 – 90 89 1.01
CF CFR60E∞L3 152 × 1200/2.8 0.6 – 82 82 1.00
Axial [3] CF CFR00-E00 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 0 1688 1648 1.02
CF CFR30-E00 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 0 940 940 1.00
CF CFR60-E00 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 0 624 631 0.99
Eccentric [3] CF CFR00-E10 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 12 1330 1224 1.09
CF CFR00-E25 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 24 986 1003 0.98
CF CFR00-E50 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 53.5 592 625 0.95
CF CFR30-E10 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 12 859 778 1.10
CF CFR30-E25 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 23 679 660 1.03
CF CFR30-E50 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 50.5 448 449 1.00
CF CFR60-E10 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 12 525 549 0.96
CF CFR60-E25 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 25 415 405 1.02
CF CFR60-E50 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 53.5 307 307 1.00
Bending [3] CF CFR00-E∞ 152 × 600/2.8 0.0 – 217 249 1.15
CF CFR30-E∞ 152 × 600/2.8 0.3 – 219 222 1.01
CF CFR60-E∞ 152 × 600/2.8 0.6 – 187 182 0.97
Mean 1.00
COV 0.06

Fig. 13. Comparison of experimental and FEM results; (a) axial load-shortening curves for CFST stub columns, (b) moment-chord rotation curves for CFST beam.

a less severe buckling pattern. Based on the load–strain curves of Spec-
imen CFR60E25L2 from Fig. 12b as well as the buckling shapes from
tests [3] (Fig. 12c) and models (Fig. 12d,e), it is suggested that, using
the above damage modelling procedures, a reliable representation of
the deformational response and failure modes can be obtained for
RuCFST.
3.3.2. Overall response
The modelling procedures described in Section 3.1 and the material
modelling approaches from Section 3.2 were validated against the test
results of specimens depicted in Table 1. The test and numerical load–
deformation (N-u) curves under axial loading, load–rotation (N-𝜃) for
eccentric loading tests, and moment–rotation (M-𝜃) curves under three-
point loading conditions are shown in Figs. 13 and 14, whilst the main
results are listed in Table 5. It could be seen that an overall good
agreement was achieved between the tests and simulations, including
for the stiffness and capacity. The standard deviation of the ultimate
capacities is within 6% which is reasonable for this type of models [38].
Failure patterns observed in tests and modes for specimens under
different loading cases are shown in Fig. 15. The FE models show
similar failure patterns compared to those observed in the tests: (a)
bulges at top and bottom in axial loading; (b) buckling and damage
in the extreme compression fibre in eccentric loading; (c) buckling and
damage in the extreme compression fibre in bending.
3.4. Parametric studies
3.4.1. Main parameters
FE models were constructed to generate additional cross-sectional
resistance data for a wide range of rubber levels, concrete grades,
steel grades, geometries and loading eccentricities. Five rubber levels
(𝜌vr = 0, 0.15, 0.30, 0.45, 0.60), four reference concrete strengths
(𝑓c0 = 40, 60, 70, 90 MPa), three steel yield strengths (𝑓ys = 285, 355,
450 MPa) by means of steel contribution ratios 0.2 ≤ 𝛿 = 𝑓y × As ∕𝑁pl,R
≤ 0.9 [23], five thicknesses of steel tube (t = 2.8, 4, 5, 6.3, 8 mm),
and ten different eccentricity levels (denoted X1 to X10 and shown in
Fig. 16) were examined. The compressive concrete strength of RuC was
determined from 𝑓c0 using Eqs. (7) [9].
The diameter of the steel tube (D) was fixed at 152 mm, and the
thickness of the steel tube (t) was varied within the Class 1–2 ranges
according to the classification limits in Eurocode 4 and 3 [23,26]. With
a fixed tube diameter of 152 mm and varying tube thickness of 2.8–
8 mm, the diameter to thickness D/t range was from 19.0 to 54.3, and
the steel to concrete area ratio 𝐴s ∕𝐴c range was from 7.8% to 24.9%.
The studied CFST member cross-sections yield strength of 355 MPa
and 450 MPa does not cover Class 2 limit in Eurocode 3 and 4, where
(D/t ⩽ 70(235/fy )). It is worth noting that the classification limit for
the circular CFST section in Eurocode 8 is D/t ⩽ 85(235/fy ) for Class
2 [48], however the CFST specimens with steel yield strength of 450
MPa are beyond that limit. The length of all the modelled specimens

11
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Fig. 14. Comparative applied load–rotation curves between previously reported test results [3] and FEM results; (a) CFR00, (b) CFR30, (c) CFR60.

Fig. 15. Comparison of failure modes between existing study [3] and proposed FEM models; (a) axial test for CFR00E00, (b) eccentric test for CFR60E25, (c) bending test for
CFR30E∞.

was set equal to 600 mm. The key parameters of the CFST and RuCFST
members are summarised in Table 6.
As noted above, the FE models were constructed to assess the cross-
sectional capacity for a total of 10 eccentricity levels (X1–X10), which
are aligned with the simplified axial bending (M–N) curve in Eurocode
4 [23]. Four eccentricity levels coincide with N–M curve key points (A,
B, C, D) shown in Fig. 16. The additional six points were considered
on the simplified base curve while dividing each zone (A–C, C–D, D–B)
into three levels to ensure a sufficient number of data points to obtain
complete interaction diagram representations.
3.4.2. Overall trends
For brevity, a schematic representation of the complete N-M interac-
tion diagrams obtained from the FE results and parameters for CFR30
models are depicted in Fig. 17. As expected, an increase in concrete
strength, steel yield strength or tube thickness expands the N-M curves.
To obtain an insight into the influence of the main parameters varied
in the parametric study on the N-M curve key points (A, B, C, D), the
numerical results are plotted against the rubber ratio in Fig. 18, and
discussed in the following paragraphs.

12
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Table 6
Cross-section dimensions and material properties of CFST and RuCFST members for validation of FE model in Section 3.4 and chosen for
parametric study.
𝜌vr,0 D0 × t0 fc,0 fy0.2,0 e0 𝜌vr,i Di × ti fc,i fy0.2,o ei
(mm × mm) (MPa) (MPa) (mm) (mm × mm) (MPa) (MPa) (mm)
0 152 × 2.8 60 285 0 0 152 × 2.8 40 285 X1, X2,
0.30 10 0.15 152 × 4 60 355 X3, X4,
0.60 25 0.30 152 × 5 70 450 X5, X6
50 0.45 152 × 6.3 90 X7, X8
∞ 0.60 150 × 8 X9, X10

Note: The notations for parameters refer to: 0 — reference, i — parameters.

4. Prediction of axial-bending interaction

This section examines the suitability of current codified design

procedures for composite sections (Eurocode 4 [23], AISC 360 [49],
AS 5100 [50] and GB 50936 [51]) for predicting the axial-bending (N-
M) response of RuCFST. The design expressions for axial compressive
resistance 𝑁pl,R and moment resistance (𝑀pl,R ) are given as well as
cross-sectional slenderness limits with a focus on the configurations
investigated in this paper. Modifications to the current Eurocode 4 pro-
cedures are then suggested based on the experimental and numerical
results.

4.1. Codified procedures

Eurocode 4 compressive cross-section resistance (𝑁pl,R ) and moment

Fig. 16. Defined key points (X1–X10) on the EC4 simplified N–M interaction curve.
The load-bearing capacity of CFST members with different concrete
strengths (𝑓rc ) under combined axial-bending is depicted in Fig. 18(a),
(d), (g), (h). The numerical investigation showed that the 𝑓rc has a
significant effect influence on the axial capacity 𝑁pl,Rd (point A) whilst
it has a limited influence on the moment capacity 𝑀pl,Rd (point B). The
axial capacity 𝑁pl,Rd increased proportionally with 𝑓rc (Fig. 18d). As
shown in the figures, at high 𝜌vr , both 𝑁pl,Rd and 𝑀pl,Rd are within rela-
tively small ranges, due to the steel tube being the dominant component
and a low concrete contribution in the composite section (Fig. 18d).
Increasing the steel yield strength 𝑓ys enhanced the 𝑁pl,Rd , as shown
in Fig. 18(b), (e), (h), (k). However, increasing steel yield strength
from 285 MPa to 450 MPa does not enhance the cross-section capacity
at 𝑁pm,R (Fig. 18k). A higher yield strength may not have a major
contribution to 𝑁pl,Rd and 𝑁pm,R as concrete is the main contributor.
This is shown in the same figure where 𝑁pm,R remains almost the same
for all 𝜌vr . As expected, a high 𝑓ys provides proportionally high 𝑀pl,Rd
since the bending behaviour is dominated by steel. It appears that the
increase of the tube thickness improved the member capacity due to the
enlarged cross-section and an enhanced confinement effect provided
by steel tube to concrete (Fig. 18(c), (f), (i), (l)). It is also found that
the influence of D/t for 𝑁pm,R is not significant as in the case of 𝑓ys
(Fig. 18l). This might be due to the contribution of steel tube being
lower than the concrete at that level.
Based on the above comments, it is shown that the axial capacity
𝑁pl,Rd (Point A) is influenced significantly by the concrete strength 𝑓rc
for low 𝜌vr , and less for high 𝜌vr . The steel yield strength 𝑓ys and tube
thickness have a similar influence on 𝑁pl,Rd for all 𝜌vr . In contrast,
the concrete strength has minimal influence on the moment capacity
𝑀pl,Rd for all 𝜌vr , whilst the influence of 𝑓ys and tube thickness is more
visible. This is expected as 𝑁pl,Rd is largely governed by the concrete
for relatively thin tubes, whilst the moment capacity is more affected
by the tubes. The trends for 𝑁pm,Rd (point C) and 𝑀max (point D), are
similar to 𝑁pl,Rd and 𝑀pl,Rd , respectively, with due account for the
position on the N-M curve.
cross-section resistance (𝑀pl,R ) design expressions for circular CFST
members are given in Eqs. (29)–(30) [23]. The code considers the
confinement effect factors for steel and concrete (𝜂s and 𝜂c ), respec-
tively, yield strength of the steel tube (𝑓y ), cross-sectional area (𝐴s ),
thickness (t) and diameter (D), as well as the cross-sectional area of
the concrete core (𝐴c ) and concrete core strength (𝑓c ). The moment
resistance 𝑀pl,R is defined by the steel plastic section modulus (𝑊ps ),
steel plastic section modulus in middle region (𝑊psn ), yield strength of
steel tube (𝑓y ), concrete plastic section modulus (𝑊pc ), concrete plastic
section modulus in the middle region (𝑊pcn ), and strength of concrete
core (𝑓c ).
( )
t fy
Npl,R = Nu,EC4 = 𝜂s fy As + 1 + 𝜂c fA (29)
D fc c c
[( ) ( ) ]
Mpl,R = Mu,EC4 = Wps − Wpsn fy + 0.5 Wpc − Wpcn fc (30)
The AISC 360 [49] compressive resistance (𝑁u,AISC ) for a circular
CFST is given in Eq. (31), which depends on the 𝑓y , 𝐴s , 𝑓c , 𝐴c and
𝐶2 which is a parameter depending on the section type (𝐶2 = 0.95 for
circular CFST which could be regarded as a safety factor). In contrast
to Eurocode 4, by multiplying the concrete capacity (𝑓c × Ac ) with a
factor close to 1.0, the confinement effects are practically disregarded.
In this paper, 𝐶2 is considered herein as 1.0 for comparison purposes.
The expression for moment resistance (𝑀u,AISC ) is given by Eq. (32)
according to the cross-section classification.
Nu,AISC = fy As + C2 fc Ac (31)
Mu,AISC = Mpl,R (32)
The Australian Standard AS 5100 [50] adopts the same method
as Eurocode 4 to design circular CFST columns under axial-bending
loading, with the only difference being the material safety factors (𝜙,
𝜙c ) in Eq. (33). The moment resistance (𝑀u,AS ) of circular CFST cross-
sections is calculated based on a plastic stress distribution over the
entire cross-sections in Eq. (34) similar to EC4. The 𝜙 and 𝜙c values are
considered here as 1.0 for comparison purposes [52], thus expressions
of the Australian Standard will be identical to EC4.
( )
t fy
Nu,AS = 𝜙𝜂𝑠 fy As + 𝜙c 1 + 𝜂𝑐 fA (33)
D fc c c

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A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Fig. 17. Completed N-M interaction diagrams with FEM results for CFR30Ezz .

Fig. 18. Variation of 𝑁pl,rd , 𝑀pl,rd , 𝑁pm,rd , 𝑀max with respect to defined parameters.

14
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Fig. 19. Cross-section capacity comparison between FEM results and predictions under (a) axial loading and (b) bending.

[( ) ( ) ]
Mu,AS = Wps − Wpsn 𝜙fy + 0.5 Wpc − Wpcn 𝜙c fc (34) Table 7
Cross-sectional slenderness and material limits in design codes.
In the Chinese provisions GB 50936 [51], the cross-sectional re- Design codes Slenderness limits fy (MPa) fc (MPa)
sistance is dependent on the confinement effects, as indicated by D fy
EC4 [23] t 235
≤ 70 235–460 20–60
Eqs. (35)–(39). The axial cross-section capacity (𝑁u,GB ) is the product D fy
AISC 360 [49] ≤ 0.09 ≤525 20–70
of the cross-sectional area 𝐴sc and the confined concrete strength 𝑓sc , t 𝐸𝑠
D fy
which depends on a confinement factor (𝜉c ). The moment resistance AS 5100 [50] t 250
≤ 82 230–400 25–65
D fy
(𝑀u,GB ) is defined as the compressive design strength of the confining GB 50936 [51] t 235
≤ 70 235–460 30–80
concrete (𝑓sc ) multiplied by 𝑊sc = 𝜋D3 ∕32 and by a 𝛾m factor. The
parameter 𝛾m is dependent on the confinement factor 𝜉c and as well as
Table 8
on the hollow rate factor 𝜒 which was considered here as 0 for solid Comparison of FE results and predicted axial-bending capacities from EC4 [23], AISC
sections, as specified in the code. 360 [49], AS 5100 [50] and GB 50936 [51].
Design NFEM ∕Ncode MFEM ∕Mcode
NGB = Asc fsc (35)
[ ( ) ( ) ] codes Mean COV Mean COV
fy 0.104𝑓𝑐
fsc = 1.212 + 0.176 + 0.974 𝜉c + 0.031 − 𝜉c2 fc (36) EC4 0.91 0.09 1.05 0.03
213 14.4 AISC 360 1.12 0.02 1.05 0.03
𝜉c = As fy ∕Ac fc (37) AS 5100 0.91 0.09 1.05 0.03
√ GB 50936 0.90 0.05 0.90 0.15
𝛾𝑚 = (1 − 0.5𝜒)(−0.483𝜉c + 1.926 𝜉c ) (38)
Mu,GB = 𝛾𝑚 Wsc fsc (39)
statistical assessments are shown in Table 8. Numerical-to-estimated
Table 7 lists the main differences in terms of cross-sectional slen-
ratios above 1.0 indicate conservative estimates, whilst values below
derness limits, steel and concrete material strengths specified in the
various codes, with particular focus on the ranges relevant to the tubes 1.0 indicate unconservative code predictions.
used in the tests described in Section 2. Note that these limits were For the axial compressive resistance, the mean ratio of FE to Eu-
exceeded in the parametric study to obtain a detailed insight into the rocode 4 predicted capacity ratio is 0.91 with corresponding COV
response of RuCFST with characteristics beyond the current limits of values equal of 0.09. More unconservative estimates are obtained with
the codes considered. Eurocode 4 gives a slenderness limit for Class 2 increasing 𝜌vr , noting that intermediate to large 𝜌vr ratios lead to
as D/t ⩽ 70(235/fy ), which is also adopted in GB 50936. Note that the low strength concrete which is beyond the limits of the code. For
latter code employs the hollow section local buckling limits of CFST the moment resistance, the Eurocode 4 predictions indicate a more
members, rather than having specific values for composite sections. consistent and less scattered conservative trend (Fig. 19b); the mean
A similar approach is given in AS 5100, in which for the same FE-to-predicted moment capacity ratio is equal to 1.05 with the corre-
section type the diameter-to-thickness ratio D/t ⩽ 82(250/fy ). In AISC, sponding COV values equal to 0.03. The mean FE to AISC 360 predicted
the slenderness limits are given as a function of the 𝐸s ∕𝑓y ratio. These axial capacity ratio is equal to 1.12, with a COV value of 0.02. This
are 0,09(𝐸s /fy ) for CFST compact sections. In all codes, a fully plastic code provided conservative estimates, that are attributed to the code
stress distribution is considered for members with section classes such which disregards the confinement effects within the composite section.
as those used in the tests described above. Although some of the FE The FE-to-predicted moment capacity ratios are identical to those of
models had sections in which these limits were exceeded, the results
Eurocode 4 since the same approach is adopted. As the AS5100 code
showed that the configurations developed their full plastic capacity.
uses a similar background to Eurocode 4 for axial section capacity
With regard to concrete strengths, Table 7 shows that relatively low
design, the FE-to-predicted axial capacity ratio is the same.
strength concretes such as those of RuC with intermediate to high
rubber ratios, are outside of the scope of the codes. Finally, estimates of GB 50936 are unconservative for both axial
compression and moment capacities. The results of axial compression
4.2. Comparative results resistance for CFST with conventional concrete are generally on the
safe side, whilst the predicted bending resistance capacities are also
The axial compression resistance (𝑁pl.R ) and bending moment re- conservative but with large scatter, particularly for RuCFST. For GB
sistance (𝑀pl,R ) estimated by codes were compared with the corre- 50936, The mean 𝑁FEM ∕𝑁code and 𝑀FEM ∕𝑀code are both 0.90, whilst
sponding FE results from the parametric studies, denoted as 𝑁FEM and the COVs are 0.05 and 0.15, respectively. As can be seen from Table 8
𝑀FEM , respectively. Fig. 19 gives the ratios between the numerical- and Fig. 19, the ability of current design codes to predict the RuCFST
to-estimated values (𝑁FEM ∕𝑁code or 𝑀FEM ∕𝑀code ), whilst the main cross-section capacities differs, depending on the action and specific

15
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al. Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125

Fig. 20. Comparisons of FE resistances with Eqs. (40)–(47) and EC4 predictions.

assumptions included in the model, indicating the need for modifica-
tions particularly for material and geometrical parameters specific for
RuCFST sections.
4.3. Proposed modifications
As noted above, RuC with intermediate to high 𝜌vr ratios has rel-
atively low compressive strengths which are typically outside of the
scope of current design codes. Thus, these cannot be directly employed
to design RuCFST members, and modifications to the current design
expression need to be considered. As mentioned above and shown in
Fig. 16, Eurocode 4 considers four key points to evaluate a piecewise
N-M interaction diagram. These are given by Eq. (40) for axial compres-
sion (Point A), Eq. (41) for bending only (Point B), Eq. (42) for bending
and compression (Point C), Eq. (44) for maximum moment resistance
(Point D).
For conventional concrete parameters 𝜆rcc , 𝜒rcc and 𝜔rcc are 1.0.
These are introduced in this paper to better represent the specific
response of RuC. As shown above, unconservative axial resistances for
RuCFST members were obtained and attributed to the low strength of
concrete and the presence of rubber whose behaviour is not captured
by the current code. The experimental and numerical dataset developed
in this paper was used to calibrate the four key points of the N-M
integration diagram by 𝜌vr -dependent 𝜆rcc, 𝜒rcc and 𝜔rcc factors given
in Eqs. (45)–(47).
( )
t fy
Npl,R = 𝜂s fy As + 𝜆rcc 1 + 𝜂c fA (40)
D frc c c
[( ) ( ) ]
Mpl,R = 𝜒rcc Wps − Wpsn fy + 0.5 Wpc − Wpcn fc (41)
( )
t fy
Npm,R = 𝜔rcc 1 + 𝜂c fA (42)
D fc c c
ND = Npm,R ∕2
Mmax,R = Wps fy + 0.5Wpc fc
𝜆rcc = 1 − 0.55𝜌vr (45)
𝜒rcc = 1 − 0.05𝜌vr (46)
𝜔rcc = 1 − 0.38𝜌vr (47)
Comparative N-M interaction curves obtained from FE simulations,
Eurocode 4 (𝜆rcc = 𝜒rcc = 𝜔rcc = 1.0), and modified Eurocode 4 pre-
dictions (Eqs. (40)–(47) with 𝜌vr -dependent 𝜆rcc, 𝜒rcc and 𝜔rcc factors),
are illustrated in Fig. 20. The mean values of FE results relative to
estimates of Eq. (40), (41), (42) and (44) are 1.00, 1.01, 1.05, and 1.01,
respectively. The modified EC4 expressions are generally more accurate
and less scattered compared with current guidelines. A good agreement
is also shown in Fig. 21 which depicts the predicted N-M interaction
diagrams against FE results for CFR00, CFR30, and CFR60 specimens.
It is shown that the proposed modifications provide more reliable
estimates for all axial-bending interaction points and are suitable to
evaluate the cross-sectional capacity of RuCFST incorporating concrete
with high rubber content.
5. Conclusions
This paper presented an experimental and numerical investigation
into the axial and bending behaviour of circular rubberised concrete-
filled steel tubes (RuCFST) incorporating relatively high rubber con-
tents of up to 60%. The results from compression, bending and com-
bined loading tests, including the stiffness, strength, ductility, and
failure modes were used to validate detailed nonlinear modelling pro-
cedures. Parametric investigations were then carried out and modifica-
tions to existing design expressions were proposed. The main conclu-
sions from the study are outlined below.
1. A high rubber content in the concrete core under compression
results in good confinement performance, suggesting that RuC
(43)
benefits to a greater extent from the confinement offered by the
(44) steel tube compared with conventional concrete. An increase in

16
A. Mujdeci, Y.T. Guo, D.V. Bompa et al.
Fig. 21. Comparison between FEM results and prediction of Eqs. (40)–(47) for specimens: (a) CFR00, (b) CFR30, (c) CFR60.
rubber content also provided an enhancement in ductility which
was attributed to the composite interaction between the RuC and
the steel tube.
2. The inelastic response of RuCFST in bending indicates that the
ductility is only slightly influenced by the rubber content, as the
outer tube had a substantial influence and dominated the overall
structural response. It was shown that there is a proportional
reduction in the plastic moment resistance of the RuCFST with
the increase in rubber content, but to a lesser extent than that
in the case of axial compression.
3. To represent the specific response of RuCFST under combined
loading, detailed finite element models were constructed and
suitable modelling procedures were suggested. The proposed
constitutive material models for rubberised and conventional
confined concrete, as well as the concrete damage approaches
adopted, were able to capture reliably the capacity, ductility,
and failure modes of all configurations covering a wide range
of material, geometry, and eccentricity conditions.
4. The results from an extensive numerical parametric study com-
bined with those from the tests were used to assess the adequacy
of current design provisions for steel–concrete composite sec-
tions under combined loading. It was shown that RuC generally
lies outside of the concrete strength ranges adopted in codes,
leading to unreliable predictions of the cross-section capacities,
depending on the action and specific assumptions included in
the methods.
5. The modifications proposed herein, which incorporate rubber-
content dependent factors, provide improved predictions across
all axial-bending interaction ranges, yet within the limits of
the materials and geometries covered in the test and numerical
dataset. The proposed expressions are suitable for implementa-
tion in practical design guidance.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
A. Mujdeci: Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Soft-
ware, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft. Y.T. Guo:
Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualization,
Supervision, Writing – original draft. D.V. Bompa: Conceptualiza-
tion, Methodology, Investigation, Supervision, Writing – review & edit-
ing. A.Y. Elghazouli: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project
administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
17
Thin-Walled Structures 181 (2022) 110125
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The first author wishes to acknowledge the scholarship funding
provided by the Turkish Ministry of National Education. The second
author wishes to acknowledge the postdoc funding provided by Zijing
Scholar Program of Tsinghua University, China. The authors would
additionally like to thank the technical staff of the Structures Labo-
ratories at Imperial College London, particularly Mr T Stickland, for
their assistance with the tests. The support of Adria Abruzzo, Breedon
Group, Elkem and Sika through material provision is also gratefully
acknowledged.
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