Etalemahu 123

My Uploaded Documents
Use this dialog to view, copy, move, or delete

uploaded documents that you own and to upload
new documents to your site.
You can upload one or more documents at a

time and simultaneously apply metadata to
upload batches. This dialog reports the number
of uploads in progress and links to your pending
uploads.
You can only upload registered document types,
controlled through the Site Administration
Content Creation – Uploaded Content Format
options. See the CommonSpot Administrator's
Reference for details.
To view uploaded documents for which you are

the owner, you can set filtering and ordering
criteria, including which subsite levels to
include and date restrictions. You can filter
using these options.
Search Criteria - Select from the dropdown,

then specify an alphanumeric value to refine
your search on item title. Leave blank to include
all titles.
Subsite - Select from the dropdown, or click the

subsite search icon . Optionally check Include
Child Subsites to search from the selected
subsite and all the subsites it contains. Leave
this unchecked to search the selected subsite
only.
Date Restrictions - Select from the dropdown:
 None (initial default) - Use no date filters.

 Last modification date - The last time
content was changed
 Last major modification date - The last

time content was changed with the setting
Treat change as significant, an organization-
configurable option that has no effect on
CommonSpot versioning.
 Creation date - Search by the date content

was first created.
 Publication date - Search by the date

content was published.
 Expiration date - Search by the date

content expired.
Once you set a date restriction, you can further
refine your search with options in the second
date field. Picking a date restriction based on
past events displays past time periods only.
Picking a date restriction for future events
displays future times only. Optionally refine
date restrictions:
Use Select Date Options to set the date that

displays in the Date column. (Use the Date
Restrictions search criteria to constrain results
by specific dates.) Pick from the dropdown. A
green checkmark indicates the current filter.
Optionally choose from the following:
 Creation Date – Filters results based on the

date created.
 Publication Date - Filters results based on

release for publication.
 Expiration Date - Filters results based on

the date content expires.
 Last Modification Date – Filters results

based on the date of last change.
 Last Major Modification Date - Filters

results based on the date of last major
change. This is an organization-defined
option set by treat change as significant
during updates, which has no effect on
CommonSpot versioning.
Click column heads to sort by date or

alphabetically by title.
The Date column uses values defined by Select

Date Options.
The second column displays standard file type

icons, for example, Word, PDF, Quicktime and
RealPlayer formats, as shown above.
Click a link in the Title column to display the

document for quick review.
View group or individual ownership status in

the State column. Mouseover to view owner.
Clicking the Metadata & Security icon, as
shown below, displays the following options.
Select a page information option.
 Standard Properties, Custom Properties:

See Contributors Reference and
Contributors Reference. View or modify
properties. Properties.
 Uploaded Document Details: Displays

specifics for the selected uploaded file. See
Uploaded Document Details for information
presented for these file types. The Details
option does not display for registered URLs.
 Security: Displays type-specific security

settings for the selected item. Options
displayed to authors derive from
administrative settings. See Page Security,
Template Security, Image Security, and
Uploaded Document Security, and Content
Security (see the Administrator's Reference).
 My Tags: Displays any personal tags

associated with the page, template, or
uploaded file. See My Tags.
 Version History: Displays revision history

for this file, with rollback options
 Upload New Version: Displays a form for
replacing the current version.
Clicking the More Actions icon for a selected

item displays the following options:
 Subscribe to Changes – Choose to view

updates to the current page via email
subscription or My Notifications.
 Create Work Request – Allows the current

user to submit a work request for the current
page.
 Change Owner – Define a new user or group

owner for the current page or object.
 Lock/Unlock Page – Allow/exclude page

updates.
 View Usage Statistics – Review contributor
activity.
 View Referring Pages - View a list of pages

linking to the selected page and optionally
change link references.
 Manage Freshness Reminders – Ticklers for

content updates.
 Manage Contacts - Review contributors and

email addresses associated with the selected
page.
 Manage Notes - View any notes associated

with the selected page.
More Actions: Click one or more checkboxes

and select the appropriate option from the More
Actions dropdown to copy, move, delete or
change page owner. Remove individual items
by clicking the associated delete icon , or
select multiple items, click Delete Selected
from the More Actions dropdown, then click
Go. CommonSpot confirms deletion to enable
you to manage any links to this file. You can
optionally Select/Deselect all.
Click Upload New Document to add new

documents to your site.
Related Links
Uploaded Document Details
Uploaded Document Security

Uploaded Document Version History
Lock Unlock Uploaded Document
Delete Uploaded Document Confirmation
Uploaded Document Security
Use this dialog to view, add or remove rights to

a selected uploaded document.
Access this dialog from My Content - My

Uploaded Documents. Click the Metadata &
Security icon for a selected document, as shown
below, and select Security.
Toggle to sort by Type, Name, or Permission.

Click the edit icon to change permissions.
 Normal Text – Indicates modifiable

permissions for this document.
 Red – Indicates enforced permissions for

this image. You cannot override this
permission or remove user access to this
document.
Related Links
Uploaded Document Security Add User
Uploaded Document Security Add Group
Edit Uploaded Document Permissions
You can download PDF versions of the Content

Contributor's, Administrator's, and Elements
Reference documents from the support section
of paperthin.com (requires login).
The following guides are available from the

support site and are in the /docs/directory of
your CommonSpot Server:
You can also download these other guides

from the support section of paperthin.com
(with login):
For technical support:
http://www.paperthin.com/support/
Open topic with navigation


You can also download these other guides from
the support section of paperthin.com (with
login):
ploaded Document Security - Add User
Use this dialog to define which individuals at

your site can view specific popup menu
items. Access this dialog by clicking Add User
from the Uploaded Document Security dialog.
User records created through the Administrator -
User Administration function display in the Add
User or Select User dialog. Use this dialog to
add existing users to groups and organizations at
the server, site, subsite, or customer
administration levels, or to select users for
explicit permission assignments in dialogs that
include the Add/Select User(s) option.
This dialog is a standard part of CommonSpot
security operations such as Left Pane Security -
Add Users, Image Security – Add User, Subsite
General Security - Add Users, Custom Element
Security - Add Users, Page Security – Add
Users, etc.
Use the links at the top to view Users by Name

or Users by Group.
Click column heads to sort names alphabetically

or by email, or refine your search by selecting
from the dropdowns and optionally entering a
value in the text field and clicking Filter, or
combine dropdown and text field options with
alphanumeric selections and click Filter as
shown above for names beginning with E.
These filters are useful for limiting results if
your installation has many users. Click the
Clear button to empty the text entry field.
Your selection is highlighted and appears in the

Selected field at the bottom of the dialog as
shown above for Editors Web Communications.
Clicking Next displays the Edit Uploaded

Document Permissions dialog.
Related Links


(with login):

Uploaded Document Security - Add Group
Use this dialog to define which groups at your

site can view your popup menu items. Click
Add Group from the Pop-up Menu Security
dialog.
Group records created through the

Administrator - User Administration function
display in the Add Group dialog. Use this
dialog to add existing users to groups and
organizations at the server, site, subsite, or
customer administration levels, or to select
groups for explicit permission assignments in
dialogs that include the Add Group(s) option.
This dialog displays with a function-specific

title for all CommonSpot operations that include
the Add Group(s) option (for example, Group
Administrator(s) - Add Groups, Element
Security - Add Groups, Server General Security
- Add Groups, Field Security - Add Groups,
Shortcut Security - Add Groups, etc.).
Click column heads to sort names alphabetically
or by description, or refine your search by
selecting from the dropdowns and optionally
entering a value in the text field and clicking
Filter, or combine dropdown and text field
options with alphanumeric selections and click
Filter as shown above for names beginning with
E. These filters are useful for limiting results for
installations with many users. Click the Clear
button to empty the text entry field.
Your selection is highlighted and appears in the

Selected field at the bottom of the dialog, as
shown above for Alumni Relations Editors.
Clicking Next displays the Edit Uploaded

Document Permissions dialog.

Related Links



(with login):
it Uploaded Document Permissions
Use this dialog to view or change individual or

group permissions for a selected uploaded
document.
Access this dialog from My Content by

selecting My Uploaded Documents. Click the
Metadata & Security icon and select Security,
then select a user or group and click the edit
icon .
This dialog displays the following options.
User/Group: Displays the name of the user or

group whose permissions you’re viewing or
changing. CommonSpot displays email
addresses for individual users.
Permissions: Displays the following standard

CommonSpot options for controlling access to
the current uploaded document:
Read: Grants permission to view, but not

modify, the document.
History: Grants permission to review version
and comment history.
Author: Grants permission to update and revise

the page.
Edit: Grants permission to view and modify all

document changes, to delete, copy, and move
the document, to modify standard and custom
properties, and to view or change security
settings.
Admin: Grants permission to delete, copy, and

move the page, modify standard and custom
properties, and view or change security settings.
Select the appropriate options and click Save to
set or change permissions, or Cancel to exit
without saving.
Related Links


(with login):
All the support you need for CommonSpot.
 Home
 Support
 Info
 My Account
 Incidents
 Articles
 Downloads
 Docs
 Webinars
Hello. We're here to help.
If you have an issue, please look to see if a

solution already exists. Use the menu bar above
or the quick links below. If you can't find what
you need, call us at 617-471-4440 Option 3.
Integrated Support
Integrated Support allows you to submit support

incidents directly from your system. It is
accessible from within the CommonSpot
Administrator on all servers on which
CommonSpot is installed.
Technical Specifications
CommonSpot installation and upgrade

requirements for Basic Hardware, Operating
System, Database, Java, ColdFusion or Railo
Engine and Web Browser for authoring are
listed here for each build.
Hot Fixes
PaperThin releases patches (HotFixes) for each

release. Listed here are currently supported and
non-supported patch lists for builds. Check here
first before submitting a Support Incident. Be
sure to sign up for patch emails.
Knowledge Base Search
Search the many KB Articles that include

patches and others that cover How To questions
or suggest how to configure your environment
so CommonSpot runs smoothly. Also search our
product documentation.
Annual Subscription
An annual subscription package entitles licensed

customers to receive on-going support and to
have access to all new releases and upgrades
during the annual period.
Support Points
PaperThin employs a point system to enable you

to determine the priority of your Support
Incident in the PaperThin Support Queue.
Product Documentation
In addition to the Guides included in the

downloadable Help Module (Admin,
Contributors, Elements and API) PaperThin
publishes other training and configuration
documentation.
API Documentation
The API documentation provides an overview

of the CommonSpot Command API, as well as
reference documentation for each component,
method, and datatype in the API.
Designated Support Representatives
The main contacts from your organization that

will interact with PaperThin Support.
Widget Gallery
CommonSpot Widgets are the latest free

download offering from PaperThin to help
expedite the site build process as well as
empower you with the ability to add modern
components to your site’s design.
Application Development Framework

(ADF)
The Application Development Framework is a

free, open source project for extending
CommonSpot with custom applications that are
tightly bound to core CommonSpot code.
Product Webinars
Watch Podcasts, Customer Webinars, Solution

and Feature Videos, and Public Webinars with
customers and partners. This is a great way to
understand the power of CommonSpot.
Escalated Support
PaperThin Support Services offer organizations

that require escalated support with direct access
to Senior Engineers for troubleshooting and
remediation.
Retainer Support
When deadlines approach and you need direct

access to the PaperThin Support Team, ask your
account representative about Retainer Support.
CommonSpot Training
PaperThin offers a series of training courses,

conducted online and in-person, that will
educate you in all aspects of CommonSpot.
Support Holiday Schedule
PaperThin Support is closed on New York

Stock Exchange Holidays and traditionally the
day after Thanksgiving. Support may also be
closed the day after Christmas.
Community Site
The Commons is a resource for the

CommonSpot community to ask or answer a
question, give or receive feedback, download
custom apps and read articles on everything
from content strategy to technical architecture.
PaperThin, Inc. is a privately held, US-based
company since 1993. Our flagship product
CommonSpot™ helps organizations create
world-class Web experiences. PaperThin's
customers span multiple industries, including:
government, healthcare, higher education, and
association/non-profit sectors.
Contact Us
617.471.4440
info@paperthin.com
Learn More
 Get a Demo
 Try Now
 All Features
 Cloud vs. On-Premises

 Spotlight Customers
 Testimonials
 Videos/Webinars
CommonSpot is for:
 Marketers
 Designers & Developers
 Administrators
 Content Owners
Customer Links
 Contact Support
 Community Site
 Professional Services
 Training
 Webinars
 Give Feedback
General
 Contact Us
 About PaperThin
 Site Map
 Career Opportunities
 Privacy Policy
 Terms of Use
What is the Integrated Support Module?
The CommonSpot Integrated Support Module is

the primary means for submitting support
incidents to PaperThin. The module is
accessible from within Site Administration (left
side, all the way at the bottom) on your
CommonSpot server(s). Submitting incidents
directly from your servers provides our support
team with important information that expedites
troubleshooting of your issues.

How do I submit a support incident or
bug?
Any registered user from your company may

submit a support incident. Incidents are
submitted using the Integrated Support module,
or directly on the PaperThin website. We grant
the ability to submit the ticket on the PaperThin
site only if you have environment issues that
prevent support ticket submission from your
servers or your server is classified. Talk to a
Support Engineer if that is your situation. A
third option if your server does not have internet
access is to create the Incident Packet on your
server and upload it on the PaperThin site.
Incidents can be tracked online on our Incident
Tracking page.

How do I submit an enhancement

request?
Any Registered CommonSpot User can submit

an enhancement request. Complete the form on
the Incident Tracking page. You can also
submit your enhancement request via the
Integrated Support module on your server.

How do I track and respond to an incident

I've submitted?
Once you have submitted a support incident,

you will receive an incident tracking number.
PaperThin provides online access to allow DSRs
to see the current status of every Incident
submitted by their company, as well as all past
ticket correspondences with the PaperThin
Support Team. You can track and respond to
incidents submitted on the Incident Tracking
page.
How can a partner see their customer's

incidents?
Incidents may now be associated with one

company and a DSR from a different company
(partner). Each customer may designate one or
more partners. Each partner DSR will then be
able to view and reply to all customer incidents.
So that the partner may submit tickets from the
customer's CommonSpot installation, the
customer must request a CommonSpot account
for the partner DSR with the partner DSR's
email address. The partner can then submit the
incident from the customer's installation of
CommonSpot.

How are Incidents prioritized?
PaperThin responds to Support Incidents based

on the priority defined by the submitter at the
time of Incident submission. Note that any
Support Incident submitted via telephone will be
considered Immediate priority, and will be
charged 3 points.
This table outlines the various Priority levels,
the associated use of Support Points, and the
expected initial response time for each Priority
level.
Priority Support Expected

Point Response
Costs Time
Immediate*
(apply 2 points at 2 Business
Incident Submission 3 Points Hours
and call to escalate to 3

points)
High 2 Points 1 Business
Day
2 Business
Normal 1 Point Days
How can I escalate an incident?
Submit the Incident Ticket with 2 points and

call Support to escalate the ticket to 3 points.
Expected Response Times
Expected Response Times for Support Incidents

are expected times only, and are not guaranteed.
PaperThin will attempt to handle a Support
Incident on a first come basis within a Priority
level. Immediate priority items will take
precedence over High priority items, and High
priority items will take precedence over Normal
priority items. For any Support Incident
submitted, PaperThin will provide follow-up
support at no additional cost until the Incident is
resolved.

Are points charged if it turns out my

incident is actually a bug?
Typically, PaperThin will not charge Support

Points for an Incident that is later determined to
be a bug. However, if the Incident is submitted
as an Immediate priority Incident, and is
determined by PaperThin to be a non-critical
bug, PaperThin may at its discretion charge one
(1) Support Point. Determination as to what is a
bug rests solely with PaperThin. PaperThin will
attempt to reproduce and acknowledge bug-
report Incidents as appropriate. PaperThin does
not guarantee resolution of bug-report and/or
feature enhancement Incidents.
PaperThin Incident Tracking System
The PaperThin Support Team utilizes our

Incident Tracking System to track, record and
manage Support Incidents. Once an Incident
has been reported to PaperThin, our Support
Team will research the Incident and report back
to the customer with status details. Time to
resolution depends on severity, complexity, risk
and other issues in the Support and Engineering
queues. You can track and respond to incidents
submitted on the Incident Tracking page.
Customers are always free to communicate

concerns about any Support Incident to the
Support Team or their Account Manager.



bug?

Tracking page.


request?



I've submitted?

page.
incidents?

CommonSpot.


charged 3 points.

level.

Point Response
Costs Time
Immediate*

points)
1 Business
High 2 Points Day
2 Business
Normal 1 Point Days



resolved.






bug?

Tracking page.


request?



I've submitted?

page.

incidents?

CommonSpot.


charged 3 points.
level.

Point Response
Costs Time
Immediate*

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High 2 Points 1 Business
Day
2 Business
Normal 1 Point Days


resolved.








bug?

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request?



I've submitted?

page.
incidents?

CommonSpot.


charged 3 points.

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Welcome to CommonSpot
This documentation provides both a technical

and end-user overview of CommonSpot, as well
as detailed descriptions of CommonSpot
functionality.
If you are... See...

Responsible for the
initial setup and The CommonSpot
ongoing maintenance Administrators

and administration of Reference
CommonSpot
Looking for specifics on
The CommonSpot
how to use
Elements Reference
Commonspot Elements
Responsible for
The CommonSpot
creating and changing
Contributor's Reference
CommonSpot pages
The CommonSpot API

Reference
A developer
responsible for See also the
extending or modifying CommonSpot Template

Developer's Guide and
CommonSpot
the CommonSpot
Developer's Guide
For a complete list of technical requirements,
visit:
http://www.paperthin.com/products/Technical-
Specifications.cfm
Related Links


(with login):
Welcome to the CommonSpot

Administrator
The audience for the CommonSpot

Administrators Reference comprises:
 Individuals responsible for the initial setup

and ongoing maintenance of CommonSpot
Content Server
 Administrators of CommonSpot sites
These groups typically include both technical

developers and non-technical site
owners/managers. The Administrator Reference
is an essential reference for getting started and
for ongoing management and maintenance of
the underlying characteristics and structure of
your CommonSpot installation.
Use this for both a technical overview of the

CommonSpot Content Server, as well as
detailed descriptions of functionality contained
within the administrative components of
CommonSpot.
see:
Specifications.cfm
Related Links
Administrator Overview
Architectural Overview
Creating, Managing, and Deleting Sites and

Subsites
Administrator Basics
Developing Accessible Content in CommonSpot

Creating and Managing CommonSpot
Scheduled Jobs
Stale Cache Handling
Text Handling in CommonSpot
Server and Customer Administration
Site Administration
Subsite Administration
SEO Administration
User Administration
Group Administration
Custom Elements
Exporting and Importing Objects

CommonSpot Log Files



(with login):


Administrator


Content Server


CommonSpot.

see:
Specifications.cfm
Related Links

Subsites

Scheduled Jobs
Site Administration
SEO Administration
User Administration
Custom Elements


(with login):

Administrator

Content Server


CommonSpot.

see:
Specifications.cfm
Related Links

Subsites

Scheduled Jobs
Site Administration
SEO Administration
User Administration
Custom Elements



(with login):

Administrator


Content Server


CommonSpot.

see:
Specifications.cfm

Related Links

Subsites

Scheduled Jobs

Site Administration
SEO Administration
User Administration
Custom Elements


(with login):

Administrator

Content Server


CommonSpot.

see:
Specifications.cfm
Related Links

Subsites

Scheduled Jobs
Site Administration
SEO Administration
User Administration
Custom Elements



(with login):

Administrator


Content Server


CommonSpot.

see:
Specifications.cfm

Related Links

Subsites

Scheduled Jobs

Site Administration
SEO Administration
User Administration
Custom Elements


(with login):
The CommonSpot Administrator module is a

web dashboard that gives you administrative
control over your CommonSpot installation and
web sites.
Through a simple browser-based interface,
authenticated administrators can manage:
 Servers - Configure CommonSpot Content

Server: specify server license, proxy and
ColdFusion administrator settings; define
data sources; create, change, activate and
remove sites; specify authentication
methods and cookie settings; set up the
CommonSpot directories; set schedules for
replication and other jobs; and configure
email notification.
 Customers - Create and manage multiple

customers in a hosting environment, and
manage contributors.
 Sites and Subsites - Create and configure

options for individual Web sites supported
by the CommonSpot, including site
directories; security; content creation,
formatting, and classification settings;
permissions and approval levels; search and
saved search collections; and the
CommonSpot Rich Text Editor.
 SEO Administration - Create and configure
Keyword performance reports, competitive
analysis tools and reports, on-page grading
rules and analysis, reports to help you
identify pages ranking high for specific
keywords so you can target them for
improving search engine performance, and
context-sensitive field Help to enable
authors and editors to optimize pages for
search engine discovery and ranking
 Users - Set up and maintain user profiles

and permissions.
 Groups - Create and manage groups and

group membership.
CommonSpot Administration also offers
integrated access to the CommonSpot Integrated
Customer Support system and support
resources.
Access to the CommonSpot Administration

module is limited to designated administrators.
See Security and Server General Security for
more about CommonSpot security.
Related Links


(with login):
CommonSpot provides a robust browser-based

packaged Web application enabling:
 Rich anywhere publishing
 Distributed content management
 Powerful knowledge-sharing and discovery

tools for intranets, extranets, and Internets
CommonSpot provides a comprehensive set of

features for intelligently distributing Web site
creation, management, and publishing
responsibilities, without sacrificing site security,
quality or integrity. Anyone with the appropriate
domain knowledge can become a Web
publisher, without learning HTML or
specialized scripting or programming languages,
or mastering proprietary software. The result is
a dramatic increase in organizational efficiency
and content quality.
CommonSpot is a 100% browser-based Web

application built on top of Java and the
Adobe/Lucee ColdFusion application server.
Available On Premises or as a SaaS Cloud-
based solution, CommonSpot has flexible
deployment options that enable you to run in the
environment that best meets your needs. You
can deploy CommonSpot using a single server
or run in a multi-server environment to handle
higher traffic with redundancy.All application
components, except the browser, reside and
operate on the server, allowing for cost-
effective, wide-scale deployment. As a Java and
ColdFusion-based application, CommonSpot is
composed of a large number of CFM script
modules, along with several custom ColdFusion
tags and appropriate Java files.
The diagram below, and associated component

discussion, provides a high-level technical
overview of a minimal CommonSpot
deployment. As is typical of dynamic Web
applications, the primary components include an
HTTP server, an Application Server
(ColdFusion) including server-side scripts
(CommonSpot), and a database repository.
Database repository or email server components
may reside on the same machine as the HTTP
server or may be located on different servers.
As depicted in the Architectural Overview

above, when users navigate within a site, the
HTTP Server handles all HTTP requests,
passing those requests for pages created and
managed by CommonSpot to the CommonSpot
Content Server, a collection of ColdFusion
CFM modules and CFX tags.
The invoked CFM modules are interpreted by

the ColdFusion Application Server scripting
engine, which provides an interface to:
 The CommonSpot content & meta-

Information database repositories
 The server file system
 Any SMTP/POP mail servers.
For more detailed information, see the sections

covering the various components.
Related Links
Database Managed Content
Dynamic Browser-Based Authoring
Sites and Subsites
CommonSpot Pages
CommonSpot Templates
Elements
Custom Elements and Objects
Resources and Libraries
User Authentication and Security Permissions
Extensive Metadata & Taxonomy Support
Internal Keyword Management
Search Engine Optimization

Responsive Design
Multi-level Approval and Workflow
Cascading Style Sheets
Rich Text Editing
ColdFusion Integration
Workspace Customization: My CommonSpot,

My Content, Left-Panel Controls & Saved
Searches
Advanced Site Search
Advanced Searching, Saved Searches
Email Notification
Multi-Language Support
Cross-Platform Authoring
Advanced Cache Management
Enterprise Scalability



(with login):










Related Links
Sites and Subsites
CommonSpot Pages
Elements

Responsive Design
Rich Text Editing

Searches

Email Notification


(with login):






Related Links

Sites and Subsites
CommonSpot Pages
Elements
Responsive Design

Rich Text Editing

Searches
Email Notification




(with login):











Related Links
Sites and Subsites
CommonSpot Pages
Elements

Responsive Design
Rich Text Editing

Searches
Email Notification


(with login):






Related Links

Sites and Subsites
CommonSpot Pages
Elements
Responsive Design

Rich Text Editing

Searches
Email Notification




(with login):











Related Links
Sites and Subsites
CommonSpot Pages
Elements

Responsive Design
Rich Text Editing

Searches
Email Notification


(with login):






Related Links

Sites and Subsites
CommonSpot Pages
Elements
Responsive Design

Rich Text Editing

Searches
Email Notification




(with login):











Related Links
Sites and Subsites
CommonSpot Pages
Elements

Responsive Design
Rich Text Editing

Searches
Email Notification


(with login):
Unlike web authoring systems that create and

maintain static HTML pages, CommonSpot
manages content in a granular and object-
oriented manner. CommonSpot stores and
manages all content, except for images and
other native document files, within the
CommonSpot content repository, a series of
relational databases.
This object-oriented framework provides

important advantages:
 Content stored independently from

formatting enables faster, more flexible
control over “look and feel” and information
updates.
 Your organization can apply very fine levels

of control over content approval, versioning,
scheduling, personalization, and security.
 Flexible and secure role assignments enable

multiple individuals to contribute to content
creation and management in a shared
environment with greater efficiency and
without risk of overwriting or data loss.
 Popular database support maximizes access

to existing content repositories:
CommonSpot provides support for Oracle,
MySQL, and SQL Server.
The number of databases needed for your

configuration depends on the number of top-
level sites. One database exists for:
 Each top-level site
 Each CommonSpot server
 Managing users and groups; certain site

configurations may require more than one
Users database
In general, there are three different database
schemas:
 Sites - Manages information for all the sites

running on a server, such as the Web
document directory, data-source names, etc.
 Users - Manages data for individual

CommonSpot users, their profiles and
passwords, as well as group membership
information. A Users database may be
associated with one or more sites.
 Site-specific content - Houses all site and

subsite content. There is one site-specific
database for each site.

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updates.




Users database

schemas:


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updates.



Users database

schemas:


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updates.



Users database

schemas:


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updates.



Users database

schemas:


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The CommonSpot content authoring model

uniquely enables content providers and
approvers to work directly within the context of
the page. Instead of authoring content as static
HTML pages, reviewing offline, then uploading,
revising, and re-uploading pages, CommonSpot
contributors and approvers interact directly with
the page, creating a dynamic content generation
environment in which authors, editors,
designers, and approvers simply navigate to the
desired page to make appropriate changes or
approvals directly.
How does this work? In response to an HTTP

request from the Web Server, CommonSpot
dynamically constructs the resulting page based
on:
 An individual user’s current role (reader,
author, editor, designer, approver)
 User access privileges
 Content scheduling or personalization
CommonSpot Elements help guide users

through authoring and publishing tasks.
Throughout the publishing process,
CommonSpot indicators display role and status
information as content moves through creation,
review, approval, and final publication.
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approvals directly.

on:



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approvals directly.

on:



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Sites and Subsites
The CommonSpot Administrator module

enables site designers or administrators to create
and manage a site hierarchy to match
organizational needs. CommonSpot supports
the creation of top-level sites and unlimited
subsites. Each site or subsite can be managed
separately, have its own security settings, search
collections, and templates.
It is important to consider whether to have

multiple top-level sites or a single site with
multiple subsites when creating your public
Web site, intranet, or extranet: Think of top-
level sites as root directories, while subsites are
subdirectories under either the root directory or
other subdirectories.
Below is brief summary of site/subsite features.

See Creating, Managing, and Deleting Sites and
Subsites for specifics on how to create and
manage sites and subsites and a more thorough
discussion of the comparative benefits of
site/subsite design.
Sites Subsites
Top-level sites are Subsites share resources
separate entities and with other subsites.
do not share
resources (such as
templates, images,
etc.) with other top-
level sites.
You can specify the CommonSpot
location of a top- automatically creates the
level site’s Web subsite directory under the
document directory. parent directory.
CommonSpot Subsites share database
manages content resources with the parent
contained within site. New subsites inherit
each top-level site security settings from the
and its child parent by default.
subsites in a However, because this
separate database. default setting is
modifiable at the subsite
Creating a new top-
level, you cannot assume
level site generates
that changes to root or
a new database to
parent sites will
house content automatically propagate to
configured within child subsites; you will
the site and all of its need to manage site and

subsites. content security
permissions at each level.
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Sites and Subsites



Sites Subsites
Top-level sites are
separate entities and
do not share
Subsites share resources
resources (such as
with other subsites.
templates, images,
level sites.
security settings from the
each top-level site parent by default.
and its child However, because this
subsites in a default setting is
separate database. modifiable at the subsite
Creating a new top- level, you cannot assume

level site generates that changes to root or
a new database to parent sites will

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Sites and Subsites


Sites Subsites
Top-level sites are
do not share
resources (such as
templates, images,
level sites.
Creating a new top-
level, you cannot assume
level site generates
that changes to root or
a new database to
parent sites will
house content
automatically propagate to
configured within
child subsites; you will

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Sites and Subsites



Sites Subsites
Top-level sites are Subsites share resources
separate entities and with other subsites.
do not share
resources (such as
templates, images,
level sites.


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Sites and Subsites



Sites Subsites
Top-level sites are
do not share
resources (such as
templates, images,
level sites.
resources with the parent
manages content site. New subsites inherit
contained within security settings from the
each top-level site parent by default.
and its child However, because this
subsites in a default setting is
separate database. modifiable at the subsite



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CommonSpot Pages
Although CommonSpot stores all content within

a database for dynamic page generation, every
page displays with an easily addressable URL
for simplified linking, reference, and
bookmarking. CommonSpot avoids long query
parameters for page identification through
appropriately named stub files, a small
ColdFusion module that CommonSpot creates
for each page in the designated subsite. Stub
files:
 Make it easy to address each unique page
 Contain ColdFusion variable definitions to

minimize database access

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CommonSpot Pages
Although CommonSpot stores all content within
a database for dynamic page generation, every
page displays with an easily addressable URL
for simplified linking, reference, and
bookmarking. CommonSpot avoids long query
parameters for page identification through
appropriately named stub files, a small
ColdFusion module that CommonSpot creates
for each page in the designated subsite. Stub
files:
 Make it easy to address each unique page
 Contain ColdFusion variable definitions to

minimize database access

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Elements
An Element is a predefined object containing
logic that controls how content displays on page
output. CommonSpot’s Element architecture
enables very sophisticated application
integration, content rendering, and content
personalization within an easy-to-use interface
designed for non-technical users.
Content contributors build Web pages by

selecting the appropriate Element and inserting
it on a page or in a template.
Mouseover to view larger

Each Element provides a set of click here
wizards or dialogs to assist with setting
associated content options, for example, to
specify text format properties (colors and fonts)
or to change layout attributes (right, center, or
left-aligned).
For this Element, Click here displays the

Formatted Text Block wizard below, with
options for adding formatted text.
The more dropdown displays Element
positioning and other options.
Out-of-the-box, CommonSpot provides over 50

standard Elements for commonly used content
types - from rich formatted text, to images,
hypertext links, menu bars, schedule and
personalization containers, layout tables, custom
scripts, multimedia, and more. CommonSpot
Elements also support a wide variety of popular
application formats - Word, PowerPoint, PDF,
etc.
Non-technical users can rename, modify, or
save a single Element instance or set of common
layout/content sections and their properties as
new Elements.
CommonSpot also provides a programmatic

interface for adding custom scripts that draw
from external data or provide a more specialized
interface.
For more information on the specifics of each

Element, refer to the CommonSpot Elements
Reference. For details on managing Elements at
your site, see Elements & Forms.
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Resources/Libraries
To help you streamline and better manage the

JavaScript and CSS libraries you rely on to
generate your pages, CommonSpot includes
features to help you easily identify external
resources required by custom code (such as base
templates, custom scripts, render handlers, and
custom field types) and manage how they are
loaded.
These features make it easier to centrally view

and update available resources, optimize
resource load order, handle and prevent
duplicate loads, and simplify the addition of
new library versions as they become available,
with the following benefits:
 Libraries load in a consistent and

controllable order and location within pages
or dialogs
 Cache-awareness
 You can choose to combine multiple

resources into a single request
 Easily minify JavaScript and CSS resources

(minifying removes extraneous spaces and
characters for smaller files and faster load
times)
CommonSpot supports .js and .css libraries out
of the box. You can optionally create new
resource types as needed.
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User Authentication and Security

Permissions
CommonSpot provides a robust security

framework that you can tailor to meet the needs
of your organization.
This framework permits either a distributed or
centrally controlled security model and gives
you great flexibility in creating and managing
content.
CommonSpot security comprises two

components:
 Authentication - Verifying user credentials.
 Permissions – Assigning security rules to

individuals and groups for controlling access
to the system.
CommonSpot offers flexible authentication
options and supports:
 CommonSpot-managed user passwords
 Cookie-based authentication (for non-

contributor functionality)
 Custom authentication, to integrate with any

third-party authentication mechanism, such
as LDAP, Active Directory, Kerberos, etc.
 A combination of any of the above.
In general, CommonSpot support two kinds of

permissions:
General Security Permissions - General

Security permissions are not specific to content
and are assigned to users and groups for
activity and access-level privileges, such as site
administration, page, template and Element
creation, publishing images, creating keywords,
uploading files, and more.
Set General Security permissions for individuals

and groups at the following levels:
 Server
 Customer
 Site
 Subsite
Content Security Permissions - These options

control user/group rights to read, view history,
comment, author, edit, design, approve, or
administer content. Set content security
permissions at these levels:
 Subsite
 Page
 Template
 Element
NOTE: To better support workflow and

element usability, contributors receive Design
and Style rights for new sites by default. When
creating new sites, administrators should review
all site-level default settings to ensure that they
meet site requirements.
For detailed information on CommonSpot
Security, please refer to the Security sections of
this guide. For detailed information on User
and Group Management, refer to User
Administration. For definitions of programming
interfaces and events, including login and
authentication, see the CommonSpot
Developer’s Guide.
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xtensive Metadata & Taxonomy Support
CommonSpot’s extensive metadata (information

about information) layer allows any designated
administrator to selectively bind specific
metadata to templates, subsites, page categories,
pages, documents, document types and/or
render handlers. This allows for the controlled
collection of information that can later be used
for easy content retrieval, classification, and
reuse.
Without additional programming or

development expertise, you can specify and use
both standard (for example, title, description,
creator, etc.) and custom metadata (categories
that you define) to intelligently build rich
information classes. The ability to define your
own business rules for classifying data provides
many benefits, including:
 Easier content retrieval and reuse
 Dynamic content filtering (What’s New,

news archives, related content, etc.)
 Alternate rendering (WAP, XML, Print,

etc.)
 Future interfaces
For example, your site can personalize or target

content, dynamically render layouts, and
improve user access to site information.
For more on CommonSpot's extensive metadata
support, see Metadata Forms Overview and
Custom Elements.
Organizations faced with the problem of making

vast and growing collections of data relevant to
site visitors are increasingly turning to
taxonomy-based data classification and facet-
based navigation to produce a better search and
discovery experience.
Taxonomies create order out of large collections

of data by classifying items in a way that shows
the relationship between them. The strength of
the approach derives from its ability to define a
term's relationship to other terms, even for
single terms associated with multiple meanings,
enabling a much more detailed expression of
relationships than strictly hierarchical models
permit. In addition to the ability to define
related and equivalent terms, this approach to
classification also makes it possible to
implement an Amazon-like “recommendation
engine” to find items defined in similar topic
areas within the same taxonomy.
Because taxonomy systems classify data using

terms already defined, data associated with one
or more terms inherits existing properties and
relationships, reducing the work involved in
classifying new information. This effect is
bidirectional: as the taxonomy improves and
updates occur, new associations become
effective for existing data without requiring
manual reclassification of data.
CommonSpot’s complete, out-of-the-box,

taxonomy management offers a taxonomy term
editor, a taxonomy API, and a facet-based
navigation Element for defining "broader than"
and "narrower than" relationships between
terms. Organizations can rapidly assign content
to terms using the taxonomy classification
custom metadata field. Developers using the
taxonomy API to programmatically access
terms and relationships within a taxonomy can
build unlimited custom interfaces to related
content.
CommonSpot adheres to the ANSI Z.39

standard, enabling the definition of taxonomies
that meet critical business requirements.
For more information, see Taxonomy .
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nternal Keyword Management
CommonSpot provides practical administrative

control over keyword creation and management
at the individual subsite level, which helps you
better classify your content and for categorizing
and internal searching.
Contributors with Manage Keywords
permission can create, delete, enforce and view
keywords and usage frequency, as well as
specify how keywords and groups of keywords
are implemented. This distributed control helps
to eliminate keyword redundancy and increase
the search relevancy of your content through a
consistent, controlled vocabulary for your site.

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Responsive Design
CommonSpot's responsive design features were

developed to support the most popular HTML,
CSS, and JavaScript frameworks for mobile-
first development, allowing site designers to
implement a fluid responsive grid system that
responds to each visitor’s viewing device.
Site administrators and site designers can set up

and configure responsive design settings and
create responsive layouts from the Responsive
Design section in Site Administration.
Contributors can select from predefined

responsive layouts and drag and drop elements
into responsive grid layouts to create pages for
multi-device delivery.
Contributors can show/hide grid outlines within
the page to easily see the rows and columns of
all Container grids on the page. Grid sections
are outlined in a blue dashed line when
highlighting is enabled. Authors, editors and
designers can also right-click to move elements
within pages or templates.
CommonSpot's native support for Bootstrap grid

row breakpoints simplifies breakpoint
management. Contributors can preview how
pages display for various device types.
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For technical support: Multi-level Approval

and Workflow
With CommonSpot’s multi-level approval
workflow, site administrators can easily
implement organizational approval processes,
for example, routing content submitted for
publication to the copy editor for initial review,
then, if accepted, to the design group, then to
legal for final approval. There are no practical
limits to the number of levels you can assign to
a workflow process.
CommonSpot also allows approval bypass, so

that a department head can bypass the copy
editor, but not legal, for example. Approval
permissions can be set at the subsite, page,
template, and element levels.
For more information on configuring

CommonSpot’s approval workflow, see
Approval & Workflow
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With CommonSpot’s multi-level approval

workflow, site administrators can easily
implement organizational approval processes,
for example, routing content submitted for
publication to the copy editor for initial review,
then, if accepted, to the design group, then to
legal for final approval. There are no practical
limits to the number of levels you can assign to
a workflow process.
CommonSpot also allows approval bypass, so

that a department head can bypass the copy
editor, but not legal, for example. Approval
permissions can be set at the subsite, page,
template, and element levels.
For more information on configuring
CommonSpot’s approval workflow, see
Approval & Workflow
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To help your site maintain and manage

consistent graphical design, CommonSpot
provides full support for Cascading Style Sheets
and current design practices. Semantic Web
developers can create style classes that conform
to design specifications and make these classes
available in CommonSpot. Administrators can
easily manage and contributors can intuitively
choose the appropriate CSS classes for
controlling styling for general or grid row
layouts and layout elements.
Along with other features for optimizing your

site for responsive design, CommonSpot
includes built-in support for responsive styles,
as well as robust support for styling elements
through advanced resource management. See
Resources and Libraries. Administrators can
easily manage and contributors can intuitively
choose the appropriate CSS classes for
controlling styling for general or grid row
layouts and layout elements. You can assign
styles to individual CommonSpot Elements or
their subcomponents and set global style
defaults. Style classes can be made available for
use with multiple Element components and each
component can have multiple classes available
for use with it. Only contributors with with
Style privileges can select a particular class for
CommonSpot elements or element
subcomponents. Template designers can enforce
or limit the use of styles to ensure design
consistency or to allow formatting flexibility.
Designers can build templates in CommonSpot
using CSS positioning to place content blocks
within a page.
For information on using styles to format text

content, refer to the Rich Text Editor section of
this guide and the appropriate sections of the
CommonSpot Content Contributor's Reference.
For more information on the use of styles and
CSS positioning, please see the CommonSpot
Developer’s Guide and the CommonSpot
Template Developers Guide.
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Instructions for Uploading Documents:
Step #1: Scan and save your documents
individually to your local
computer. This is completed outside of
Online Student Health using your
scanner software. If you are uploading
multiple documents, you will need
to scan and save each document as a
separate file on your local computer.
For example, if you are uploading a copy of
your insurance card and your
immunization record, you need to scan and
save each one as a separate
file. Be sure your file names do not include
any special characters and
the file size does not exceed 4mb.
Step #2: Using the ‘Upload Files’ section
below, choose the document you
are uploading in the ‘Choose document’
drop down menu.
Step #3: Select browse, and locate the file
on your local computer.
Step #4: Select attach. The document will
be listed in the grid below as a
confirmation that the document was added
to the queue. If you made a
mistake you may delete the file from this
grid.
Step #5: Repeat Steps #2 though #4 for
each document you are
uploading.
Step #6: Select Upload. All the documents
you have chosen to attach will
appear in the grid below the Upload Files
section as a confirmation theInstructions for
Uploading Documents:
drop down menu.
grid.
uploading.
section as a confirmation the
Instructions for Uploading Documents:

drop down menu.
grid.
uploading.
section as a confirmation they
were successfully uploaded.
Lock Unlock Uploaded Document
Choose Actions – Lock Uploaded Document

to enable/disable other users from editing the
current document.
This option is also available from My

CommonSpot and other reports including
uploaded documents, such as the Report of
Pages, Templates, Uploaded Docs & Registered
URLs. See the description of this option in the
CommonSpot Administrator’s Reference.
CommonSpot allows any contributor with

author rights to an uploaded document to
explicitly lock it to prevent others from making
changes.
Once locked, only the person who locked it or

administrators can edit, move, rename, delete, or
otherwise change the document. For others, the
page is in a read-only state and Take Control is
not an option. Use this feature to maintain
integrity for documents over a long period of
time.
In addition to explicit locking, CommonSpot

automatically prevents multiple authoring
sessions on the same document at the same
time, to prevent editing conflicts and
overwriting. CommonSpot creates a database
entry at the start of each authoring session and
displays Take Ownership or Cancel options
when you try to enter author mode on a
document someone else is uploading or editing..
Error messages vary based on who encounters

the lock.
Attempting to re-enter author mode when you
own the lock displays the Page Worked on in
Another Session message.
If you try to modify a docment currently locked

by another user, you receive the Page Worked
on by Another User error.
The following actions unlock explicitly locked

items:
Time Expires – Locks remain open for the

length of a user’s session, as specified in
the Session Timeout setting in the CommonSpot
Server Configuration dialog.
Move out of Author mode – During the page

publishing process, you choose the Reload in
Read Mode option, or manually enter Read
mode.
Another user with sufficient rights breaks the

lock– A user with Admin rights entered Author
mode on the locked item and breaks your lock.
See also Element Locked.
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Web page
Updated: 12/31/2022 by Computer Hope
A web page or webpage is a document,
commonly written in HTML, that is viewed in
an Internet browser. A web page can be
accessed by entering a URL address into a
browser's address bar. A web page may contain
text, graphics, and hyperlinks to other web
pages and files.
A web page is often used to provide information

to viewers, including pictures or videos to help
illustrate important topics. A web page may also
be used as a method to sell products or services
to viewers. Multiple web pages make up a
website, like our Computer Hope website.
When you click a link provided by a search

engine, you are accessing a web page. The
Internet consists of millions of web pages, with
more being added every day.
 How to open a web page

 When was the first web page created?
 What is the difference between a website
and web page?
 What are the file formats of a web page?
 How to find a web page.
 Examples of a web page
 What are the elements of a web page?
 What can you do on a web page?
 Should I use "webpage" or "web page"
when writing?
 Related information.
 Internet help and support.
How to open a web page
Viewing a web page requires a browser, like

Internet Explorer, Edge, Safari, Firefox, or
Chrome. For example, you are reading this web
page using a browser. Once in a browser, you
can open a web page by entering the URL in the
address bar. For example, typing
"https://www.computerhope.com/esd.htm" (or
copying and pasting) opens the Computer Hope
ESD page. If you don't know the URL of the
site you'd like to visit, you can use a search
engine to find it.
 How to copy a web page link or URL.

 How to copy text and images from a web
page.
 How to copy and paste text to a document
or another program.
When was the first web page created?
The first web page was created at CERN by Tim

Berners-Lee on August 6, 1991. You can visit
and browse the first website and the first web
page at the info.cern.ch address.
 The history of the Internet.

 Who invented the Internet?
What is the difference between a website

and web page?
A website refers to a central location containing

more than one web page. For example,
Computer Hope is considered a website, which
includes thousands of different web pages,
including this web page you are reading now.
In the example URL above, the web page is
"url.htm" and is always the last part of the URL.
For URLs not having an ending
of .htm, .html, .php, .cgi, .pl, or another file
extension, the server loads the default index.htm
web page in that directory. For example, on our
contact page URL
(https://www.computerhope.com/contact/), there
is no web page. In this case, the default index
file loads from the contact/ directory.
What are the file formats of a web page?
The most common file format and file extension

of a web page is .html, as mentioned above.
Most web pages are eventually displayed as an
HTML file. In the case of this static web page,
the file extension is ".htm," which is the same as
a ".html" page.
Pages that are generated by server-side scripts

may have the extension of the programming
language used to create that script. For example,
a common server-side script extension you may
see is .php for a page generated in PHP. Pages
generated using PHP and often have a dynamic
element such as pulling information from a
database to create the resulting HTML page you
are viewing in your browser. Keep in mind that
the file extension is .php, but the file format is
HTML.
Below are other file extensions and file formats
you may encounter when developing a web
page or browsing the Internet.
Type File extensions
HTML .htm, .html, .hta, .htc, .xhtml
Server-side
.shtml, .shtml, .stm, .ssi, .inc
includes
Style sheet .css, .scss, .less, .sass
JavaScript .js
.xml, .dtd, .xsd, .xsl, .xslt, .rss

XML
, .rdf
JSON .json
Text file .txt

Perl .cgi, .pl
.php, .php3, .php4, .php5, .t

PHP
pl, .php-dist, .phtml
Python .py
Active Server page .asp, .asa
Active Server plus .aspx, .ascx, .asmx, .cs, .vb, .

page config, .master
Manifest .appcache
Directory
.htaccess
configuration
Tag Library
.tld
Descriptor
SQL file .sql

Scalable Vector
.svg
Graphic
VTML .vtm, vtml
ColdFusion
.cfm, .cfml, .cfc
Template
Dreamweaver
.dwt
template
How to find a web page
As a user surfing the Internet, if you wanted to

find a web page on the Internet you'd use a
search engine.
For the computer using a browser to find a web

page on the Internet it must know the IP address
of the web server containing the web page. For
example, when you enter a domain name such
as computerhope.com, that domain name must
be translated by DNS (Domain Name System)
into the IP address of the computerhope.com
server. Once that IP address is found, the
browser contacts the server and requests the
web page entered into the URL (Uniform
Resource Locator).
Tip
See our IP address page for further information

about IP addresses and a visual example of this
process.
Examples of a web page
The page you are reading now is an example of

a web page. It comprises several web
technologies, including HTML, CSS, and
JavaScript.
Tip
You can view all of the code by viewing the

source code of the web page. See: How to view
the HTML source code of a web page.
Although the web page body is created using

HTML, that HTML code can be created using
an HTML editor and written by a human or
generated using server-side scripts or other
scripts. A web page created by a human often
ends with a .htm or .html file extension and
known as a static web page. For example, this
page uses "webpage.htm" as its file name.
Dynamic web pages generated by a script can
end in .cgi, .php, .pl, and other extensions
depending on the language generating the page.
What are the elements of a web page?
Every web page is different. However, most

pages contain some or all of the elements on this
web page. Below is an overview of the major
elements of a web page.
1. The website, blog name, logo, or
company name is often in the top-left
corner of each web page. The logo may also
include a slogan or brief statement about
the site to give visitors an instant
understanding of the site. Also, this section
of the web page is usually a link that may
link back to the homepage.
2. The search allows a visitor to search a
website for related information and should
be available on every page.
3. The navigation bar, or menu for a web
page, is often found on the top or left side
of each web page. It should include links to
each of the major sections of the website.
4. Advertisement banners can be shown in
different places on a web page and help pay
for the expenses of running a website and
company. Ad banners are often found at
the top, left, right, or bottom of a page and
may also be included in the content.
5. Social share links allow visitors to share
your site with other co-workers, friends,
and family on social networking sites.
6. The breadcrumbs help the user know
where they are on the website. They also
provide a way for the user to return to, or
explore, other main sections of the website.
7. The heading should be included on the
top of every web page and should be
created using the <h1> HTML tag.
8. The opening paragraph is one of the
most important paragraphs on the web
page and should help draw the visitor into
reading the web page. One way to help
draw the visitors eyes is to include a hero
image near the opening paragraph.
9. Each web page should be broken up
into other headings that allow the visitor to
easily skim and find what is most interesting
on the page. When creating a web page
these can be done using the <h2> to <h6>
HTML tags. Within each of these headings
will be hyperlinks that allow you to browse
to other web pages that might interest you.
10. Having a method of allowing a visitor to
provide feedback is also a requirement for
most web pages. Giving the visitor links or
buttons to click for feedback is a good step
to let you know if a web page is helpful or
not.
11. Additional information and tools such as
a button to print the page can also be
helpful for users on most web pages.
12. The footer should include any other
important company or website information
and be included on all web pages to help
the visitor continue using the site.
13. The Copyright and any legal or privacy
notice should also be on all web pages. Not
only can this link to relevant legal
information it is an indication for most
visitors that they have reached the end of
the web page.
14. Finally, a "back to the top" button or link
at the bottom of the page helps the visitor
return to the menu links or other tools.
Tip
If you are designing a web page and want more

visitors, we also suggest reading our web page
promotion tips for a full listing of tips to use
when creating a web page.
What can you do on a web page?
On most websites, you read the information on

the page, and if there are any interesting
hyperlinks, you follow those links to find more
information or perform a task. You can also
listen to music, watch videos, shop,
communicate, and more on many websites.
Tip
If you are bored or looking for other fun web

pages to visit, see: What things to do when
bored on the Internet.
Should I use "webpage" or "web page"

when writing?
Both versions are technically correct. However,

most style guides suggest web page (two words)
instead of webpage in all forms of writing.
Related information
 How to create a web page.

page.
 HTML help and support
HTTP, Internet, Internet terms, Link,

Malvertisement, Online editing, Page, SEO
terms, Upload/download, Web, Web design,
Web design terms, Web farm, Website
report this ad
 Was this page useful?YesNo


o Feedback
o E-mail
o Share
o
How to open a web page
Viewing a web page requires a browser, like

Internet Explorer, Edge, Safari, Firefox, or
Chrome. For example, you are reading this web
page using a browser. Once in a browser, you
can open a web page by entering the URL in the
address bar. For example, typing
"https://www.computerhope.com/esd.htm" (or
copying and pasting) opens the Computer Hope
ESD page. If you don't know the URL of the
site you'd like to visit, you can use a search
engine to find it.
 How to copy a web page link or URL.
page.
 How to copy and paste text to a document
or another program.
When was the first web page created?
The first web page was created at CERN by Tim

Berners-Lee on August 6, 1991. You can visit
and browse the first website and the first web
page at the info.cern.ch address.
 The history of the Internet.

 Who invented the Internet?
What is the difference between a website
and web page?
A website refers to a central location containing

more than one web page. For example,
Computer Hope is considered a website, which
includes thousands of different web pages,
including this web page you are reading now.
In the example URL above, the web page is

"url.htm" and is always the last part of the URL.
For URLs not having an ending
of .htm, .html, .php, .cgi, .pl, or another file
extension, the server loads the default index.htm
web page in that directory. For example, on our
contact page URL
(https://www.computerhope.com/contact/), there
is no web page. In this case, the default index
file loads from the contact/ directory.
What are the file formats of a web page?
The most common file format and file extension

of a web page is .html, as mentioned above.
Most web pages are eventually displayed as an
HTML file. In the case of this static web page,
the file extension is ".htm," which is the same as
a ".html" page.
Pages that are generated by server-side scripts

may have the extension of the programming
language used to create that script. For example,
a common server-side script extension you may
see is .php for a page generated in PHP. Pages
generated using PHP and often have a dynamic
element such as pulling information from a
database to create the resulting HTML page you
are viewing in your browser. Keep in mind that
the file extension is .php, but the file format is
HTML.
Below are other file extensions and file formats

you may encounter when developing a web
page or browsing the Internet.
Type File extensions
HTML .htm, .html, .hta, .htc, .xhtml

Server-side
.shtml, .shtml, .stm, .ssi, .inc
includes
Style sheet .css, .scss, .less, .sass
JavaScript .js
.xml, .dtd, .xsd, .xsl, .xslt, .rss

XML
, .rdf
JSON .json
Text file .txt
Perl .cgi, .pl
.php, .php3, .php4, .php5, .t

PHP
pl, .php-dist, .phtml
Python .py
Active Server page .asp, .asa

Active Server plus .aspx, .ascx, .asmx, .cs, .vb, .
page config, .master
Manifest .appcache
Directory
.htaccess
configuration
Tag Library
.tld
Descriptor
SQL file .sql
Scalable Vector
.svg
Graphic
VTML .vtm, vtml
ColdFusion .cfm, .cfml, .cfc

Template
Dreamweaver
.dwt
template
How to find a web page
As a user surfing the Internet, if you wanted to

find a web page on the Internet you'd use a
search engine.
For the computer using a browser to find a web

page on the Internet it must know the IP address
of the web server containing the web page. For
example, when you enter a domain name such
as computerhope.com, that domain name must
be translated by DNS (Domain Name System)
into the IP address of the computerhope.com
server. Once that IP address is found, the
browser contacts the server and requests the
web page entered into the URL (Uniform
Resource Locator).
Tip
See our IP address page for further information

about IP addresses and a visual example of this
process.
Examples of a web page
The page you are reading now is an example of

a web page. It comprises several web
technologies, including HTML, CSS, and
JavaScript.
Tip
You can view all of the code by viewing the
source code of the web page. See: How to view
the HTML source code of a web page.
Although the web page body is created using

HTML, that HTML code can be created using
an HTML editor and written by a human or
generated using server-side scripts or other
scripts. A web page created by a human often
ends with a .htm or .html file extension and
known as a static web page. For example, this
page uses "webpage.htm" as its file name.
Dynamic web pages generated by a script can
end in .cgi, .php, .pl, and other extensions
depending on the language generating the page.
What are the elements of a web page?
Every web page is different. However, most

pages contain some or all of the elements on this
web page. Below is an overview of the major
elements of a web page.
1. The website, blog name, logo, or
company name is often in the top-left
corner of each web page. The logo may also
include a slogan or brief statement about
the site to give visitors an instant
understanding of the site. Also, this section
of the web page is usually a link that may
link back to the homepage.
2. The search allows a visitor to search a
website for related information and should
be available on every page.
3. The navigation bar, or menu for a web
page, is often found on the top or left side
of each web page. It should include links to
each of the major sections of the website.
4. Advertisement banners can be shown in
different places on a web page and help pay
for the expenses of running a website and
company. Ad banners are often found at
the top, left, right, or bottom of a page and
may also be included in the content.
5. Social share links allow visitors to share
your site with other co-workers, friends,
and family on social networking sites.
6. The breadcrumbs help the user know
where they are on the website. They also
provide a way for the user to return to, or
explore, other main sections of the website.
7. The heading should be included on the
top of every web page and should be
created using the <h1> HTML tag.
8. The opening paragraph is one of the
most important paragraphs on the web
page and should help draw the visitor into
reading the web page. One way to help
draw the visitors eyes is to include a hero
image near the opening paragraph.
9. Each web page should be broken up
into other headings that allow the visitor to
easily skim and find what is most interesting
on the page. When creating a web page
these can be done using the <h2> to <h6>
HTML tags. Within each of these headings
will be hyperlinks that allow you to browse
to other web pages that might interest you.
10. Having a method of allowing a visitor to
provide feedback is also a requirement for
most web pages. Giving the visitor links or
buttons to click for feedback is a good step
to let you know if a web page is helpful or
not.
11. Additional information and tools such as
a button to print the page can also be
helpful for users on most web pages.
12. The footer should include any other
important company or website information
and be included on all web pages to help
the visitor continue using the site.
13. The Copyright and any legal or privacy
notice should also be on all web pages. Not
only can this link to relevant legal
information it is an indication for most
visitors that they have reached the end of
the web page.
14. Finally, a "back to the top" button or link
at the bottom of the page helps the visitor
return to the menu links or other tools.
Tip
If you are designing a web page and want more

visitors, we also suggest reading our web page
promotion tips for a full listing of tips to use
when creating a web page.
What can you do on a web page?
On most websites, you read the information on

the page, and if there are any interesting
hyperlinks, you follow those links to find more
information or perform a task. You can also
listen to music, watch videos, shop,
communicate, and more on many websites.
Tip
If you are bored or looking for other fun web

pages to visit, see: What things to do when
bored on the Internet.
Should I use "webpage" or "web page"

when writing?
Both versions are technically correct. However,

most style guides suggest web page (two words)
instead of webpage in all forms of writing.
Related information
 How to create a web page.

page.
 HTML help and support
HTTP, Internet, Internet terms, Link,

Malvertisement, Online editing, Page, SEO
terms, Upload/download, Web, Web design,
Web design terms, Web farm, Website
report this ad
 Was this page useful?YesNo


o Feedback
o E-mail
o Share
o Print
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HTML
Updated: 02/01/2021 by Computer Hope
First developed by Tim Berners-Lee in 1990,

HTML is short for Hypertext Markup
Language. HTML is used to create electronic
documents (called pages) that are displayed on
the World Wide Web. Each page contains
several connections to other pages called
hyperlinks. Every web page you see was written
using one version of HTML.
HTML code ensures the proper formatting of

text and images for your Internet browser.
Without HTML, a browser would not know how
to display text as elements or load images or
other elements. HTML also provides a basic
structure of the page, upon which Cascading
Style Sheets are overlaid to change its
appearance. One could think of HTML as the
bones (structure) of a web page, and CSS as its
skin (appearance).
 What does an HTML tag look like?

 What does HTML look like?
 What is HTML5?
 What does HTML5 look like?
 How to create and view HTML.
 Which file extensions are used with HTML?
 Is HTML a programming language?
 How to pronounce HTML.
 Related information.
 HTML and web design help and support.
What does an HTML tag look like?

As shown in the HTML tag example above,
there aren't many components. Most HTML tags
have an opening tag containing the tag name,
tag attributes, a closing tag containing a forward
slash, and the tag name being closed. For tags
that do not have a closing tag like <img>, it is
best practice to end the tag with a forward slash.
Most tags are contained in a less than and

greater than angle brackets, and everything
between the open and close tag is displayed or
affected by the tag. In the example above, the
<a> tag is creating a link called "Computer
Hope" that is pointing to the hope.html file.
Tip
See our HTML and Web Design help page for a
full listing of HTML tags.
What does HTML look like?
Below is an example of a basic web page

written in HTML with a description of each
section and its function.
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC

"-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01
Transitional//EN"
"https://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loo
se.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>Example page</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-
Type" content="text/html;
charset=windows-1252">
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<p>This is an <b>example</b>
of a basic HTML page.</p>
</body>
</html>
The box above contains the key ingredients to a

basic web page. Each of the lines are explained
below in further detail.
1. The DOCTYPE line describes what

version of HTML the page was written in so
that an Internet browser can interpret the
text that follows.
2. The <html> opening tag lets the
browser know that it is reading HTML code.
3. The <head> section contains
information about the page, such as its title,
meta tags, and where to locate the CSS file.
4. The <body> section contains everything
that's viewable on the browser. For
example, all the text seen here is contained
in the body tags.
5. The <h1> tag is the visible heading of
the page.
6. The <p> tag is a paragraph of text. Most
web pages (like this one) have several
paragraph tags.
7. Contained in the paragraph is the <b>
tag that bolds the word example in the
paragraph.
8. Finally, the closing tags wrap each of the
above tags.
 See our HTML and Web Design help for a

full listing of HTML tags.
What is HTML5?
HTML5 is the update made to HTML from

HTML4 (XHTML follows a different version
numbering scheme). It uses the same basic rules
as HTML4, but adds some new tags and
attributes which allow for better semantics and
for dynamic elements that are activated using
JavaScript. New elements include: <article>,
<aside>, <audio>, <bdi>, <canvas>, <datalist>,
<details>, <embed>, <figure>, <figcaption>,
<footer>, <header>, <keygen>, <mark>,
<meter>, <nav>, <output>, <progress>, <rp>,
<rt>, <ruby>, <time>, <track>, <video>, and
<wbr>. There are also new input types for
forms, which include tel, search, url, e-mail,
datetime, date, month, week, time, datetime-
local, number, range, and color.
With the increasing movement to keep structure

and style separate, some styling elements were
removed. Also tags with accessibility issues or
saw little use were also removed. These
following elements should no longer be used in
HTML code: <acronym>, <applet>, <basefont>,
<big>, <center>, <dir>, <font>, <frame>,
<frameset>, <noframes>, <strike>, and <tt>.
HTML5 also simplifies the doctype declaration
to the tag in the following box.
<!doctype html>
What does HTML5 look like?
As shown below, the HTML5 code is very

similar to the earlier HTML4 example, but is
cleaner and has a revised doctype tag.
<!doctype html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>Example page</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<p>This is an example of a
basic HTML page.</p>
</body>
</html>
How to create and view HTML
Because HTML is a markup language, it can be

created and viewed in any text editor if saved
with a .htm or .html file extension. However,
most find it easier to design and create web
pages in HTML using an HTML editor.
Once the HTML file is created, it can be viewed

locally or uploaded to a web server to be viewed
online using a browser.
Which file extensions are used with
HTML?
HTML files use either the .htm or .html file

extension. Older versions of Windows
(Windows 3.x) only allow three-letter file
extensions, so they used .htm instead of .html.
However, both file extensions have the same
meaning, and either may be used today. That
being said, we recommend sticking to one
naming convention as certain web servers may
prefer one extension over the other.
Note
Web pages that are created using a scripting

language like Perl, PHP, or Python have a
different extension even though they only show
HTML in the source code.
Is HTML a programming language?
No. HTML is not a programming language; it's

a markup language. See our markup language
page for a comparison between a programming
language and a markup language.
How to pronounce HTML
HTML is pronounced as h-t-m-l (aitch-tee-em-

el).
Tip
Because of the vowel sound when pronouncing
HTML, you would use "an" instead of "a" in
front of the abbreviation in your writing.
Related information
 How to start in HTML and web design.

 Complete information and help with HTML.
 How to view the HTML source code of a
web page.
 Extended special HTML characters and
codes.
 HTML and web design help and support.
 Programming language history.
ASP, cHTML, Computer abbreviations, <html>,

HTML validator, Internet terms, Markup,
Markup language, Programming terms,
Public_html, SEO terms, Source, Web design,
Web design terms, XML
SSI may refer to any of the following:
1. Short for small-scale integration, SSI is a

chip generation first introduced in 1964 with
between 1 and 10 transistors and 1 and 12 logic
gates.
2. When referring to an Internet web page SSI is

short for server-side include and is a file that
includes Apache executable server code. For
example, a SHTML file extension is an HTML
file that includes instructions that need to be
executed by a server. It is important to realize
that you do not need to rename your files to
a .shtml for server-side includes to be supported.
You can also use the xBitHack option in the
.htaccess file to execute any file with an
executable file permission.
Once renamed to .shtml, or with xBitHack

enabled, and the file set to executable, add the
following line to the file.


If server-side includes are properly enabled,
when opening the web page in the browser it
should display the local date and time.
After verifying that SSI works, you can then

include any file using code similar to the
example below. In the example below, we're
executing a perl script called example.pl in the
cgi-bin directory.

If something goes wrong when attempting to

execute the SSI file, you'll get an error message
that states "an error occurred while
processing this directive." This message is
often displayed because the path pointing to the
included file is wrong or there is a scripting
issue. To resolve this issue, make sure that the
included file exists. If it is a script, ensure that it
can be accessed through a web page without any
errors.
Related information
 Additional information and support with

Apache SSI is available at Apache's SSI
guide.
Computer acronyms, Electronics terms, Exec,

JSP, Server-side, SHTML, Web design terms
SSI may refer to any of the following:
1. Short for small-scale integration, SSI is a

chip generation first introduced in 1964 with
between 1 and 10 transistors and 1 and 12 logic
gates.
2. When referring to an Internet web page SSI is

short for server-side include and is a file that
includes Apache executable server code. For
example, a SHTML file extension is an HTML
file that includes instructions that need to be
executed by a server. It is important to realize
that you do not need to rename your files to
a .shtml for server-side includes to be supported.
You can also use the xBitHack option in the
.htaccess file to execute any file with an
executable file permission.
Once renamed to .shtml, or with xBitHack

enabled, and the file set to executable, add the
following line to the file.

If server-side includes are properly enabled,

when opening the web page in the browser it
should display the local date and time.
After verifying that SSI works, you can then

include any file using code similar to the
example below. In the example below, we're
executing a perl script called example.pl in the
cgi-bin directory.

If something goes wrong when attempting to

execute the SSI file, you'll get an error message
that states "an error occurred while
processing this directive." This message is
often displayed because the path pointing to the
included file is wrong or there is a scripting
issue. To resolve this issue, make sure that the
included file exists. If it is a script, ensure that it
can be accessed through a web page without any
errors.
Related information
 Additional information and support with

Apache SSI is available at Apache's SSI
guide.
Computer acronyms, Electronics terms, Exec,

JSP, Server-side, SHTML, Web design terms
ynamicPDF Core Suite brings tons of PDF

creation and manipulation features into your
Visual Studio application and includes
full .NET Standard 2.0 support. Whether your
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DynamicPDF Core Suite has all the features you
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DynamicPDF CoreSuite is backed by a great

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Release Notes:
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* Fixed an issue with rendering the Tables in
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Downloads
Full stats →
Total 628.3K
Current version 414
Per day average 253
About
 Last updated 15 days ago

 Project website
 License Info
 Download package (31.48 MB)
 Open in NuGet Package Explorer
 Open in FuGet Package Explorer
 Report package
Owners
Contact owners →
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DynamicPDF PDF pdf merging creation
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© 2001 - 2022, ceTe Software
Find and evaluate NuGet packages for

your project
 Article
 09/20/2022
 8 minutes to read

When you start a .NET project, or identify a

functional need in your app or service, you can
often install existing NuGet packages to save
the time and trouble of creating your own
packages. Existing packages can come from the
nuget.org public collection, or from private
sources that your organization or another party
provide.
Find packages
You can find packages directly at

https://nuget.org/packages, or from the Visual
Studio Package Manager UI or Package
Manager Console with nuget.org as a source.
All packages from nuget.org are routinely
scanned for viruses.
At nuget.org/packages, you see a list of NuGet
packages with the most popular packages across
all .NET projects listed first. Some of these
packages might be useful for your projects.
To search for a package, enter the package name
or search terms in the Search box at the top of
the page. You can use advanced search syntax
to filter your search.
Advanced filtering and sorting
At nuget.org/packages, you can select the Filter

button at upper-right to expand advanced sorting
and filtering options.
Use the Package type filter to show packages of
a specific type:
 All types is the default and shows all

packages regardless of type.
 Dependency filters to regular NuGet
packages that you can install into your
project.
 .NET tool filters to .NET tools packages that
contain console applications.
 Template filters to .NET templates that you
can use to create new projects with the
dotnet new command.
Use the Sort by option to sort the list by several

criteria:
 Relevance is the default, and sorts results
according to an internal scoring algorithm.
 Downloads sorts the search results by the
total number of downloads, in descending
order.
 Recently updated sorts the search results
by the latest package version creation date,
in descending chronological order.
By default, NuGet lists all versions of packages,

including prerelease and beta versions. In the
Options section, deselect the Include
prerelease checkbox to list only stable, released
package versions.
To apply changes, select Apply. To get back to
the defaults, select Reset.
Search syntax
Package search queries at nuget.org, from the

NuGet CLI, and from within Visual Studio all
use the same syntax. Other package sources,
like Azure Artifacts or GitHub Package
Repository, might use different syntax or might
not support advanced filtering.
 You can search the package id,

packageid, version, title, tags,
author, description, summary, or
owner properties by using the syntax
<property>:<term>.
 Search applies to keywords and descriptions,
and is case-insensitive. For example, the
following strings all search the id property
for the string nuget.core:
id:NuGet.Core
ID:nuget.core
Id:NUGET.CORE
 Searches on the id property match

substrings, while packageid and owner
use exact, case-insensitive matches. For
example:
PackageId:jquery searches for the

exact package ID jquery.
Id:jquery searches for all package IDs
that contain the string jquery.
 You can search for multiple values or

properties at the same time. For example:
id:jquery id:ui searches for multiple

terms in the id property.
id:jquery tags:validation
searches multiple properties.
 Search ignores unsupported properties, so

invalid:jquery ui is the same as
searching for ui, and invalid:jquery
returns all packages.
Determine supported frameworks

NuGet installs a package into a project only if
the package's supported .NET frameworks
include the project's target frameworks. If the
package isn't compatible, NuGet issues an error.
There are several ways to determine the

frameworks that a package supports:
 On the package's page at nuget.org,

supported frameworks appear below the
package ID and on the Frameworks tab, but
not all packages show supported
frameworks.
 Download the package manually by
selecting Download package under About.
Change the file extension of the downloaded
package from .nupkg to .zip, open the .zip
folder, and examine its lib folder. There are
subfolders for each supported framework,
each named with a target framework
moniker (TFM). For more information, see
Target Frameworks. If there aren't any
subfolders under lib and there's only a single
DLL, try to install the package to discover
its compatibility.
 Try to install the package into a project by
using Install-Package in the Visual Studio
Package Manager Console. If the package is
incompatible, the console output shows the
package's supported frameworks.
Prerelease packages
Many package authors provide preview and beta

releases as they continue to improve and seek
feedback on latest revisions. By default,
nuget.org shows prerelease packages in its
package list and search results.
To list and search only stable releases:
 At nuget.org, deselect the Include

prerelease checkbox in the advanced
search panel.
 In the Visual Studio NuGet Package
Manager UI, deselect the Include
prerelease checkbox next to the Search
box.
The Visual Studio Package Manager Console,

NuGet CLI, and dotnet CLI tools don't include
prerelease versions by default. To include
prerelease versions:
 In the Package Manager Console, use the -

IncludePrerelease switch with the
Find-Package, Get-Package,
Install-Package, Sync-Package,
and Update-Package commands. For
more information, see the PowerShell
Reference.
 For the NuGet CLI, use the -prerelease
switch with the install, update,
delete, and mirror commands. For
more information, see the NuGet CLI
reference.
 For the dotnet CLI, specify a prerelease
version with the -v argument. For more
information, see the dotnet add package
reference.
Native C++ packages
Visual Studio C++ projects can use native C++

NuGet packages. Installing these packages
enables the Manage NuGet Packages context-
menu command, exposes a native target
framework, and provides MSBuild integration.
To find native packages on nuget.org/packages,

search by using tag:native. Such packages
typically provide .targets and .props files, which
NuGet imports automatically when adding the
packages.
Evaluate packages
The best way to evaluate a package's usefulness

is to try it out. You take a dependency on a
package when you use it, so you must make sure
it's robust and reliable. However, installing a
package and directly testing it is time-
consuming. You can learn a lot about a
package's quality by using the information on
the package's page at nuget.org/packages.
 The Prefix Reserved checkmark next to the

package ID on the packages list and the
package page means the package owners
have applied for and been granted a reserved
package ID prefix. To meet the ID prefix
reservation criteria, package owners must
clearly identify themselves and their
packages.
 Downloads in the package page's right

column shows Total, Current version, and
Per day average downloads. Large numbers
indicate that the package has proven itself
among many developers.
Select Full stats next to Downloads to see a
page that shows package downloads for the
past six weeks by version number. Versions
that more developers are using are typically
better choices.
 The Used By tab on the package page shows

the top five most popular nuget.org
packages and GitHub repositories that
depend on this package. Packages and repos
that depend on this package are called
dependents. Dependent packages and repos
can be seen as endorsing this package,
because they chose to trust and depend on it.
The latest stable version of a dependent
package must depend on any version of this
package. This definition ensures that listed
dependent packages are an up-to-date
reflection of package authors' decisions to
trust and depend on the package. The
dependents list doesn't show prerelease
dependents, because they're not considered
wholehearted endorsements yet. The
following examples show which packages
show as dependents:
Dependent Dependent package

package version listed as a dependent?
v1.0.0 TRUE, latest stable

v1.1.0 (latest version depends on this
stable) depends on
this package package
v1.2.0-preview
v1.0.0 depends on
this package FALSE, latest stable
v1.1.0 (latest version doesn't depend
stable) on this package
v1.2.0-preview
v1.0.0 depends on FALSE, latest stable

this package version doesn't depend
v1.1.0 (latest on this package
stable)
v1.2.0-preview
depends on this
package
The number of stars for a GitHub repository

indicates its popularity with GitHub users.
For more information about the GitHub star
and repository ranking system, see About
stars.
Note
The Used By section is automatically

generated periodically, without human
review, and solely for informational
purposes.
 The Versions tab on the package page

shows the Versions, Downloads, Last
Updated dates, and serious vulnerabilities
of package versions. The version you install
shouldn't have any high-severity
vulnerabilities. A well-maintained package
has recent updates and a long version
history. Neglected packages have few and
long-ago updates.
The right column of the package page has other
informative links:
 Select Project website, if available, to see
what support options the author provides. A
project with a dedicated site is generally
well supported.
 Select Source repository to go to the Git
source code repository for the package.
Many authors maintain their packages in
open-source repositories, so users can
directly contribute bug fixes and feature
improvements. The package's contribution
history is a good indicator of how many
developers are actively involved.
 Select <license type> license to see the
package's MIT or other license. If a package
doesn't specify license terms, contact the
package owner.
 Select any of the package owners under
Owners to see other packages they've
published. Owners with multiple packages
are more likely to continue supporting their
work. Select Contact owners next to
Owners to reach out directly to the package
developers.
Retrieve license information
Some NuGet clients and NuGet feeds might not

be able to surface licensing information. To
maintain backward compatibility in such cases,
the license URL points to this document about
how to retrieve the license information.
If selecting the license URL for a package
brings you to this page, it implies the package
contains a license file and:
 You're connected to a feed that doesn't

know how to interpret and surface the
license information to the client, or
 You're using a client that doesn't know how
to interpret and read the license
information the feed provides, or
 A combination of both of these scenarios.
To read the information in the license file inside

the package:
1. Manually download the package, and

unzip its contents to a folder.
2. Open the .nuspec file at the root of the
folder.
3. Examine the <license> tag, such as
<license type="file">license\
license.txt</license>. The
example tag states that the license file is
named license.txt and is inside a subfolder
called license.
4. Navigate to the specified location and
open the specified file.
For information about the MSBuild equivalent

to setting the license in the .nuspec, see Packing
a license expression or a license file.
Next steps
 Ways to install a NuGet package

 Install and manage packages in Visual
Studio using the NuGet Package Manager
 Install and manage packages with the
Package Manager Console in Visual Studio
 Install and manage packages with the
dotnet CLI
Recommended content

Manage NuGet packages with the NuGet

CLI
Instructions for using the NuGet CLI,
nuget.exe, to manage NuGet packages.

Overview of NuGet.org
Overview of NuGet.org

Package Source Mapping
Describes package source mapping

functionality and how to onboard

What happens when a package is

installed?
Detailed information about the package
installation process
There are 314,533 packages
Newtonsoft.Json by: dotnetfoundation

jamesnk newtonsoft
o 2,711,612,776 total downloads
o last updated 2 months ago
o Latest version: 13.0.2
o json
Json.NET is a popular high-performance

JSON framework for .NET

Microsoft.Extensions.DependencyInjection
by: aspnet dotnetframework Microsoft

Default implementation of dependency
injection for
Microsoft.Extensions.DependencyInjection.
Microsoft.Extensions.Logging by: aspnet

dotnetframework Microsoft
Logging infrastructure default

implementation for
Microsoft.Extensions.Logging.

System.Text.Json by: dotnetframework

Microsoft
o 779,609,057 total downloads

o last updated a month ago
Provides high-performance and low-
allocating types that serialize objects to
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) text and
deserialize JSON text to objects, with UTF-8
support built-in. Also provides types to read
and write JSON text encoded as UTF-8, and
to create an in-memory document object
model... More information

Microsoft.Bcl.AsyncInterfaces by:

Provides the IAsyncEnumerable<T> and
IAsyncDisposable interfaces and helper
types for .NET Standard 2.0. This package is
not required starting with .NET Standard 2.1
and .NET Core 3.0. Commonly Used... More
information
Serilog by: serilog

o Latest version: 2.12.1-dev-01635
o serilog logging semantic structured
Simple .NET logging with fully-structured

events

System.Drawing.Common by:

Provides access to GDI+ graphics

functionality. Commonly Used Types:
System.Drawing.Bitmap
System.Drawing.BitmapData
System.Drawing.Brush
System.Drawing.Font
System.Drawing.Graphics
System.Drawing.Icon Since .NET 7, non-
Windows platforms are not supported, even
with the runtime configuration... More
information
Microsoft.EntityFrameworkCore by:
aspnet EntityFramework Microsoft

o last updated 7 days ago
o Entity Framework Core entity-
framework-core EF Data O/RM
EntityFramework EntityFrameworkCore
EFCore
Entity Framework Core is a modern object-

database mapper for .NET. It supports LINQ
queries, change tracking, updates, and
schema migrations. EF Core works with SQL
Server, Azure SQL Database, SQLite, Azure
Cosmos DB, MySQL, PostgreSQL, and other
databases through a provider plugin API.
Commonly... More information

Microsoft.Win32.SystemEvents by:

Provides access to Windows system event
notifications. Commonly Used Types:
Microsoft.Win32.SystemEvents
Castle.Core by: castleproject jonorossi

o castle dynamicproxy dynamic proxy
dynamicproxy2 dictionaryadapter
emailsender
Castle Core, including DynamicProxy,
Logging Abstractions and DictionaryAdapter
System.Windows.Extensions by:

Provides miscellaneous Windows-specific

types Commonly Used Types:
System.Security.Cryptography.X509Certifica
tes.X509Certificate2UI
System.Security.Cryptography.X509Certifica
tes.X509SelectionFlag
Microsoft.Identity.Client by: AzureAD

Microsoft

o Microsoft Authentication Library MSA
MSAL B2C Azure Active Directory AAD
More tags
This package contains the binaries of the

Microsoft Authentication Library for .NET
(MSAL.NET). MSAL.NET makes it easy to
obtain tokens from the Microsoft identity
platform for developers (formally Azure AD
v2.0) signing-in users with work & school
accounts, Microsoft personal accounts,
and... More information
Azure.Core by: azure-sdk Microsoft

o Microsoft Azure Client Pipeline
This is the implementation of the Azure

Client Pipeline
AWSSDK.Core by: awsdotnet

o Latest version: 3.7.103.16
o AWS Amazon cloud aws-sdk-v3
The Amazon Web Services SDK for .NET -
Core Runtime
Moq by: clarius kzu

o moq tdd mocking mocks unittesting
agile unittest
Moq is the most popular and friendly

mocking framework for .NET. Built from
https://github.com/moq/moq4/tree/042a2
ebbe
Newtonsoft.Json.Bson by:
dotnetfoundation jamesnk newtonsoft

o Latest version: 1.0.3-beta1
o bson
Json.NET BSON adds support for reading

and writing BSON

Microsoft.Extensions.Http by: aspnet

The HttpClient factory is a pattern for

configuring and retrieving named
HttpClients in a composable way. The
HttpClient factory provides extensibility to
plug in DelegatingHandlers that address
cross-cutting concerns such as service
location, load balancing, and reliability. The
default HttpClient... More information

AutoMapper by: jbogard

o last updated 17 hours ago
A convention-based object-object mapper.


System.Security.Cryptography.Pkcs by:

Provides support for PKCS and CMS
algorithms. Commonly Used Types:
System.Security.Cryptography.Pkcs.Envelop
edCms
Microsoft.ApplicationInsights by:
AppInsightsSdk Microsoft

o Latest version: 2.22.0-beta1
o Analytics Azure ApplicationInsights
Telemetry Monitoring SDK
Application Insights Base API. This package
provides core functionality for transmission
of all Application Insights Telemetry Types
and is a dependent package for all other
Application Insights packages. Please install
the platform specific package for the best
experience. Privacy statement:... More
information
 Previous
 Next
Prefix Reserved
.NET Framework 4.5
 .NET CLI
 Package Manager
 PackageReference
 Paket CLI
 Script & Interactive
 Cake
dotnet add package

Microsoft.AspNet.WebApi.WebHost
--version 5.2.9
 README
 Frameworks
 Dependencies
 Used By
 Versions
This package contains everything you need to
host ASP.NET Web API on IIS. ASP.NET Web
API is a framework that makes it easy to build
HTTP services that reach a broad range of
clients, including browsers and mobile devices.
ASP.NET Web API is an ideal platform for
building RESTful applications on the .NET
Framework.
Downloads
Full stats →
Total 144.8M
Current version 1.1M
Per day average 37.3K
About
 Last updated 8 months ago
 Project website
 Source repository
 License Info
 Download package (69.75 KB)
 Open in NuGet Package Explorer
 Open in FuGet Package Explorer
 Report package
Owners
Contact owners →
 Microsoft
 aspnet
Microsoft AspNet WebApi AspNetWebApi

WebHost
© Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Exercise - Create a web API project

Completed 100 XP
 8 minutes
This module uses the .NET 6.0 SDK. Ensure

that you have .NET 6.0 installed by running the
following command in your preferred terminal:
.NET CLI
dotnet --list-sdks
Output similar to the following appears:
Console
3.1.100 [C:\program files\

dotnet\sdk]
dotnet\sdk]
dotnet\sdk]
Ensure that a version that starts with 6 is listed.

If none is listed or the command isn't found,
install the most recent .NET 6.0 SDK.
Create and explore a web API project
To set up a .NET project to work with the web

API, we'll use Visual Studio Code. Visual
Studio Code includes an integrated terminal that
makes creating a new project easy. If you don't
want to use a code editor, you can run the
commands in this module in a terminal.
1. In Visual Studio Code, select File >
Open Folder.
2. Create a new folder named
ContosoPizza in the location of your
choice, and then click Select Folder.
3. Open the integrated terminal from
Visual Studio Code by selecting View >
Terminal from the main menu.
4. In the terminal window, copy and paste
the following command:
.NET CLI
dotnet new webapi -f net6.0
This command creates the files for a basic web

API project that uses controllers, along with a
C# project file named ContosoPizza.csproj that
will return a list of weather forecasts. If you get
an error, ensure that you have the .NET 6 SDK
installed.
Important
Web API projects are secured with https by

default. If you have problems, configure the
ASP.NET Core HTTPS development certificate.
You might receive a prompt from Visual Studio

Code to add assets to debug the project. Select
Yes in the dialog.
The command uses an ASP.NET Core project

template, aliased as webapi, to scaffold a C#-
based web API project. A ContosoPizza
directory is created. This directory contains an
ASP.NET Core project running on .NET. The
project name matches the ContosoPizza
directory name.
You should now have access to these files and

directories:
Bash
4. -| Controllers
5. -| obj
6. -| Properties
7. -|
appsettings.Development.json
8. -| appsettings.json
9. -| ContosoPizza.csproj
10. -| Program.cs
11. -| WeatherForecast.cs
12.
13. Examine the following files and

directories:
Name Description
Contains classes with

Controllers/ public methods exposed
as HTTP endpoints
Configures services and

the app's HTTP request
Program.cs pipeline, and contains
the app's managed
entry point
Name Description
Contains configuration
ContosoPizza.csproj metadata for the
project
Build and test the web API
1. Run the following .NET Core CLI

command in the command shell:
.NET CLI
dotnet run
The preceding command:
 Locates the project file at the current

directory.
 Retrieves and installs any required project
dependencies for this project.
 Compiles the project code.
 Hosts the web API with the ASP.NET Core
Kestrel web server at both an HTTP and
HTTPS endpoint.
A port from 5000 to 5300 will be selected for

HTTP, and from 7000 to 7300 for HTTPS,
when the project is created. You can easily
change the ports that you use during
development by editing the project's
launchSettings.json file. This module uses the
secure localhost URL that begins with
https.
A you'll get output similar to the following,
which indicates your app is running:
Console
 Building...
info:
Microsoft.Hosting.Lifetime[14]
Now listening on:
https://localhost:7294
info:
Now listening on:
http://localhost:5118
info:
Application started. Press
Ctrl+C to shut down.
info:
Hosting environment:
Development
If you're running this app on your own machine,

you could direct a browser to the HTTPS link
that's displayed in the output (in the preceding
case, https://localhost:7294) to view
the resulting page. Remember this port, because
you'll use it throughout the module where
{PORT} is used.
Important
Check the terminal output if you encounter any
unexpected behavior. If the build fails or other
errors occur, the log file's information helps you
troubleshoot. As you make changes to the code,
you'll need to stop the web API by selecting
CTRL+C on the keyboard and rerunning the
dotnet run command.
 Open a web browser and go to:
Bash
https://localhost:{PORT}/
weatherforecast
You should see JSON output similar to the

following:
JSON
 [
{
"date": "2021-11-
09T20:36:01.4678814+00:00",
"temperatureC": 33,
"temperatureF": 91,
"summary": "Scorching"
},
{
"date": "2021-11-
09T20:36:01.4682337+00:00",
"temperatureC": -8,
"temperatureF": 18,
"summary": "Cool"
},
// ...
]
 Open a new integrated terminal from Visual

Studio Code by selecting Terminal > New
Terminal from the main menu, then run the
following command:
.NET CLI
 dotnet tool install -g

Microsoft.dotnet-httprepl
The preceding command installs the .NET

HTTP REPL command-line tool that you'll use
to make HTTP requests to the web API.
 Connect to the web API by running the

following command:
.NET CLI
httprepl https://localhost:
{PORT}
Alternatively, run the following command at

any time while HttpRepl is running:
.NET CLI
 connect https://localhost:
{PORT}
Tip
If the HttpRepl tool warns Unable to find an

OpenAPI description, the most likely cause is
an untrusted development certificate.
HttpRepl requires a trusted connection.
Before you can continue, you must configure
your system to trust the dev certificate with
dotnet dev-certs https --trust
 Explore available endpoints by running the

following command:
.NET CLI
ls
The preceding command detects all APIs

available on the connected endpoint. It should
display the following:
Output
 https://localhost:{PORT}/> ls
. []
WeatherForecast [GET]
 Go to the WeatherForecast endpoint by
running the following command:
.NET CLI
cd WeatherForecast
The preceding command shows an output of

available APIs for the WeatherForecast
endpoint:
Output
 https://localhost:{PORT}/> cd
WeatherForecast
/WeatherForecast [GET]
 Make a GET request in HttpRepl by using

.NET CLI
get
The preceding command makes a GET request

similar to going to the endpoint in the browser:
Output
 HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Content-Type: application/json;
charset=utf-8
Date: Fri, 02 Apr 2021 17:31:43
GMT
Server: Kestrel
Transfer-Encoding: chunked
[
{
"date": 4/3/2021 10:31:44
AM,
"temperatureC": 13,
"temperatureF": 55,
"summary": "Sweltering"
},
{
"date": 4/4/2021 10:31:44
AM,
"temperatureC": -13,
"temperatureF": 9,
"summary": "Warm"
},
// ..
]
 End the current HttpRepl session by using
.NET CLI
8. exit
9.
10. Return to the dotnet terminal in the

drop-down list in Visual Studio Code. Shut
down the web API by selecting CTRL+C on
your keyboard.
Now that you've created the web API, you'll

modify it to meet the needs of the pizza web
API.
Next unit: ASP.NET Core Web API
Controllers

Completed 100 XP
 8 minutes

.NET CLI
dotnet --list-sdks
Console
dotnet\sdk]
dotnet\sdk]
dotnet\sdk]



Open Folder.
.NET CLI

installed.
Important


Yes in the dialog.
directory name.

directories:
Bash
4. -| Controllers
5. -| obj
6. -| Properties
7. -|
10. -| Program.cs
12.

directories:
Name Description

as HTTP endpoints
Program.cs Configures services and

pipeline, and contains
Name Description
the app's managed

entry point
project

.NET CLI
dotnet run

directory.
HTTPS endpoint.

https.

Console
 Building...
info:
Now listening on:
info:
Now listening on:
info:
info:
Development

{PORT} is used.
Important

dotnet run command.
Bash
weatherforecast

following:
JSON
 [
{
"date": "2021-11-
09T20:36:01.4678814+00:00",
"temperatureC": 33,
"temperatureF": 91,
},
{
"date": "2021-11-
09T20:36:01.4682337+00:00",
"temperatureC": -8,
"temperatureF": 18,
"summary": "Cool"
},
// ...
]

following command:
.NET CLI


following command:
.NET CLI
{PORT}

.NET CLI
{PORT}
Tip


following command:
.NET CLI
ls

Output
. []

.NET CLI
cd WeatherForecast

endpoint:
Output
WeatherForecast
.NET CLI
get

Output
 HTTP/1.1 200 OK
charset=utf-8
Date: Fri, 02 Apr 2021 17:31:43
GMT
Server: Kestrel
[
{
"date": 4/3/2021 10:31:44
AM,
"temperatureC": 13,
"temperatureF": 55,
},
{
"date": 4/4/2021 10:31:44
AM,
"temperatureF": 9,
"summary": "Warm"
},
// ..
]

.NET CLI
8. exit
9.

your keyboard.

API.
Controllers

Completed 100 XP
 8 minutes

.NET CLI
dotnet --list-sdks
Console
dotnet\sdk]
dotnet\sdk]
dotnet\sdk]



Open Folder.
.NET CLI

installed.
Important


Yes in the dialog.
directory name.

directories:
Bash
4. -| Controllers
5. -| obj
6. -| Properties
7. -|
10. -| Program.cs
12.

directories:
Name Description

as HTTP endpoints
Program.cs Configures services and

pipeline, and contains
Name Description
the app's managed

entry point
project

.NET CLI
dotnet run

directory.
HTTPS endpoint.

https.

Console
 Building...
info:
Now listening on:
info:
Now listening on:
info:
info:
Development

{PORT} is used.
Important

dotnet run command.
Bash
weatherforecast

following:
JSON
 [
{
"date": "2021-11-
09T20:36:01.4678814+00:00",
"temperatureC": 33,
"temperatureF": 91,
},
{
"date": "2021-11-
09T20:36:01.4682337+00:00",
"temperatureC": -8,
"temperatureF": 18,
"summary": "Cool"
},
// ...
]

following command:
.NET CLI


following command:
.NET CLI
{PORT}

.NET CLI
{PORT}
Tip


following command:
.NET CLI
ls

Output
. []

.NET CLI
cd WeatherForecast

endpoint:
Output
WeatherForecast
.NET CLI
get

Output
 HTTP/1.1 200 OK
charset=utf-8
Date: Fri, 02 Apr 2021 17:31:43
GMT
Server: Kestrel
[
{
"date": 4/3/2021 10:31:44
AM,
"temperatureC": 13,
"temperatureF": 55,
},
{
"date": 4/4/2021 10:31:44
AM,
"temperatureF": 9,
"summary": "Warm"
},
// ..
]

.NET CLI
8. exit
9.

your keyboard.

API.
Controllers
Drop may refer to any of the

following:
1. Drop is an alternative word

for discontinue. For
example, Microsoft dropped support
for Windows XP on April 8, 2014.
2. In general, drop refers to letting
something go. For example,
when drag-and-dropping a file on a
computer, you are selecting the file,
dragging it to an alternate location,
and then letting it go.
3. Alternatively called moof,
a drop describes when a user
is disconnected for no apparent
reason.
4. When using the term dropper, it

may be an abbreviated way of
referring to a malware dropper or
an eyedropper.
5. In a game, a drop is any loot that a
creature or player drops after
being killed.
Cancel, Chat terms, Computer
acronyms, Disconnect, Game
terms, Kick
How to manage your Dropbox sharing

permissions
This feature is only available to customers on
Dropbox Basic, Plus, and Professional. If you’re
an admin on a Dropbox team, you can manage
team sharing settings from the admin console.
When you share a file or a folder with someone,
you can decide which permissions they
have. Members of a shared file or folder can
have one of three roles—owner, editor, or
viewer.
 Owner: Only one member can be the owner

of a folder. The creator of a shared folder is
automatically the owner, unless that shared
folder is created within someone else’s
parent folder, or they change the owner to
someone else.
 Editor: Any member you give this
permission to can add, edit, download,
share, or delete files in the shared folder.
 Viewer: Any member you give this
permission to can view, download, share,
and comment on files in the shared folder,
but not add, edit, or delete files.
Learn more about roles and permissions for

members of a shared file or folder.
How to manage your default sharing

settings
To manage your default sharing settings:
1. Sign in to dropbox.com.
2. Click your avatar (profile picture or
initials) in the top right corner.
3. Click Settings.
4. Click the Sharing tab.
5. Choose your default settings.
o Use Who has access to manage who can
open your shared links.
 Anyone with the link: All the links
you share are public. Anyone can
open them.
 Only people invited: Only people
you invite can access your files and
folders. If someone who wasn’t
invited receives the link, they can’t
open it.
o Use What people can do to manage
whether people can edit the files and
folders you share.
 Can edit: Anyone who can open the
shared link can edit the file.
 Can view: Anyone who can open the
shared link can view and comment
on the file, but not edit it.
Note: These settings won’t apply when you

share from a mobile device, or when you copy
and paste a link from the address bar.
The changes you make to default sharing

settings won’t be applied to existing shared
links. Only new links will use this setting.
Not using Dropbox yet? See how Dropbox

makes managing file permissions easy.
How to change a member’s access to a
shared folder
To change a member's access to a shared folder:
On dropbox.com
2. Hover over the folder you’d like to
change permissions for and click the “…”
(ellipsis).
3. Click Share.
4. Click Share with Dropbox.
5. Click Who can access.
6. Click the dropdown next to the member
you’d like to change.
7. Select Can edit or Can view.
On the Dropbox desktop app
1. Open the Dropbox folder in File Explorer

(Windows) or Finder (Mac).
2. Right-click or command-click the folder
3. Click Share….
4. Click the dropdown next to the member
5. Select Can edit or Can view.
On the Dropbox mobile app

1. Open the Dropbox mobile app.
2. Tap the “⁝” (vertical ellipsis on Android)
or “…” (ellipsis on iPhone/iPad) next to the
folder you’d like to change.
3. Tap Folder settings.
4. Tap the area below [x] members.
5. Tap the name of the member you’d like
to change.
6. Tap Access.
7. Tap Can edit or Can view.
Note: Granting edit or view access for a parent

folder will allow that access level to all
subfolders within that parent folder as well.
Prevent members from inviting other
people to a shared folder
If you're the owner of a shared folder, you can

prevent members from inviting other people to
the folder.
On dropbox.com
2. Hover over the folder you’d like to
change permissions for and click the “…”
(ellipsis).
3. Click Share.
4. Click Share with Dropbox.
5. Click the settings icon (gear icon).
6. Select your preferences using the
dropdown next to Manage access.
7. Click Save.
On the Dropbox desktop app
1. Open the Dropbox folder in File Explorer

(Windows) or Finder (Mac).
2. Right-click or command-click the folder
you’d like to manage.
3. Click Share….
4. Click the settings icon (gear icon).
5. Select your preferences using the
dropdown next to Manage access.
6. Click Save.

On the Dropbox mobile app
1. Open the Dropbox mobile app.

2. Tap the “⁝” (vertical ellipsis on Android)
or “…” (ellipsis on iPhone/iPad) next to the
folder you’d like to manage.
3. Tap Folder settings.
4. Tap Management.
5. Tap Only the owner.
Roles and permissions for members of a

shared file or folder
Note: The permissions in the table below may

differ for customers in a team account, because
admins can manage sharing settings for their
team.
Owner Editor Viewer

File and Folder actions
View folder members and
their roles
View folder contents
Edit folder contents
Comment on files in
*
folder
Unshare folder †
Member actions
Invite and remove
‡ *‡
members
Cancel invites and reinvite
*
members
Determine who can be
invited to the folder
Determine who can
manage membership
of the folder
Make another member the

owner
Change roles of other
*
members
Email members
Move a shared folder into
a team folder §
Leave the folder
*This is the default setting for shared
folders. The owner of a shared folder can
change this setting.
†Owners can only unshare a folder if the
folder doesn’t have any shared folders inside
of it and the folder isn’t inside another
shared folder.
‡If a shared folder is created within a team
account, only members of that team can
invite and remove members.
§This only applies for team accounts.

How to manage sharing settings for your
team
If you’re an admin for a Dropbox team account,

you can manage sharing settings for your team.
To access sharing settings in the admin console:
1. Sign in to dropbox.com with your admin

credentials.
2. Click Admin console in the left sidebar.
3. Click Settings.
4. Click Sharing.
Note: Changes to these settings do not apply

retroactively.
Team sharing settings explained
Sharing externally
This setting controls whether team members can

invite people outside the team to files and
folders.
Important note: When this setting is On,

anyone who has access to team files and
folders can share that content. Make sure your
team only shares files and folders with people
you trust. You can also monitor team sharing
activity in the admin console.
 If this is set to On (anyone), team members

can share with both people who are on the
team and people who aren’t on the team.
 If this is set to On (team + approved), team
members can only share with people who
are on the team and people on the team’s
approved list.
 If this is set to Off (team only), team
members can only share with people who
are on the team.
Note: If you choose to allow sharing externally,

you can view a list of the top email address
domains that your team is sending files to in
the insights dashboard. However, this list won’t
include sharing via links.
Approved list
If Sharing externally is set to On (team +
approved), you’ll see an additional setting to
manage your approved list. You can add
individual users by email or entire email
domains to the approved list. To add people or
valid email domains to the approved list:
1. Sign in to dropbox.com with your admin

credentials.
2. Click Admin Console.
3. Click Settings.
4. Click Sharing.
5. Click Add to list or [x] approved next
to Approved list.
Notes:
 Adding a top-level domain, for example
“example.com”, will also allow members to
share with subdomains such as
“x.example.com” or “y.example.com”.
 The approved list does not apply to shared
links.
Editing external folders

edit folders created by people outside the team.
 If this is set to On, team members can edit

shared folders created by people outside
the team.
 If this is set to Off, team members can’t edit
the team. However, they can still view
the team.
Sharing links externally

share links with people outside the team.
 If this is set to On, team members can share

links with people outside the team. Team
members can override the Default shared
link privacy setting described below.
 If this is set to Off, team members can’t
share links with people outside the team. In
addition, existing links created by team
members will no longer work for people
outside the team.
Note: Your link restriction policies only apply to

team members. If you give an external partner
access to a file or folder, they can create a link
to share that content with others, even if your
team’s Sharing links externally policy is set to
Off.
Default shared link privacy
This setting controls the default privacy of

shared links created by team members.
 If this is set to Team only, only team

members can access shared links by default.
 If this is set to Anyone, anyone can access
shared links by default, regardless of
whether or not they’re part of the team.
Note: Team members can override the default

shared link privacy and choose to give anyone
to access shared links.
Require Password
This setting allows your team members to set an

access password when creating a shared link.
Expiration
This setting allows you to set a specific

expiration date for shared links created by team
members. After the selected date, Dropbox will
automatically disable the shared link. Anyone
attempting to access the link after the expiry
date will be given an error message.
Note: You can Set an expiration for links

shared outside your team. From here, you
have the option to Allow members to remove
or change expiration for the shared link.
Sharing files using Dropbox Transfer

send file transfers to people outside the team.
 If this is set to On, team members can send

file transfers to people inside and outside
the team.
 If this is set to Off, team members cannot
send file transfers to people outside the
team.
How helpful was this article?
Community answers
1.
Can't Access Business Account Root

Folders from Dropbox Client App
2.
Support for dropbox free teams ends

March 31, 2022
3.
Managing multiple accounts and shares
Related articles

How do I manage my team’s shared links?
How to manage Dropbox Transfer for

your team
Manage file requests for your Dropbox

Business tea
How to manage sharing settings for your team
If you’re an admin for a Dropbox team account, you can manage sharing settings for your team.
To access sharing settings in the admin console:
1. Sign in to dropbox.com with your admin credentials.

2. Click Admin console in the left sidebar.
3. Click Settings.
4. Click Sharing.
Note: Changes to these settings do not apply retroactively.
Team sharing settings explained
Sharing externally
This setting controls whether team members can invite people outside the team to files and
folders.
Important note: When this setting is On, anyone who has access to team files and folders can share that
content. Make sure your team only shares files and folders with people you trust. You can also monitor
team sharing activity in the admin console.
 If this is set to On (anyone), team members can share with both people who are on the team
and people who aren’t on the team.
 If this is set to On (team + approved), team members can only share with people who are on the
team and people on the team’s approved list.
 If this is set to Off (team only), team members can only share with people who are on the team.
Note: If you choose to allow sharing externally, you can view a list of the top email address
domains that your team is sending files to in the insights dashboard. However, this list won’t
include sharing via links.
Approved list
If Sharing externally is set to On (team + approved), you’ll see an additional setting to

manage your approved list. You can add individual users by email or entire email domains to the
approved list. To add people or valid email domains to the approved list:
1. Sign in to dropbox.com with your admin credentials.

2. Click Admin Console.
3. Click Settings.
4. Click Sharing.
5. Click Add to list or [x] approved next to Approved list.
Notes:
 Adding a top-level domain, for example “example.com”, will also allow members to share with
subdomains such as “x.example.com” or “y.example.com”.
 The approved list does not apply to shared links.
Editing external folders
This setting controls whether team members can edit folders created by people outside the team.
 If this is set to On, team members can edit shared folders created by people outside the team.
 If this is set to Off, team members can’t edit shared folders created by people outside the team.
However, they can still view shared folders created by people outside the team.
Sharing links externally
This setting controls whether team members can share links with people outside the team.
 If this is set to On, team members can share links with people outside the team. Team members
can override the Default shared link privacy setting described below.
 If this is set to Off, team members can’t share links with people outside the team. In addition,
existing links created by team members will no longer work for people outside the team.
Note: Your link restriction policies only apply to team members. If you give an external partner access to
a file or folder, they can create a link to share that content with others, even if your team’s Sharing links
externally policy is set to Off.
Default shared link privacy
This setting controls the default privacy of shared links created by team members.
 If this is set to Team only, only team members can access shared links by default.
 If this is set to Anyone, anyone can access shared links by default, regardless of whether or not
they’re part of the team.
Note: Team members can override the default shared link privacy and choose to give anyone to
access shared links.
Require Password
This setting allows your team members to set an access password when creating a shared link.
Expiration
This setting allows you to set a specific expiration date for shared links created by team
members. After the selected date, Dropbox will automatically disable the shared link. Anyone
attempting to access the link after the expiry date will be given an error message.
Note: You can Set an expiration for links shared outside your team. From here, you have the
option to Allow members to remove or change expiration for the shared link.
Sharing files using Dropbox Transfer
This setting controls whether team members can send file transfers to people outside the team.
 If this is set to On, team members can send file transfers to people inside and outside the team.
 If this is set to Off, team members cannot send file transfers to people outside the team.
How helpful was this article?
Community answers
1.
Can't Access Business Account Root Folders from Dropbox Client App
2.
Support for dropbox free teams ends March 31, 2022
3.
Managing multiple accounts and shares
Related articles
How do I manage my team’s shared links?
How to manage Dropbox Transfer for your team


Manage file requests for your Dropbox Business tea
administrative law, the legal framework within which public administration is carried out. It
derives from the need to create and develop a system of public administration under law, a
concept that may be compared with the much older notion of justice under law. Since
administration involves the exercise of power by the executive arm of government,
administrative law is of constitutional and political, as well as juridical, importance.
There is no universally accepted definition of administrative law, but rationally it may be held to
cover the organization, powers, duties, and functions of public authorities of all kinds engaged in
administration; their relations with one another and with citizens and nongovernmental bodies;
legal methods of controlling public administration; and the rights and liabilities of officials.
Administrative law is to a large extent complemented by constitutional law, and the line between
them is hard to draw. The organization of a national legislature, the structure of the courts, the
characteristics of a cabinet, and the role of the head of state are generally regarded as matters of
constitutional law, whereas the substantive and procedural provisions relating to central and local
governments and judicial review of administration are reckoned matters of administrative law.
But some matters, such as the responsibility of ministers, cannot be exclusively assigned to either
administrative or constitutional law. Some French and American jurists regard administrative
law as including parts of constitutional law.
The law relating to public health, education, housing, and other public services could logically be
regarded as part of the corpus of administrative law; but because of its sheer bulk it is usually
considered ancillary.
Defining principles
One of the principal objects of administrative law is to ensure efficient, economical, and just
administration. A system of administrative law that impedes or frustrates administration would
clearly be bad, and so, too, would be a system that results in injustice to the individual. But to
judge whether administrative law helps or hinders effective administration or works in such a
way as to deny justice to the individual involves an examination of the ends that public
administration is supposed to serve, as well as the means that it employs.
In this connection only the broadest generalities can be attempted. It can be asserted that all
states, irrespective of their economic and political system or of their stage of development, are
seeking to achieve a high rate of economic growth and a higher average income per person. They
are all pursuing the goals of modernization, urbanization, and industrialization. They are all
trying to provide the major social services, especially education and public health, at as high a
standard as possible. The level of popular expectation is much higher than in former ages. The
government is expected not only to maintain order but also to achieve progress. There is a
widespread belief that wise and well-directed government action can abolish poverty, prevent
severe unemployment, raise the standard of living of the nation, and bring about rapid social
development. People in all countries are far more aware than their forefathers were of the impact
of government on their daily lives and of its potential for good and evil.
The growth in the functions of the state is to be found in the more-developed and in the less-
developed countries; in both old and new states; in democratic, authoritarian, and totalitarian
regimes; and in the mixed economies of the West. The movement is far from having reached its
zenith. With each addition to the functions of the state, additional powers have been acquired by
the administrative organs concerned, which may be central ministries, local, provincial, or
regional governments, or special agencies created for a particular purpose.
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Distinctions between public administration and private action
Activities such as traffic control, fire-protection services, policing, smoke abatement, the
construction or repair of highways, the provision of currency, town and country planning, and
the collection of customs and excise duties are usually carried out by governments, whose
executive organs are assumed to represent the collective will of the community and to be acting
for the common good. It is for this reason that they are given powers not normally conferred on
private persons. They may be authorized to infringe citizens’ property rights and restrict their
freedom of action in many different ways, ranging from the quarantining of infectious persons to
the instituting of criminal proceedings for nonpayment of taxes. To take another example, the
postal laws of many countries favour the post office at the expense of the customer in a way
unknown where common carriers are concerned. Again, a public authority involved in slum
clearance or housing construction tends to be in a much stronger legal position than a private
developer.
The result of the distinction between public administration and private action is that
administrative law is quite different from private law regulating the actions, interests, and
obligations of private persons. Civil servants do not generally serve under a contract of
employment but have a special status. Taxes are not debts, nor are they governed by the law
relating to the recovery of debts by private persons. In addition, relations between one executive
organ and another, and between an executive organ and the public, are usually regulated by
compulsory or permissive powers conferred upon the executive organs by the legislature.
The law regulating the internal aspects of administration (e.g., relations between the government
and its officials, a local authority and its committees, or a central department and a local
authority) differs from that covering external relations (those between the administration and
private persons or interests). In practice, internal and external aspects are often linked, and legal
provisions of both kinds exist side by side in the same statute. Thus, a law dealing with education
may modify the administrative organization of the education service and also regulate the
relations between parents and the school authorities.
Another distinction exists between a command addressed by legislation to the citizen, requiring
him to act or to refrain from acting in a certain way, and a direction addressed to the
administrative authorities. When an administrative act takes the form of an unconditional
command addressed to the citizen, a fine or penalty is usually attached for failure to comply. In
some countries the enforcement is entrusted to the criminal courts, which can review the
administrative act; in others the administrative act itself must be challenged in an administrative
court.
The need for legal safeguards over public administration
Statutory directions addressed to the executive authorities may impose absolute duties, or they
may confer discretionary powers authorizing a specified action in certain circumstances. Such
legislation may give general directions for such activities as factory inspection, slum clearance,
or town planning. The statute lays down the conditions under which it is lawful for the
administration to act and confers on the authorities the appropriate powers, many of which
involve a large element of discretion. Here the executive is not confined merely to carrying out
the directions of the legislature; often it also shares in the lawmaking process by being
empowered to issue regulations or ordinances dealing with matters not regulated by the statute.
This may be regarded either as part of the ordinary process by which the legislature delegates its
powers or as an inevitable feature of modern government, given that many matters are too
technical, detailed, or subject to frequent change to be included in the main body of legislation—
legislation being less easy to change than regulations.
Whatever the source of the executive’s rule-making power, safeguards against misuse are
necessary. For instance, the regulation must not exceed the delegated powers; its provisions must
conform with the aims of the parent statute; prior consultation with interests likely to be affected
should take place whenever practicable; and the regulations must not contravene relevant
constitutional rules and legal standards. In some countries regulations are scrutinized by a type of
watchdog known as the council of state before they come into force; in others, by the
parliamentary assembly; and in yet others, by the ordinary courts.
In most countries the executive arm of government possesses certain powers not derived from
legislation, customary law, or a written constitution. In the United Kingdom there are prerogative
powers of the crown, nearly all of which are now exercised by ministers and which concern such
matters as making treaties, declaring war and peace, pardoning criminals, issuing passports, and
conferring honours. In Italy, France, Belgium, and other continental European countries, certain
acts concerning the higher interests of the state are recognized as actes de gouvernement and are
thereby immune from control by any court or administrative tribunal. In the German Empire
(1871–1918) the principle that an administrative act carried its own legal validity was accepted at
the end of the 19th century by leading jurists. This led to the doctrine that administration was
only loosely bound to the law. The doctrine was rejected in the Federal Republic of Germany
(1949–90), however, and efforts were made to reduce the area in which the executive was free to
act outside administrative law.
Bureaucracy and the role of administrative law
An inevitable consequence of the expansion of governmental functions has been the rise of
bureaucracy. The number of officials of all kinds has greatly increased, and so too have the
material resources allocated to their activities, while their powers have been enlarged in scope
and depth. The rise of bureaucracy has occurred in countries ruled by all types of government,
including communist countries, dictatorships and fascist regimes, and political democracies. It is
as conspicuous in the former colonial states of Africa and Asia as among the highly developed
countries of western Europe or North America. A large, strong, and well-trained civil service is
essential in a modern state, irrespective of the political character of its regime or the nature of its
economy.
Fear of the maladies that tend to afflict bureaucracy has produced a considerable volume of
protest in some countries; and, even in those where opposition to the government or the party in
power is not permitted, criticism and exposure of bureaucratic maladministration are generally
encouraged.
Bureaucratic maladies are of different kinds. They include an overdevotion of officials to

precedent, remoteness from the rest of the community, inaccessibility, arrogance in dealing with
the general public, ineffective organization, waste of labour, procrastination, an excessive sense
of self-importance, indifference to the feelings or convenience of citizens, an obsession with the
binding authority of departmental decisions, inflexibility, abuse of power, and reluctance to
admit error. Many of these defects can be prevented or cured by the application of good
management techniques and by the careful training of personnel. A whole range of techniques is
available for this purpose, including effective public relations, work-study programs,
organization and management, operational research, and social surveys.
Administrative law is valuable in controlling the bureaucracy. Under liberal-democratic systems

of government, political and judicial control of administration are regarded as complementary,
but distinct. The former is concerned with questions of policy and the responsibility of the
executive for administration and expenditure. The latter is concerned with inquiring into
particular cases of complaint. Administrative law does not include the control of policy by
ministers or the head of state.
Judicial review of administration
Judicial review of administration is, in a sense, the heart of administrative law. It is certainly the
most appropriate method of inquiring into the legal competence of a public authority. The
aspects of an official decision or an administrative act that may be scrutinized by the judicial
process are the competence of the public authority, the extent of a public authority’s legal
powers, the adequacy and fairness of the procedure, the evidence considered in arriving at the
administrative decision and the motives underlying it, and the nature and scope of the
discretionary power. An administrative act or decision can be invalidated on any of these
grounds if the reviewing court or tribunal has a sufficiently wide jurisdiction. There is also the
question of responsibility for damage caused by the public authority in the performance of its
functions. Judicial review is less effective as a method of inquiring into the wisdom, expediency,
or reasonableness of administrative acts, and courts and tribunals are unwilling to substitute their
own decisions for that of the responsible authority.
Judicial review of administration varies internationally. Sweden and France, for instance, have
gone as far as subjecting the exercise of all discretionary powers, other than those relating to
foreign affairs and defense, to judicial review and potential limitation. Elsewhere, a
preoccupation with procedure results in judicial review deciding only whether the correct
procedure was observed rather than examining the substance of the decision.
It is of course impractical to subject every administrative act or decision to investigation, for this
would entail unacceptable delay. The complainant must, therefore, always make out a prima
facie case that maladministration has occurred.
Judicial review cannot compel the state to act in a particular way because the courts concerned
cannot impose sanctions on the government, which itself controls the use of force. Such remedies
as an injunction, an order for specific performance, or an order for mandamus will not lie against
the central government. These inhibitions, however, are of less practical importance than might
be supposed. Nevertheless, nearly all governments (even revolutionary ones) are eager to
proclaim the lawfulness of the regime and seldom disregard the decisions of an authorized court
or tribunal.
In judicial review of administration at a national level, a country’s history, politics, and

constitutional theory all play their part. There are, broadly, three major systems: the common-law
model; the French, or council of state, model; and the procurator model.
The common-law system
Origins
The common-law system originated in England in the Middle Ages. In the 17th century relations
between the courts and the executive developed into a constitutional struggle between the Stuart
kings and the judges over the judges’ right to decide questions affecting the royal power and
even to pronounce an independent judgment in cases in which the king had an interest. Francis
Bacon, in his essay Of Judicature (written in 1612), put forth the royalist point of view when he
declared that the judges should be “lions, but yet lions under the throne.” “It is a happy thing in a
state,” he wrote, “when kings and states do often consult with judges; and again, when judges do
often consult with the king and state: the one, when there is matter of law intervenient in
business of state; the other, when there is some consideration of state intervenient in matter of
law.” The subordination of the judicature to the royal will was strongly resisted by Chief Justice
Sir Edward Coke, Bacon’s great rival, who refused to comply with James I’s wishes in a number
of cases in which the royal prerogative was involved. The King harangued the judges more than
once on their duty to respect the royal prerogative and power.
In the constitutional conflict that took place a generation later, the judges and the lawyers made
common cause with Parliament against Charles I, and eventually the independence of the judges
was established. Henceforth there was to be one system of law to which all would owe
obedience. As a result, the executive possessed no inherent powers other than those subject to the
rule of law inasmuch as legislation now had to emanate from the crown in Parliament. In
addition, the judges were expected to protect the subject against the executive. A more intangible
consequence was the belief that “government” and “law” were often thought to be opposed to
one another. The earlier conflict between crown and judges survived to become an antagonism
between the legal profession and the executive, particularly the civil service.
These developments established the principle that the executive should never interfere with the
judiciary in the exercise of its functions. This was, indeed, almost the only strict application in
England of the doctrine of the separation of powers. On the other hand, it was regarded as right
and proper that the judiciary should interfere with the executive whenever a minister or a
department was shown to have acted illegally. In this way the concept of the rule of law came
gradually to be identified with the idea that the judges, in ordinary legal proceedings in the
ordinary courts, could pronounce upon the lawfulness of the activities of the executive. Any
attempt to divide the seamless web of the law, any suggestion of a distinction between public and
private law, appeared destructive of the law’s universality and its power to keep the executive
within bounds.
The principle that all public authorities are liable to have the lawfulness of their acts and
decisions tested in the ordinary courts was applied everywhere the common law prevailed,
including the United States, despite the much stricter interpretation given by the Founding
Fathers there to the doctrine of the separation of powers—a doctrine embodied in the federal and
state constitutions. A complete separation of powers was not considered feasible by the framers
of the Constitution, and they therefore introduced checks and balances, whereby each of the three
branches of government would be prevented from growing too powerful by the countervailing
power of the others. This actually strengthened the power of the courts to review the actions of
the executive. Elsewhere in the common-law world, the extended role of the courts in reviewing
administration was adopted without any public debate concerning the separation of powers or the
need to protect liberty by a system of checks and balances. This absence of an explicitly defined
role for courts led, in the early post-World War II years in Britain, to real fears that the courts
would be unable or unwilling to question the expanded powers of governmental bodies.
Modification of the common-law system
The common-law system was extensively modified in the course of the 20th century. Until then
it did not correspond to the realities of the situation in Britain because, prior to the Crown
Proceedings Act (1947), it was not possible to sue ministers and their departments in tort;
government ministers in Britain are considered ministers of the crown, and an ancient legal
doctrine holds that “the king can do no wrong.” Moreover, the development of state-provided
social services has been accompanied by the creation of a large number of administrative
tribunals to determine disputes between a government department and a citizen. The jurisdiction
of these tribunals is of a specialized and narrowly circumscribed character and relates to such
functions as social insurance and social assistance, the National Health Service, rent control,
assessment of property for local taxation, the compulsory acquisition of land by public
authorities, and the registration of children’s homes. Since 1958 a permanent Council on
Tribunals appointed by the lord chancellor has exercised a general supervision over about 40
tribunal systems, but they remain an unsystematic and uncoordinated movement. However, they
provide a method of administrative adjudication far cheaper, more informal, and more rapid than
that offered by the courts; the members are persons possessing special knowledge and experience
of the subject dealt with; they do not have to follow the strict and complex rules of evidence that
prevail in the courts; and it is possible to introduce new social standards and moral
considerations to guide their decisions. These tribunals have won general approval for the quality
and impartiality of their work. An appeal on a question of law lies in most instances from the
decision of an administrative tribunal to the High Court of Justice. There is still no
comprehensive administrative jurisdiction in Britain permitting judicial review over the whole
field of executive action and decision.
In Australia a similar movement took place with the growth of a large number of administrative
tribunals that regulate many different spheres of public administration, such as industrial
conditions; the award of pensions, allowances, and other state grants; town planning; censorship
of films; fair rents; the licensing of occupations calling for special skills or public responsibility;
trade, transport, and marketing; the assessment of national taxes, local taxes, or duties; the
protection of industrial design, patents, and copyrights; and compensation for interference with
private-property rights in the public interest. From 1975 these tribunals were managed by the
Administrative Appeals Tribunal.
lampoon of Interstate Commerce Commission
In the United States the courts review administration much more comprehensively than in
Britain. Nevertheless, much adjudication is now performed by public authorities other than the
courts of law. The movement toward administrative tribunals began with the Interstate
Commerce Act (1887), establishing the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate railways
and other carriers. This law introduced a new type of federal agency, outside the framework of
the executive departments and largely independent of the president. Other regulatory
commissions followed: the Federal Trade Commission, the Federal Communications
Commission, the Securities and Exchange Commission, the National Labor Relations Board, and
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. These bodies have had administrative,
legislative, and judicial functions delegated to them by Congress, and the doctrine of the
separation of powers can no longer be successfully invoked to challenge the constitutionality of
such legislation. The regulatory commissions are often described by American jurists as
administrative tribunals.
Thus, in the United States, as in other parts of the Anglo-American common-law world, the
concept of the exclusive exercise by the ordinary courts of all judicial powers and of the absence
of special administrative tribunals has been substantially modified by these developments.
The council of state system

The French system
In France the separation of powers was given a place of honour in the Declaration of the Rights
of Man and of the Citizen (1789). In the French view, however, if a court were permitted to
review an administrative act or decision, it would contravene the separation of powers as much
as if the executive could override the decision of a court. Just as an appeal from a court lies to a
higher court, the reasoning goes, so an appeal from an administrative authority should lie to a
higher administrative authority. Only thus would the true separation of powers be observed.
Herein lies the explanation of administrative law as a system of law separate from the body of
law administered in the courts. A law of August 1790 declared that the judiciary was distinct
from and would always remain separated from the executive. It forbade judges, on pain of
dismissal, to interfere in any way with the work of administrative bodies. In October 1790 a
second law stated that under no circumstances should claims to annul acts of administrative
bodies fall within the jurisdiction of the courts. Such claims should be brought before the king as
head of the general administration.
The Conseil du Roi of the ancien régime, with its functions as legal adviser and administrative
court, is generally considered to be the precursor of the Conseil d’État. The basic structure of the
Conseil d’État was laid down by Napoleon, however. Among the functions accorded to it by the
constitution of the year VIII (December 1799) was that of adjudicating in conflicts that might
arise between the administration and the courts. It was also empowered to adjudicate any matters
previously left to the minister’s discretion that ought to be the subject of judicial decision. In
1806 a decree created a Judicial Committee of the Conseil to examine applications and report
thereon to the General Assembly of the Conseil. These enactments laid the foundation of an
administrative jurisdiction that was not clearly established until May 24, 1872, when a law
delegated to the Conseil d’État the judicial power to make binding decisions and recognized the
Conseil as the court in which claims against the administration should be brought.
The Conseil d’État is and always has been part of the administration. It has for long had the task
of giving legal advice to the government on bills, regulations, decrees, and administrative
questions. It is this that long led foreign jurists into believing that, when sitting as a court, its
decisions would inevitably be biased in favour of the executive. Nothing could be further from
the truth, and today the Conseil is universally recognized as an independent court that provides
French citizens with exceptionally good protection against maladministration. Suits that are
directed against the French administration are heard in the Section du Contentieux, or Judicial
Division, the successor of the Judicial Committee after restructuring in 1872.
More From Britannica
court: Review of administrative decisions
The Conseil d’État is the final authority in administrative disputes. Owing to the immense
volume of work falling on it, the former prefectural councils, which served as administrative
courts subordinate to the Conseil d’État, were transformed in 1953 into administrative tribunals
of first instance, and the professional qualifications and career prospects of their members were
improved. The great majority of cases go before these tribunals, and the Conseil d’État is the
court of first and last instance only in those exceedingly rare cases when it is specially designated
for that purpose.
If difficulty or doubt arises as to whether a case falls within the administrative jurisdiction or that
of the ordinary courts, the question is resolved by the Tribunal des Conflits. This is a court
specially established for the purpose, consisting of five judges from the Cour de Cassation (the
highest civil court) and five from the Conseil d’État. The minister of justice, in his capacity as
keeper of the seals (garde des sceaux), may sometimes preside and cast a tie-breaking vote.
Several other countries have followed France in establishing councils of state. Among them are
Italy, Greece, Belgium, Spain, Turkey, Portugal, and Egypt. It must be stated, however, that in
no other country has a council of state acquired such high status, powers, authority, or prestige as
in France.
The German system
Germany traditionally has had no council of state, but it does have a fully articulated system of
special administrative courts. In the states, or Länder, there are lower administrative courts and
superior administrative courts, and for the federation there is the Federal Administrative Court,
which acts mainly as a court of appeals from the superior administrative courts in the Länder and
even from the lower administrative courts in certain circumstances. The Federal Administrative
Court serves also as a court of first and last instance in disputes not involving questions of
constitutionality between the federation and the Länder or between two or more Länder; it hears
petitions by the federal Cabinet on declarations that an association is prohibited under the Basic
Law of the Federal Republic, petitions against the federation in matters concerning the
diplomatic or consular service, and cases concerning the business of the Federal Intelligence
Service.
A Land administrative court possesses jurisdiction concerning the acts of the Länder
administrative authorities and also complaints against officers of the federal government located
in the Länder. Some of the highest federal organs are exempt from the Länder courts. Few cases
go beyond the Länder supreme administrative courts.
Recourse to an administrative court is available for public law disputes unless the matter has
been assigned to another court by federal legislation. (Public law governs the relationship
between the state and executive in the exercise of their governmental authority and the individual
—insofar as the relationship is not commercial.) The Administrative Courts Code holds that
property claims arising from services for the common good and restitution claims arising from
violation of duties under public law shall be heard by the ordinary courts. In other words, the
German system is complicated by the rule that only the ordinary civil courts can award damages
against an official or the executive arm of government. As a consequence, the distinction
between the ordinary courts and the administrative courts depends on the remedy sought and not
on the subject matter of the dispute or the nature of the parties. The jurisdiction of the
administrative courts in Germany is therefore less comprehensive and clear-cut than in France.
What Is Administration?
Administration, also referred to as business administration, is the management and application of

the processes an office, business, or organisation. It involves the efficient and effective
organisation of people, information, and other resources to achieve organisational objectives.
Information is key to business operations, and people are the resources who make use of
information to add value to an organisation. This means that companies will struggle without
some type of administration management.
What Is Administrative Management?
The management of administration has become an important function for every successful
organisation and plays an essential role in ensuring that businesses run smoothly. Administrative
Management is the process of managing information through people. This usually involves
performing the storage and distribution of information to those within an organisation. A large
number of roles within business require some element of administrative management. Anyone
involved in the planning, co-ordinating, directing, or controlling aspects of a business can be
considered an Administrative Manager.
What Does An Administrative Manager Do?
Administrative managers oversee the support operations of an organisation. They ensure that
there is effectuive information flow and that resources are employed effciently throughout a
business.
Strong administrative managers are organised and detail-orientated with good analytical skills to
run day-to-day operations. They value the point-of-view of those who are expected to operate
often complex systems. With the speed of change in business it is important for administrative
managers to stay up to date on developments in the business and office environment.
Administrative managers generally work with a large array of people and may be leading teams
where effective people management comes into play. A professional in this position may provide
support to an entire company or, in organisations with multiple administrative managers, each
one may be responsible for a particular division or department of the organisation. Daily support
can involve working with entry-level employees to senior management, as well as liasing
directly with clients and suppliers.
An administrative manager can also add value to an organisation by challenging the

effectiveness of established procedures. It is an important position for identifying outdated
practices and developing continual improvement processes for the organisation.
Depending on the organisation, administrative managers may be involved in a variety of

responsibilities such as:
 Business planning
 Project management
 Finance
 Developing budgets
 Performing cost reduction research
 Handling accounts recievable/payable
 Human Resources
 Recruiting and training Employees
 Processing payroll
 Reporting on employee performance
 Office and facilities management
 Clerical tasks
 Writing contracts
 Using database systems
If you are looking for an administrative role, or looking to progress into your next role, IAM
membership can help you to build and demonstrate your skillset.
Member Levels
Download our member level document to find the criteria that needs to be evidenced for each
level and the associated membership fee.
Member Benefits
Download our summary document, if you want to find out more about the benefits of becoming
a member.
Renew Membership
If you are already a member you can renew your membership by logging in to the member portal
or by completing the renewal form and returning it via email to info@instam.org or via post.
Working With Us
If you are a training provider, individual, network, employer or organisation and want to work
with us, then you can find out more here.
What Is Administration?
Administration, also referred to as business administration, is the management and application of

the processes an office, business, or organisation. It involves the efficient and effective
organisation of people, information, and other resources to achieve organisational objectives.
Information is key to business operations, and people are the resources who make use of
information to add value to an organisation. This means that companies will struggle without
some type of administration management.
What Is Administrative Management?
The management of administration has become an important function for every successful
organisation and plays an essential role in ensuring that businesses run smoothly. Administrative
Management is the process of managing information through people. This usually involves
performing the storage and distribution of information to those within an organisation. A large
number of roles within business require some element of administrative management. Anyone
involved in the planning, co-ordinating, directing, or controlling aspects of a business can be
considered an Administrative Manager.
What Does An Administrative Manager Do?
Administrative managers oversee the support operations of an organisation. They ensure that
there is effectuive information flow and that resources are employed effciently throughout a
business.
Strong administrative managers are organised and detail-orientated with good analytical skills to
run day-to-day operations. They value the point-of-view of those who are expected to operate
often complex systems. With the speed of change in business it is important for administrative
managers to stay up to date on developments in the business and office environment.
Administrative managers generally work with a large array of people and may be leading teams
where effective people management comes into play. A professional in this position may provide
support to an entire company or, in organisations with multiple administrative managers, each
one may be responsible for a particular division or department of the organisation. Daily support
can involve working with entry-level employees to senior management, as well as liasing
directly with clients and suppliers.
An administrative manager can also add value to an organisation by challenging the

effectiveness of established procedures. It is an important position for identifying outdated
practices and developing continual improvement processes for the organisation.
Depending on the organisation, administrative managers may be involved in a variety of

responsibilities such as:
 Business planning
 Project management
 Finance
 Developing budgets
 Performing cost reduction research
 Handling accounts recievable/payable
 Human Resources
 Recruiting and training Employees
 Processing payroll
 Reporting on employee performance
 Office and facilities management
 Clerical tasks
 Writing contracts
 Using database systems
If you are looking for an administrative role, or looking to progress into your next role, IAM
membership can help you to build and demonstrate your skillset.
Member Levels
Member Benefits
a member.
Renew Membership
Working With Us
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Individual Membership
We welcome people across all job roles, levels and experiences within the Administrative
Management field. This has seen our membership grow to include a breadth of roles including
PAs, EAs, VAs, Office Managers, Administrators, Administrative Managers, Project Co-
ordinators and more. This provides an excellent opportunity for our members to network with
people working in their profession.
IAM membership specifically considers your skills, experiences and knowledge to give you
professional recognition of your competency. We build strong relationships with industry leaders
and professionals enabling us to give members access to opportunities to help them manage their
career and professional development.
Benefits
Corporate Membership
Administrative staff are key to ensuring businesses run effectively, yet they can also be under-
represented in the business. Often organisations are unaware of the training opportunities they
can offer their administrative staff despite the increasing number of trainers and courses
available specialising under this umbrella. We work with employers to be the hub that supports
the career development of their administrative staff.
Becoming a corporate member gives your employees the best opportunity to develop their
professional skills which, in turn, will benefit the organisation as a whole, as well as
demonstrating your commitment to staff development.
Professional Development Overview
We are, and have been for over 100 years, proud to assist administrative professionals
throughout their career.
Although there will always be some topics that are of constant relevance for some roles in the
profession, such as communication, minute-taking and Microsoft skills, we ensure the
opportunities provided reflect the diversifying role of the administrative professional and the
increasing skill-set that employers are looking for.
Balancing work and home life can also be challenging, therefore, we provide training and
development opportunities over a variety of platforms; online, distance learning and classroom-
based, enabling you to find methods that are suitable for you.
Through our accredited partners you get access to the only regulated PA/EA and office manager
qualifications in England at special IAM rates.
IAM Accredited Training
As a professional body we pride ourselves on driving training standards and recognising the
great work that training and learning professionals provide.
What Is IAM Accreditation?
When we accredit a course a subject matter expert reviews the learning programmes and learning
materials. If this review is successful, it means that we are confident the course reflects best
practice and adds value for students.
IAM Accreditation gives you the opportunity to demonstrate that your course meets high training
standards and you are a leading training provider in the fields of business and administration
management.
Who Is The IAM Accreditation Scheme For?
Our accreditation programme is for any organisation that offers training within our footprint of
expertise. Organisations include learning technology providers, professional bodies, training
departments and training providers.
Benefits Of IAM Accreditation
Organisations that are approved will be:
 Authorised to use the IAM logo on documentation relating to their endorsed programme,
subject to IAM corporate branding guidelines.
 Featured on the IAM accredited programme list on the IAM member portal.
 Able to provide attendees with IAM CPD certificates, co-branded where appropriate.
 Have opportunities for their course to be promoted to IAM networks.

Benefits Of IAM Accreditation
Organisations that are approved will be:
 Authorised to use the IAM logo on documentation relating to their endorsed programme,
subject to IAM corporate branding guidelines.
 Featured on the IAM accredited programme list on the IAM member portal.
 Able to provide attendees with IAM CPD certificates, co-branded where appropriate.
 Have opportunities for their course to be promoted to IAM networks.
Want To Find Out More Information Or Apply For IAM Accreditation?
If you are interested in finding out more about the endorsement process, the benefits, or are
interested in applying, then please send an enquiry to info@instam.org or call us on 01952
797396.
Privacy Policy
1. Introduction
1.1 We, The Institute of Administrative Management (IAM) and our subsidiaries, are committed
to protecting your privacy and maintaining the security of any personal information received
from you. We take privacy and security of your information seriously and will only use such
personal information as set out in this privacy policy.
1.2 The purpose of this policy is to explain to you what personal information we collect and how
we may use it.
1.3 Please note that our privacy policy may change from time to time and the new privacy policy
will be published on our websites. By using the websites and submitting your information to us,
you agree to us using your personal information in accordance with this policy.

2. What does this privacy policy cover?
2.1 This privacy policy only applies to how the IAM deals with your personal information. It
does not apply to any other company or to any other company’s websites even if you access
them through the IAM. If you disclose your personal information to other companies your
information will be dealt with according to their privacy practices.
3. What information do we collect?
3.1 We collect information from our users through the online registration process and by
telephone, written correspondence and/or cookies via our websites.
3.2 The minimum information we need to register a user is a username and/or an email address
and/or a password. We may also ask you for other information that relates to the sale of goods
and/or the supply of services. For example, we may need your credit card details for completing
the transactions.
3.3 We may also request further information from you by questionnaire or survey so we can gain
a clearer understanding of our users. Your response is voluntary and will help us to personalise
services for our users.
3.4 We may receive personal information about you from other companies and organisations and
we rely on these third parties to obtain your consent for us to use this information.
3.5 Where your information is provided or collected in the United Kingdom or other part of the
European Economic Area (EEA), we may transfer your data to countries outside the EEA which
may not guarantee an adequate level of protection for your data.
4. How do we use your information?

4.1 Please note that when you order goods and/or services from the IAM we may make enquiries
about you for credit reference purposes. These enquires include searching your records held by
any credit reference agency and checking any details held on you by any fraud prevention
scheme. At all times where your information is disclosed to us we will protect it in accordance
with this policy and keep it secure.
4.2 We collect different types of information about our users for three main reasons:
(A) to help us to improve the services we offer;
(B) to provide goods and services to users; and
(C) to revise our advertising and marketing strategies.
4.3 This might mean showing an advertiser how many visitors there are to each website, when
they visited, for how long and to which areas of our Websites they went. We may share this
information with our advertisers and to other companies which offer their goods or services on
our website. It helps to show these organisations how effective our websites are as sales channels
for their products. You or any other individual cannot be identified from the information we
share as the data is aggregated and anonymised.
4.4 So as to provide goods and services to you we may need to give your information to our
service providers.
5. Cookies
Please refer to our Cookie Policy.
6. How do we protect your personal information?
6.1 The IAM takes reasonable measures (physical, organisational and technological) to safeguard
against unauthorised access to your personal information (for example, to ensure that email
communications are only accessible by the designated recipients at IAM or their suppliers) and
to safely store your personal information. However, you acknowledge that the Internet is not a
secure medium and the privacy of your communications and personal information can never be
guaranteed.
7. How can you update and access your personal information?

7.1 If you have indicated on the registration form that you wish to receive direct marketing
material, your personal details will be included in a database compiled for direct marketing
purposes. From time to time, you may receive direct marketing information from us or from third
parties.
7.2 If you have indicated that you wish to receive direct marketing material or email updates
from the IAM or its partners, but subsequently change your mind, you should notify us by
clicking on the ‘Contact‘ link anywhere on the website. Alternatively you may write to our
customer service department at Grosvenor House, Suite 4.02, Telford, TF2 9TW. As soon after
this as is reasonably practical, we will remove your name from the relevant database.
7.3 If at any time you wish to update or correct any personally identifiable information you have
provided, or you no longer wish us to collect, use or disclose any personally identifiable
information for the purposes described above, please do not hesitate to contact us by clicking on
the ‘Contact‘ link anywhere on the websites. Alternatively you may write to our customer
service department at Grosvenor House, Suite 4.02, Telford, TF2 9TW. If we do not hear
otherwise from you, we will assume the information you provide is accurate and up-to-date and
that you consent to the collection, use and disclosure of the personally identifiable information
you provide us about yourself or others for the purposes described above.
Please email info@instam.org if you have any queries or comments on this privacy policy.
© The IAM All rights reserved, and all moral rights are asserted and reserved.
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Privacy Policy
1. Introduction
we may use it.

the transactions.

service providers.
5. Cookies
guaranteed.

parties.
Member Levels
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a member.
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Working With Us
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 Privacy Policy
 Cookie Policy

Email*
Contact us
 +44 (0)1952 797 396
 info@instam.org
Privacy Policy
1. Introduction
we may use it.

the transactions.

service providers.
5. Cookies
guaranteed.

parties.
Member Levels
Member Benefits
a member.
Renew Membership
Working With Us
Quick Links
Privacy Links
 Privacy Policy
 Cookie Policy

Email*
Contact us
 +44 (0)1952 797 396
 info@instam.org
Privacy Policy
1. Introduction
we may use it.

the transactions.

service providers.
5. Cookies
guaranteed.

parties.
Member Levels
Member Benefits
a member.
Renew Membership
Working With Us
Quick Links
Privacy Links
 Privacy Policy
 Cookie Policy

Email*
Contact us
 +44 (0)1952 797 396
 info@instam.org
Privacy Policy
1. Introduction
we may use it.

the transactions.

service providers.
5. Cookies
guaranteed.

parties.
Member Levels
Member Benefits
a member.
Renew Membership
Working With Us
Quick Links
Privacy Links
 Privacy Policy
 Cookie Policy

Email*
Contact us
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Terms And Conditions
These terms and conditions form the basis of the contract through which the INSTITUTE OF
ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT (IAM), incorporated in England & Wales under the
Companies Act 1985 (Registered No.09016031) whose registered office is at Institute Of
Administrative Management, 3 Manor Farm Offices, Churchend Lane, Charfield, GL12 8LJ will
deliver a service to you as an IAM member or subscriber (you). On becoming a member or
subscriber of IAM you agree to these terms and conditions. We will handle your personal data in
accordance with our privacy policy and the latest GDPR regulations.
By purchasing Goods and/or Services from us, you agree to be legally bound by these Terms and
Conditions. These Terms and Conditions are made up of the following two parts: Part A sets out
the general terms that govern any purchase by you of Goods and/or Services and Part B provides
the definitions of the defined terms that are used in Part A.
PART A
Terms And Conditions Relating to The Sale Of Goods And The Supply Of Services
1. The Contract Between Us

The Terms and Conditions govern the supply of Goods and/or Services to you, that are
1.1
ordered by you directly from IAM.
Our Terms and Conditions intend to comply with all of your statutory rights as a
1.2 Consumer. However, in the event that any uncertainty arises, your statutory rights will
take priority over these Terms and Conditions.
Where you order Services as a Consumer, subject to the terms of the Contract, once
payment has been received IAM will allow you to use the relevant Services for the
1.3 duration that your use of the Services is permitted as described in the acknowledgement
provided by us to you in accordance with clause 4.1 below, and at that time the Contract
between us will be formed.
Where you order Services otherwise than as a Consumer, subject to the terms of the
Contract, once payment has been received, IAM will allow use the relevant Services for
1.4
the duration that the Service is permitted as described in the Invoice, and at that time the
Contract between us will be formed.
Where you order Goods as a Consumer, subject to the terms of the Contract, the
1.5 Contract will be formed once you receive an acknowledgement referred to in clause 4.1
below from us relating to your Order.
Where you order Goods otherwise than as a Consumer, subject to the terms of the
1.6 Contract, the Contract will be formed once you receive an Invoice from us relating to
your Order.
2. Conditions of Use
The Goods and/or Services are available to anyone, regardless of ethnicity, gender or
age. You acknowledge and understand that you may not order the Goods and/or
2.1
Services unless you are legally permitted to do so under the laws in your respective
country of residence.
By requesting the Goods and/or Services on behalf of an organisation, you warrant and
2.2
represent that you have the authority to bind that organisation to the Contract.
By requesting Goods and/or Services on your own behalf, you warrant and represent
that you are at least 16 years old, either entering into the Contract for yourself or
entering on behalf of another or person in your legal care. If you are a parent or guardian
2.3
entering the Contract for the benefit of another, you agree that you are fully responsible
for their use of the Goods and/or Services, including all charges and liability that he or
she may incur.
If we notify you of any change to Goods and/or Services that is required by Law, you
2.4
agree to act as necessary upon the change.
Whilst we will endeavour to tell you about changes to Goods and Services, including
promotional offers, security or any other reasons, the IAM is entitled to modify or
2.5
discontinue the provision of Goods and Services (or any parts of them) at any time
without giving notice to you.
3. Price
The Price payable for the Goods and/or the Services that you request are as set out in the
Invoice we send to you and, where you are a Consumer, in the acknowledgement we
3.1 send to you in accordance with clause 4.1. The Invoice and acknowledgement will set
out whether or not the Prices are inclusive or exclusive of the delivery costs and the
VAT or other applicable sales tax or duty (if any).
4. Payment and Delivery
Where you are a Consumer and you place an Order we will send you written
4.1 confirmation via email of your Order setting out the details of the Goods and/or Services
to be supplied to you and the date of purchase.
The IAM may suspend delivery of Goods and/or Services until full payment is received.
If the IAM has delivered Goods/Services and such remain neither paid for nor made
4.2
available for collection when reasonably demanded, then IAM may recover the
outstanding payment and/or recover costs to be paid by the Consumer.
Any period or times stated for delivery, or for compliance with any other contractual
obligations of IAM are estimates only. If the estimated delivery date cannot be met then
a subscribing member (but not a Business User) will be contacted and advised of a
proposed new date for delivery. If the revised delivery date and delivery is not made
4.3 within 30 days from the original date that the Contract was formed or the previously
agreed delivery date (if applicable), then you may cancel the Contract without charge
and the IAM shall provide a full refund. In any event, IAM accepts no responsibility for
loss or damage resulting from delay or failure to notify a Business User of any such
delay.
5. Membership Benefits
5.1 Membership of the IAM will provide you with membership at Subscriber, Student,
Affiliate, Associate, Member, Fellow, Retired/Lifetime level. Companions of the
Institute join by invitation only including Honorary Members.
As an IAM member you will receive a wide range of benefits.
A typical membership package may include:
● Post nominal letters
● Full access to the IAM website
● Support with CV writing and career development

● Networking through our events and dedicated forums
● Access to a variety of training and development content
● A range of discounted products / services both direct with IAM and through IAM
selected partners
● Guidance on CPD and support with your CPD record keeping
● Access to the IAM Academy including discounted courses
● Other benefits not listed above
Membership packages may vary according to the grade of membership held. Subscribers
are given specific benefits which are outlined below:
We reserve the right to change the benefits that apply to IAM membership at any time
and without prior notice.
Any external providers of a benefit included within your membership package will have
absolute discretion in relation to the provision of services, and membership of IAM does
not guarantee that the external provider will accept an application from a member for the
provision of services.
Services supplied from an external provider will be subject to the provider’s own terms
and conditions, and we do not accept any liability for loss or damage suffered as a result
of a fault, error or omission in the provision of these services.
We reserve the right to change our external providers without prior notice and our
decision on services provided is final.
6 Subscribers
Subscribers will receive:
● IAM’s email newsletter, at least monthly;
● Access to IAM’s online on-demand information and resources

6.1
● Invitations to webinars and online events
Subscribers do not have access to the full range of benefits generally available for IAM
Members and do not receive Member benefits. They are not able to use IAM post
nominals. However, Subscribers can upgrade to full membership and gain access to such
benefits subject to an appropriate assessment being successfully completed.
7.0 Contract Acceptance
When you click to submit your application you are making an offer to subscribe to the
IAM which, if accepted by us, will result in a legally binding contract.
7.1
At the point of renewal of your membership, your renewal payment is confirmation of
the continued acceptance of this contract. You may not transfer any of your rights and
obligations under these terms and conditions to another person.
8.0 Cooling Off Period
Once we accept your application, you have seven working days in which you may
cancel your subscription without any penalty if you change your mind. If you wish to
8.1
cancel, you must notify us within these seven working days in writing, by email or
cancel your membership online.
9.0 Professional Conduct
By proceeding with this application, you are confirming that, as a member of the
Institute of Administrative Management, you will be committed to professional
development and that you intend to develop your skills and professionalism
continuously.
All members other than Subscribers are also agreeing to abide by the IAM’s Code of
9.1 Excellence, Code of Conduct or similar, aimed at upholding the highest professional
standards.
All members subject to IAM standards sign up to it on joining, and reaffirm their
commitment on an annual basis through renewal of membership. Any breach of the
Code which results in a formal complaint made against you may lead to cancellation of
your membership, including subscription rights.
10.0 Refusal Rights
We reserve the right to reject or cancel your application if we are unable to obtain
payment authorisation from the issuer of your card or from your bank in the case of
direct debit payments. If you have been convicted of a criminal offence which is not yet
spent, or have a prosecution pending, this must be declared. A declaration must also be
made of insolvency or undischarged bankruptcy. Please note: this information will be
treated in the strictest confidence and will only be taken into account if relevant. Spent
convictions under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act need not be disclosed.
10.1 We may immediately revoke the membership of any member who provides misleading
or false information. Our decision in this respect is final.
Grades and upgrades are granted by our Assessment team. We may downgrade an
application if the evidence we have received does not meet assessment criteria. You may
appeal any grade offer or downgrading if you believe it to be unjust on the basis that it
does not reflect your management experience or academic achievements. If you appeal,
we will carry out a review, following which the decision of the Assessment team will be
final.
11.0 Force Majeure
Neither party shall be liable to the other for any delay or non-performance of its
obligations by reason of matters beyond its control including, but not limited to, any act
of terrorism, war, riot, civil commotion, compliance with any law or government order,
fire, flood or storm, pandemic, strikes, or any other industrial dispute, delay in transit,
11.1
power failure, postal delay, or any event that cannot be reasonably be planned for or
avoided.
In such a situation, we will perform our obligations as soon as reasonably possible.

12.0 Cancellation Rights
If you are a member, you may cancel this Contract until, but no later than, 7 calendar
12.1
days or 5 working days prior to the anniversary of your membership.
You may end your subscription to any Services at any time by giving IAM at least one
calendar month’s prior written notice. To withdraw a request or end your subscription to
12.2
any Services you must notify the IAM via info@instam.org in writing by post or email
indicating your intention to cancel the Contract.
We may terminate this Contract upon giving written notice to the Customer if:
you commit a material breach of the Contract and fail to remedy such a breach, if
12.3 capable of remedy, within 30 days of written notice being given by us requiring a
remedy; or
12.4 you fail, without good reason, to pay on time.
We shall be entitled to cancel or suspend delivery of any Goods or supply of Services if
the performance of our obligations under this Contract is any way adversely affected by
12.5 any cause whatsoever beyond our control including but not limited to the delays or
defaults of our suppliers or the default of any sub-contractor, war, strike, lock-out, trade
disputes, flood, accident to premises or machinery, or act of terrorism.
13.0 Refunds
Your IAM membership will automatically renew upon the anniversary of your
application. You will receive a renewal notice in advance of the anniversary of your
application date, informing you of your entitlement to cancel and of any changes to your
Direct Debit payment. Any payment arrangements that have been made by Direct Debit
will automatically continue, unless you notify your bank/building society that you wish
to cancel it.
13.1
If you wish to cancel your membership, you must inform us of your intention to cancel a
minimum of five working days prior to the anniversary of your application. This must be
sent to us in writing by letter or email.
Although you may cancel your membership at any time, no refunds will be provided
unless the notice requirements are complied with.
14.0 Price
14.1 Membership fees are set out on our website.
Payments must be made either annually using a valid credit or debit card, or by monthly
direct debit;
We reserve the right to increase or reduce the price of the membership fee on an annual
basis. You will be informed of any fee increase within your renewal letter. If we
discover an error in the price of your membership, we will inform you as soon as is
reasonably possible.
Fees are for individual membership only.
An increase of annual membership may be increased each year by an average rate of

inflation or to reflect changes in membership that are considered significant and incur
additional costs requiring recovery by IAM.
15.0 Credit Card Permission
If you are not using your own credit/debit card to pay your membership fee, you must
ask the permission of the card holder before entering the payment details.
15.1
When you apply for, or renew, your membership, you are confirming that you are
authorised to make payment.
16.0 Direct Debit
Payment by direct debit is the simplest and the most convenient way to pay your IAM
membership.
16.1
If you have an annual direct debit agreement then payment is automatic through your
bank or building society, beginning on the payment date shown on your renewal notice.
17.0 Liability
We will not be liable to you in respect of any membership related benefits, goods or
services provided by a party other than IAM and we specifically exclude liability for any
loss or damage suffered by you as a result of your involvement in whatever manner with
a third party.
Our liability to you in the event of certificates being lost in dispatch shall be limited to
replacement of the missing issues at our discretion.
17.1
Our liability for maintaining CPD records extends only to the duration of your
membership.
You acknowledge that you are joining or subscribing to IAM for professional or
business purposes.
These Terms and Conditions do not and shall not affect your statutory rights.
18.0 Disclaimer
18.1 We take care to ensure all content and information provided by us is as complete,
accurate and up to date as possible.
However, we provide the information for educational and training purposes only and
you should not rely on it as the sole basis for making business, legal or other decisions.
You should seek appropriate independent advice before applying any of the information
provided to specific situations.
The content of all information is the opinion of the author.
You must not do anything which infringes the copyright or other rights of the author.
19.0 Copyright
Diligence and care should be taken when using the information provided. All services
19.1 are subject to copyright law. We use our best endeavours to ensure all information
provided by us is as up to date as possible.
20.0 Events and Webinars
Members may be invited to events organised by us or our partners for informational and
networking purposes.
20.1
Cancellation terms may vary depending on the type of event and the event organiser.
Please check details at the time of booking or prior to attending, wherever possible.
21.0 Jurisdiction
These terms and conditions are governed by and will be construed in accordance with
21.1 English law. Any dispute or claim must be brought before the English courts
irrespective of a member’s location.
22.0 Third Party
No person who is not a party to these Terms and Conditions and/or any Contract shall
22.1 have any right under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 to enforce any
term of these Terms and Conditions or any Contract.
23.0 Brand Protection
You may not use our logo, trade mark, or any other aspect of our branding. Doing so
23.1
could result in legal action being taken against you.
24.0 Your liability
You agree to indemnify and hold the IAM harmless from and against any breach by you
of these Terms and Conditions, including without limitation, all claims, actions,
24.1 proceedings, losses, liabilities, damages, costs, expenses (including reasonable legal
costs and expenses) howsoever suffered or incurred by IAM in consequence of your (or
your users’) breach of these Terms and Conditions.
25.0 Personal Information and Privacy
You agree that IAM may process your personal information that you provide to it for the
25.1 purposes of providing any Goods/Services to you and/or sending marketing
communications to you. Details of our privacy policy are set out at www.instam.org
All data provided will be held secure and in accordance with data protection law and
25.2
regulations.
26.0 Contact Details
26.1 IAM operates a complaint handling procedure which is used to try to resolve disputes
when they first arise. If you have a complaint, you shall give a notice of complaint to
IAM in writing to the following address:
Customer Service
Institute of Administrative Management
Unit 3, Manor Farm Offices,
Churchend Lane, Charfield,
Wotton-Under-Edge GL12 8LJ,
United Kingdom
E-mail: info@instam.org
27.0 Amendment
No additions to or modifications of these Terms and Conditions or any Contract shall be
effective unless accepted by IAM in writing. IAM is entitled to terminate or revise the
27.1
provisions of these Terms and Conditions and any Contract with immediate effect in the
case of obvious errors or inaccuracies regarding the Goods, Services or Prices.
28.0 Entire Agreement
The Contract sets out the whole of our agreement relating to the supply of the Goods
and/or the Services to you by IAM, and supersedes and extinguishes any prior
28.1
agreement, undertakings, representations, warranties and arrangements of any nature,
whether in writing or oral, relating to such subject matter.
In particular, nothing said by any person on behalf of IAM should be understood as a
variation of the Contract or as an authorised representative about the nature or quality of
28.2
any Goods and/or the Services offered by IAM. To the extent permitted by law, IAM
shall have no liability for any such representation being untrue or misleading.
This clause will survive any expiry, cancellation or termination of a Contract for any
28.3
reason.
29.0 Severance
If any of these Terms and Conditions should be determined to be invalid, illegal or
unenforceable for any reason by any court of competent jurisdiction then such Term or
29.1
Condition shall be severed and the remaining Terms and Conditions shall survive and
remain in full force and effect and continue to be binding and enforceable.
30.0 Assignment
In respect of Consumers, we may at any time, without consent of the Consumer, assign
all or any part of our rights, benefits and/or obligations arising pursuant to these Terms
and Conditions and/or any Contract to a competent third party, provided that the
30.1
assignment does not negatively affect the provision of Goods and Services to such
Consumer (if any) and the rights or remedies of the Consumer under the Terms and
Conditions and any Contract.
In respect of Business Users, we may at any time, without consent of the Business User,
30.2 assign all or any part of our rights, benefits and/or obligations arising pursuant to these
Terms and Conditions and any Contract to a competent third party.
You may not assign or transfer any of your rights or obligations, nor subcontract any of
30.3 your obligations, under these Terms and Conditions or any Contract without the prior
written consent of IAM.
PART B
Definitions
“Business User” means a legal entity or a person who buys or agrees to buy the Goods and/or the
Services from IAM for use by an employee or third party;
“Consumer” means an individual who buys or agrees to buy Goods and/or Services from IAM
for their own use;
“Contract” means these terms as amended from time to time and the order confirmation that may
be given by us to you in accordance with clause 4.1 and applicable Invoice;
“Customer” means Consumers and Business Users collectively;
“IAM”, “our” or “we“ means the Institute of Administrative Management or its successors or
assigns;
“Goods” means all goods and products, including but not limited to membership, examinations,
student handbooks, journals, periodicals, magazines, software, and other material that are from
time to time supplied by the IAM and available for customers to purchase;
“Brand Protection’ means ‘Intellectual Property Rights” and includes all patents, trademarks,
registered designs, and applications for the same, copyright, design rights, know-how, trade and
business names and any other similar protected rights in any country;
“Invoice” means the invoice to be sent by the IAM to the Customer specifying (i) the Price of
Goods or Services, the delivery cost and the VAT and other applicable sales tax or duty (if any)
payable by the Customer and (ii) the arrangements for payment;
“Order” means your order for Goods and/or Services as set out on an Order Form as received by
us and as may be acknowledged by us in accordance with clause 4.1;
“Price” means the total charges or purchase price payable for the Goods and/or the Services sold
by IAM to the Customer;
“Services” means all the publications and services, including but not limited to membership and
associated benefits, events and programmes that are from time to time supplied by the IAM and
available for customers to purchase or subscribe;
Terms And Conditions
These terms and conditions form the basis of the contract through which the INSTITUTE OF
ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT (IAM), incorporated in England & Wales under the
Companies Act 1985 (Registered No.09016031) whose registered office is at Institute Of
Administrative Management, 3 Manor Farm Offices, Churchend Lane, Charfield, GL12 8LJ will
deliver a service to you as an IAM member or subscriber (you). On becoming a member or
subscriber of IAM you agree to these terms and conditions. We will handle your personal data in
accordance with our privacy policy and the latest GDPR regulations.
By purchasing Goods and/or Services from us, you agree to be legally bound by these Terms and
Conditions. These Terms and Conditions are made up of the following two parts: Part A sets out
the general terms that govern any purchase by you of Goods and/or Services and Part B provides
the definitions of the defined terms that are used in Part A.
PART A
Terms And Conditions Relating to The Sale Of Goods And The Supply Of Services
1. The Contract Between Us

The Terms and Conditions govern the supply of Goods and/or Services to you, that are
1.1
ordered by you directly from IAM.
Our Terms and Conditions intend to comply with all of your statutory rights as a
1.2 Consumer. However, in the event that any uncertainty arises, your statutory rights will
take priority over these Terms and Conditions.
Where you order Services as a Consumer, subject to the terms of the Contract, once
payment has been received IAM will allow you to use the relevant Services for the
1.3 duration that your use of the Services is permitted as described in the acknowledgement
provided by us to you in accordance with clause 4.1 below, and at that time the Contract
between us will be formed.
Where you order Services otherwise than as a Consumer, subject to the terms of the
Contract, once payment has been received, IAM will allow use the relevant Services for
1.4
the duration that the Service is permitted as described in the Invoice, and at that time the
Contract between us will be formed.
1.5 Where you order Goods as a Consumer, subject to the terms of the Contract, the
Contract will be formed once you receive an acknowledgement referred to in clause 4.1
below from us relating to your Order.
Where you order Goods otherwise than as a Consumer, subject to the terms of the
1.6 Contract, the Contract will be formed once you receive an Invoice from us relating to
your Order.
2. Conditions of Use
The Goods and/or Services are available to anyone, regardless of ethnicity, gender or
age. You acknowledge and understand that you may not order the Goods and/or
2.1
Services unless you are legally permitted to do so under the laws in your respective
country of residence.
By requesting the Goods and/or Services on behalf of an organisation, you warrant and
2.2
represent that you have the authority to bind that organisation to the Contract.
By requesting Goods and/or Services on your own behalf, you warrant and represent
that you are at least 16 years old, either entering into the Contract for yourself or
entering on behalf of another or person in your legal care. If you are a parent or guardian
2.3
entering the Contract for the benefit of another, you agree that you are fully responsible
for their use of the Goods and/or Services, including all charges and liability that he or
she may incur.
If we notify you of any change to Goods and/or Services that is required by Law, you
2.4
agree to act as necessary upon the change.
Whilst we will endeavour to tell you about changes to Goods and Services, including
promotional offers, security or any other reasons, the IAM is entitled to modify or
2.5
discontinue the provision of Goods and Services (or any parts of them) at any time
without giving notice to you.
3. Price
The Price payable for the Goods and/or the Services that you request are as set out in the
Invoice we send to you and, where you are a Consumer, in the acknowledgement we
3.1 send to you in accordance with clause 4.1. The Invoice and acknowledgement will set
out whether or not the Prices are inclusive or exclusive of the delivery costs and the
VAT or other applicable sales tax or duty (if any).
4. Payment and Delivery
Where you are a Consumer and you place an Order we will send you written
4.1 confirmation via email of your Order setting out the details of the Goods and/or Services
to be supplied to you and the date of purchase.
The IAM may suspend delivery of Goods and/or Services until full payment is received.
If the IAM has delivered Goods/Services and such remain neither paid for nor made
4.2
available for collection when reasonably demanded, then IAM may recover the
outstanding payment and/or recover costs to be paid by the Consumer.
4.3 Any period or times stated for delivery, or for compliance with any other contractual
obligations of IAM are estimates only. If the estimated delivery date cannot be met then
a subscribing member (but not a Business User) will be contacted and advised of a
proposed new date for delivery. If the revised delivery date and delivery is not made
within 30 days from the original date that the Contract was formed or the previously
agreed delivery date (if applicable), then you may cancel the Contract without charge
and the IAM shall provide a full refund. In any event, IAM accepts no responsibility for
loss or damage resulting from delay or failure to notify a Business User of any such
delay.
5. Membership Benefits
5.1 Membership of the IAM will provide you with membership at Subscriber, Student,
Affiliate, Associate, Member, Fellow, Retired/Lifetime level. Companions of the
Institute join by invitation only including Honorary Members.
As an IAM member you will receive a wide range of benefits.
A typical membership package may include:
● Post nominal letters
● Full access to the IAM website
● Support with CV writing and career development
● Networking through our events and dedicated forums
● Access to a variety of training and development content
● A range of discounted products / services both direct with IAM and through IAM
selected partners
● Guidance on CPD and support with your CPD record keeping
● Access to the IAM Academy including discounted courses
● Other benefits not listed above
Membership packages may vary according to the grade of membership held. Subscribers
are given specific benefits which are outlined below:
We reserve the right to change the benefits that apply to IAM membership at any time
and without prior notice.
Any external providers of a benefit included within your membership package will have
absolute discretion in relation to the provision of services, and membership of IAM does
not guarantee that the external provider will accept an application from a member for the
provision of services.
Services supplied from an external provider will be subject to the provider’s own terms
and conditions, and we do not accept any liability for loss or damage suffered as a result
of a fault, error or omission in the provision of these services.
We reserve the right to change our external providers without prior notice and our
decision on services provided is final.
6 Subscribers
Subscribers will receive:
● IAM’s email newsletter, at least monthly;
● Access to IAM’s online on-demand information and resources

6.1
● Invitations to webinars and online events
Subscribers do not have access to the full range of benefits generally available for IAM
Members and do not receive Member benefits. They are not able to use IAM post
nominals. However, Subscribers can upgrade to full membership and gain access to such
benefits subject to an appropriate assessment being successfully completed.
7.0 Contract Acceptance
When you click to submit your application you are making an offer to subscribe to the
IAM which, if accepted by us, will result in a legally binding contract.
7.1
At the point of renewal of your membership, your renewal payment is confirmation of
the continued acceptance of this contract. You may not transfer any of your rights and
obligations under these terms and conditions to another person.
8.0 Cooling Off Period
Once we accept your application, you have seven working days in which you may
cancel your subscription without any penalty if you change your mind. If you wish to
8.1
cancel, you must notify us within these seven working days in writing, by email or
cancel your membership online.
9.0 Professional Conduct
By proceeding with this application, you are confirming that, as a member of the
Institute of Administrative Management, you will be committed to professional
development and that you intend to develop your skills and professionalism
continuously.
All members other than Subscribers are also agreeing to abide by the IAM’s Code of
9.1 Excellence, Code of Conduct or similar, aimed at upholding the highest professional
standards.
All members subject to IAM standards sign up to it on joining, and reaffirm their
commitment on an annual basis through renewal of membership. Any breach of the
Code which results in a formal complaint made against you may lead to cancellation of
your membership, including subscription rights.
10.0 Refusal Rights
10.1 We reserve the right to reject or cancel your application if we are unable to obtain
payment authorisation from the issuer of your card or from your bank in the case of
direct debit payments. If you have been convicted of a criminal offence which is not yet
spent, or have a prosecution pending, this must be declared. A declaration must also be
made of insolvency or undischarged bankruptcy. Please note: this information will be
treated in the strictest confidence and will only be taken into account if relevant. Spent
convictions under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act need not be disclosed.
We may immediately revoke the membership of any member who provides misleading
or false information. Our decision in this respect is final.
Grades and upgrades are granted by our Assessment team. We may downgrade an
application if the evidence we have received does not meet assessment criteria. You may
appeal any grade offer or downgrading if you believe it to be unjust on the basis that it
does not reflect your management experience or academic achievements. If you appeal,
we will carry out a review, following which the decision of the Assessment team will be
final.
11.0 Force Majeure
Neither party shall be liable to the other for any delay or non-performance of its
obligations by reason of matters beyond its control including, but not limited to, any act
of terrorism, war, riot, civil commotion, compliance with any law or government order,
fire, flood or storm, pandemic, strikes, or any other industrial dispute, delay in transit,
11.1
power failure, postal delay, or any event that cannot be reasonably be planned for or
avoided.
In such a situation, we will perform our obligations as soon as reasonably possible.

12.0 Cancellation Rights
If you are a member, you may cancel this Contract until, but no later than, 7 calendar
12.1
days or 5 working days prior to the anniversary of your membership.
You may end your subscription to any Services at any time by giving IAM at least one
calendar month’s prior written notice. To withdraw a request or end your subscription to
12.2
any Services you must notify the IAM via info@instam.org in writing by post or email
indicating your intention to cancel the Contract.
We may terminate this Contract upon giving written notice to the Customer if:
you commit a material breach of the Contract and fail to remedy such a breach, if
12.3 capable of remedy, within 30 days of written notice being given by us requiring a
remedy; or
12.4 you fail, without good reason, to pay on time.
We shall be entitled to cancel or suspend delivery of any Goods or supply of Services if
the performance of our obligations under this Contract is any way adversely affected by
12.5 any cause whatsoever beyond our control including but not limited to the delays or
defaults of our suppliers or the default of any sub-contractor, war, strike, lock-out, trade
disputes, flood, accident to premises or machinery, or act of terrorism.
13.0 Refunds
13.1 Your IAM membership will automatically renew upon the anniversary of your
application. You will receive a renewal notice in advance of the anniversary of your
application date, informing you of your entitlement to cancel and of any changes to your
Direct Debit payment. Any payment arrangements that have been made by Direct Debit
will automatically continue, unless you notify your bank/building society that you wish
to cancel it.
If you wish to cancel your membership, you must inform us of your intention to cancel a
minimum of five working days prior to the anniversary of your application. This must be
sent to us in writing by letter or email.
Although you may cancel your membership at any time, no refunds will be provided
unless the notice requirements are complied with.
14.0 Price
Membership fees are set out on our website.
Payments must be made either annually using a valid credit or debit card, or by monthly
direct debit;
We reserve the right to increase or reduce the price of the membership fee on an annual
basis. You will be informed of any fee increase within your renewal letter. If we
14.1 discover an error in the price of your membership, we will inform you as soon as is
reasonably possible.
Fees are for individual membership only.
An increase of annual membership may be increased each year by an average rate of

inflation or to reflect changes in membership that are considered significant and incur
additional costs requiring recovery by IAM.
15.0 Credit Card Permission
If you are not using your own credit/debit card to pay your membership fee, you must
ask the permission of the card holder before entering the payment details.
15.1
When you apply for, or renew, your membership, you are confirming that you are
authorised to make payment.
16.0 Direct Debit
Payment by direct debit is the simplest and the most convenient way to pay your IAM
membership.
16.1
If you have an annual direct debit agreement then payment is automatic through your
bank or building society, beginning on the payment date shown on your renewal notice.
17.0 Liability
17.1 We will not be liable to you in respect of any membership related benefits, goods or
services provided by a party other than IAM and we specifically exclude liability for any
loss or damage suffered by you as a result of your involvement in whatever manner with
a third party.
Our liability to you in the event of certificates being lost in dispatch shall be limited to
replacement of the missing issues at our discretion.
Our liability for maintaining CPD records extends only to the duration of your
membership.
You acknowledge that you are joining or subscribing to IAM for professional or
business purposes.
These Terms and Conditions do not and shall not affect your statutory rights.
18.0 Disclaimer
We take care to ensure all content and information provided by us is as complete,
accurate and up to date as possible.
However, we provide the information for educational and training purposes only and
you should not rely on it as the sole basis for making business, legal or other decisions.
18.1 You should seek appropriate independent advice before applying any of the information
provided to specific situations.
The content of all information is the opinion of the author.
You must not do anything which infringes the copyright or other rights of the author.
19.0 Copyright
Diligence and care should be taken when using the information provided. All services
19.1 are subject to copyright law. We use our best endeavours to ensure all information
provided by us is as up to date as possible.
20.0 Events and Webinars
Members may be invited to events organised by us or our partners for informational and
networking purposes.
20.1
Cancellation terms may vary depending on the type of event and the event organiser.
Please check details at the time of booking or prior to attending, wherever possible.
21.0 Jurisdiction
These terms and conditions are governed by and will be construed in accordance with
21.1 English law. Any dispute or claim must be brought before the English courts
irrespective of a member’s location.
22.0 Third Party
No person who is not a party to these Terms and Conditions and/or any Contract shall
22.1 have any right under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 to enforce any
term of these Terms and Conditions or any Contract.
23.0 Brand Protection
You may not use our logo, trade mark, or any other aspect of our branding. Doing so
23.1
could result in legal action being taken against you.
24.0 Your liability
You agree to indemnify and hold the IAM harmless from and against any breach by you
of these Terms and Conditions, including without limitation, all claims, actions,
24.1 proceedings, losses, liabilities, damages, costs, expenses (including reasonable legal
costs and expenses) howsoever suffered or incurred by IAM in consequence of your (or
your users’) breach of these Terms and Conditions.
25.0 Personal Information and Privacy
You agree that IAM may process your personal information that you provide to it for the
25.1 purposes of providing any Goods/Services to you and/or sending marketing
communications to you. Details of our privacy policy are set out at www.instam.org
All data provided will be held secure and in accordance with data protection law and
25.2
regulations.
26.0 Contact Details
IAM operates a complaint handling procedure which is used to try to resolve disputes
26.1 when they first arise. If you have a complaint, you shall give a notice of complaint to
IAM in writing to the following address:
Customer Service
Institute of Administrative Management
Unit 3, Manor Farm Offices,
Churchend Lane, Charfield,
Wotton-Under-Edge GL12 8LJ,
United Kingdom
E-mail: info@instam.org
27.0 Amendment
No additions to or modifications of these Terms and Conditions or any Contract shall be
effective unless accepted by IAM in writing. IAM is entitled to terminate or revise the
27.1
provisions of these Terms and Conditions and any Contract with immediate effect in the
case of obvious errors or inaccuracies regarding the Goods, Services or Prices.
28.0 Entire Agreement
The Contract sets out the whole of our agreement relating to the supply of the Goods
and/or the Services to you by IAM, and supersedes and extinguishes any prior
28.1
agreement, undertakings, representations, warranties and arrangements of any nature,
whether in writing or oral, relating to such subject matter.
In particular, nothing said by any person on behalf of IAM should be understood as a
variation of the Contract or as an authorised representative about the nature or quality of
28.2
any Goods and/or the Services offered by IAM. To the extent permitted by law, IAM
shall have no liability for any such representation being untrue or misleading.
This clause will survive any expiry, cancellation or termination of a Contract for any
28.3
reason.
29.0 Severance
If any of these Terms and Conditions should be determined to be invalid, illegal or
unenforceable for any reason by any court of competent jurisdiction then such Term or
29.1
Condition shall be severed and the remaining Terms and Conditions shall survive and
remain in full force and effect and continue to be binding and enforceable.
30.0 Assignment
In respect of Consumers, we may at any time, without consent of the Consumer, assign
all or any part of our rights, benefits and/or obligations arising pursuant to these Terms
and Conditions and/or any Contract to a competent third party, provided that the
30.1
assignment does not negatively affect the provision of Goods and Services to such
Consumer (if any) and the rights or remedies of the Consumer under the Terms and
Conditions and any Contract.
In respect of Business Users, we may at any time, without consent of the Business User,
30.2 assign all or any part of our rights, benefits and/or obligations arising pursuant to these
Terms and Conditions and any Contract to a competent third party.
You may not assign or transfer any of your rights or obligations, nor subcontract any of
30.3 your obligations, under these Terms and Conditions or any Contract without the prior
written consent of IAM.
PART B
Definitions
“Business User” means a legal entity or a person who buys or agrees to buy the Goods and/or the
Services from IAM for use by an employee or third party;
“Consumer” means an individual who buys or agrees to buy Goods and/or Services from IAM
for their own use;
“Contract” means these terms as amended from time to time and the order confirmation that may
be given by us to you in accordance with clause 4.1 and applicable Invoice;
“Customer” means Consumers and Business Users collectively;
“IAM”, “our” or “we“ means the Institute of Administrative Management or its successors or
assigns;
“Goods” means all goods and products, including but not limited to membership, examinations,
student handbooks, journals, periodicals, magazines, software, and other material that are from
time to time supplied by the IAM and available for customers to purchase;
“Brand Protection’ means ‘Intellectual Property Rights” and includes all patents, trademarks,
registered designs, and applications for the same, copyright, design rights, know-how, trade and
business names and any other similar protected rights in any country;
“Invoice” means the invoice to be sent by the IAM to the Customer specifying (i) the Price of
Goods or Services, the delivery cost and the VAT and other applicable sales tax or duty (if any)
payable by the Customer and (ii) the arrangements for payment;
“Order” means your order for Goods and/or Services as set out on an Order Form as received by
us and as may be acknowledged by us in accordance with clause 4.1;
“Price” means the total charges or purchase price payable for the Goods and/or the Services sold
by IAM to the Customer;
“Services” means all the publications and services, including but not limited to membership and
associated benefits, events and programmes that are from time to time supplied by the IAM and
available for customers to purchase or subscribe;
MODERN SLAVERY AND HUMAN TRAFFICKING

STATEMENT
Introduction
This Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking Statement is a repsonse to
section 54(1), Part 6
of the Modern Salvery Act 2015 and relates to actions and activities for the
financial year
ending 2021.
The IAM is committed to ending slavery and human trafficking violations in
its own
operations, its supply chain, and its products. We have zero-tolerance
towards slavery and
require our supply chain to comply with our values.
Executive Summary:
As an exemplary professional services firm IAM is committed to addressing
modern slavery
risks in our business and our supply chain. This statement describes the
actions taken to
address these risks during the calendar year 2021.
This year, the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic continues to impact
business and
employees. We have worked to consider and manage these impacts for
our people, our
suppliers and their personnel and other stakeholders.
This, our primary modern slavery statement, stes out how we have:
- Introduced mandatory modern slavery training, including for all new
joiners in the
future;
- Included information on modern slavery as part of our supplier on-
boarding
materials;
- Adopted a firm approach to client risk management
No infringements or violations have been identified this year in our
operations or supply
chain. Our processes and due diligence did not flag a single instance and
we will continue
to develop and strengthen our approach whenever and wherever possible
in the coming
year and are committed to:
- Continue to extend transparency and due diligence over our supply chain;
- Review and update our third party risk management process
In a final statement, we are committed to upholding and respecting the
human rights of our
people and all individuals with whom we interact; in line with the UN Global
Compact and
the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and the OECD
Guidelines on
Multinational Enterprises.
Policies and Governance
2.1 Operations
Our Human Rights Policy sets out our position in line with internationally
recognised human
rights principles, which include modern slavery. It is hosted on our website
and circulated
via digital communications. All our staff are required to comply with the
Human Rights
Policy, as part of their annual performance review.
The Human Rights Policy is embedded in our culture through our Code of
Conduct and
sets the tone at every level of our organisation.
Accountability for human rights and modern slavery relating to our business
resides with
John Butterfield, our Chairman. Responsibility for day-to-day management
of the
programme is led by David Fordham. An annual review of its effectiveness
is conducted
together with internal stakeholders responsible for risk management and
procurement.
The statement is reviewed by senior management and presented to the
Executive Board
before being approved by the Supervisory Board.
Internal Audit ensure the disclosures made in the Modern Slavery
Statement and related
supportiong processes are in line with supporting evidence provided.
2.2 Suppliers
Our partner agreement template creates a contractual obligation on the
supplier to comply
with the Global Third Party Code of Conduct and all applicable laws. In a
minority of
instances agreements may be adjusted to place equal obligations on the
supplier.
All other contracts with our partners will, wherever possible, contain similar
concepts. We
acknowledge that no agreement will cover every situation and that a
contractual obligation
does not necessarily guarantee compliance.
As set out in our Human Rights Policy, where a human rights violation is
identified, we work
vigilantly and diligently with all parties involved to ensure victims have
access to justice and
compensation. We also investigate the root cause and take any measures
necessary to
prevent recurrence. In the event of an unsatisfactory response we will
terminate the
contract.
3. Due Diligence
We communicate our expectations to employees and partners with regards
to human rights
and modern slavery, and use various tools to monitor standards.
3.1 Operations
We recognise that our key asset is our people, so we never rest when it
comes to securing
a safe, fair and inclusive workplace.
All employees are asked to declare that they have read and understood our
Code of
Conduct, which makes clear the types of behaviours we expect.
Our SpeakUp email is available to any individual who comes across
unethical behaviour
displayed by an employee or third party. The email is shared by way of a
number of
channels, including posters, performance reviews, and human resource
email signatures.
Efforts are made to raise awareness of slavery through mandatory training
and onboarding
materials.
3.1 Partners
Despite the risk of further lockdowns we will continue to work closely with
partners,
including learning centres, to minimise the financial impact on partners and
provide
stability.
Human rights is central to our supply chain approach and is included as
part of our annual
feedback report. Due diligence is performed at every stage of the
procurement cycle, from
initial evaluation to contract management and ongoing relations.
We apply an annual sustainability survey to monitor the overall
performance of our main
suppliers and partners. Where we identify potential improvements we offer
our support in
addressing them.
Our aim is to increase visibility of working practices that promote human
rights.
4. Risk Assessment and Management
Although professional services may not typically be considered a high risk
field for modern
slavery, we are committed to our risk identification and mitigation
processes.
4.1 Suppliers Providing Services
For supplier personnel in the UK risks are relatively low due to the
legislative context. Given
we operate in an international context the need remains for us to remain
vigilant, and in
particular to closely observe vulnerable groups. We expect all suppliers to
adhere to our
standards.
Typical suppliers of services would include airlines, hotels, waste disposal
software
providers.
4.2 Suppliers Providing Goods
The main risks associated with our procurement of goods tend to be
indirect. We are
transparent about our expectations towards third parties adopting
measures and policies to
protect human rights.
Typical suppliers of goods would include cleaners, caterers, promotional
merchandise, and
IT hardware.
5. Training
The effectiveness of our human rights and modern slavery programme is
dependent on our
personnel having a clear understanding of the subject, as well as its
importance and value.
During 2022 we will continue mandatory training for our employees. We
have also
committed to revisiting and refreshing modern slavery training on a triennial
basis.
In 2023 we plan to launch a microsite where our people can report issues,
propose
improvements, and access advice and support on matters related to
modern slavery risks.
Activities and commitments aiming to uphold human rights and tackle
modern slavery are
communicated using a variety of channels.
Our Commitments
This year we aim to enhance our modern slavery programme. We will set
new commitments
as the year progresses and make progress on those currently ongoing.
Below is a summary
of our actions to date and some of our new commitments to help us make
an everlasting
contribution towards this important topic.
STATEMENT
Introduction
financial year
ending 2021.
its own
towards slavery and
Executive Summary:
modern slavery
actions taken to
business and
our people, our
joiners in the
future;
boarding
materials;
we will continue
in the coming
human rights of our
Compact and
Guidelines on
2.1 Operations
recognised human
and circulated
Human Rights
Conduct and
resides with
of the
is conducted
procurement.
Executive Board
2.2 Suppliers
supplier to comply
minority of
supplier.
concepts. We
identified, we work
necessary to
terminate the
contract.
3. Due Diligence
to human rights
3.1 Operations
comes to securing
Code of
unethical behaviour
number of
email signatures.
and onboarding
materials.
3.1 Partners
partners,
provide
stability.
part of our annual
our support in
addressing them.
rights.
field for modern
processes.
vigilant, and in
adhere to our
standards.
software
providers.
indirect. We are
merchandise, and
IT hardware.
5. Training
dependent on our
have also
basis.
propose
modern slavery are
Our Commitments
new commitments
Below is a summary
an everlasting
STATEMENT
Introduction
financial year
ending 2021.
its own
towards slavery and
Executive Summary:
modern slavery
actions taken to
business and
our people, our
joiners in the
future;
boarding
materials;
we will continue
in the coming
human rights of our
Compact and
Guidelines on
2.1 Operations
recognised human
and circulated
Human Rights
Conduct and
resides with
of the
is conducted
procurement.
Executive Board
2.2 Suppliers
supplier to comply
minority of
supplier.
concepts. We
identified, we work
necessary to
terminate the
contract.
3. Due Diligence
to human rights
3.1 Operations
comes to securing
Code of
unethical behaviour
number of
email signatures.
and onboarding
materials.
3.1 Partners
partners,
provide
stability.
part of our annual
our support in
addressing them.
rights.
field for modern
processes.
vigilant, and in
adhere to our
standards.
software
providers.
indirect. We are
merchandise, and
IT hardware.
5. Training
dependent on our
have also
basis.
propose
modern slavery are
Our Commitments
new commitments
Below is a summary
an everlasting
STATEMENT
Introduction
financial year
ending 2021.
its own
towards slavery and
Executive Summary:
modern slavery
actions taken to
business and
our people, our
joiners in the
future;
boarding
materials;
we will continue
in the coming
human rights of our
Compact and
Guidelines on
2.1 Operations
recognised human
and circulated
Human Rights
Conduct and
resides with
of the
is conducted
procurement.
Executive Board
2.2 Suppliers
supplier to comply
minority of
supplier.
concepts. We
identified, we work
necessary to
terminate the
contract.
3. Due Diligence
to human rights
3.1 Operations
comes to securing
Code of
unethical behaviour
number of
email signatures.
and onboarding
materials.
3.1 Partners
partners,
provide
stability.
part of our annual
our support in
addressing them.
rights.
field for modern
processes.
vigilant, and in
adhere to our
standards.
software
providers.
indirect. We are
merchandise, and
IT hardware.
5. Training
dependent on our
have also
basis.
propose
modern slavery are
Our Commitments
new commitments
Below is a summary
an everlasting
Date set Commitment Status Comment
Supply chain 2022 Continue to extend
transparency over
related processes
Ongoing Extensive due diligence
has been conducted
and will continue
2022 Review our end to
end third party risk
management
process
New Help to further embed
modern slavery risk
management into our
culture
Training 2022 Introduce mandatory
training
Complete Mandatory training
module developed and
delivered to existing
staff
2022 Add modern slavery
informtion to supplier
onboarding
Complete Includes a definition of
modern slavery and our
commitment to
addressing it
Effectiveness 2022 Monitor and report
on related metrics
New Monitoring metrics will
provide an indication of
the overall effectiveness
of the programmeDate set Commitment Status Comment
Supply chain 2022 Continue to extend
transparency over
related processes
Ongoing Extensive due diligence
has been conducted
and will continue
2022 Review our end to
end third party risk
management
process
New Help to further embed
modern slavery risk
management into our
culture
Training 2022 Introduce mandatory
training
Complete Mandatory training
module developed and
delivered to existing
staff
2022 Add modern slavery
informtion to supplier
onboarding
Complete Includes a definition of
modern slavery and our
commitment to
addressing it
Effectiveness 2022 Monitor and report
on related metrics
New Monitoring metrics will
provide an indication of
the overall effectiveness
of the programme
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the visitor’s computer to give the user access to various functions. Both session cookies and non-
session cookies are used on this website (the “Site”). A session cookie is temporarily stored in
the computer memory while the visitor is browsing the website. This cookie is erased when the
user closes their web browser or after a certain time has passed (meaning that the session
expires). A non-session cookie remains on the visitor’s computer until it is deleted.
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How To Reject Cookies?
We will not use cookies to collect personally identifiable information about a visitor.
However you can choose to reject or block the cookies set by {yourwebsite} by changing your
browser settings – see the “Help function” within your browser for further details. Please note
that most browsers automatically accept cookies so if you do not wish cookies to be used, you
may need to actively delete or block the cookies.
For information on the use of cookies in mobile phone browsers and for details on how to reject
or delete such cookies, please refer to your mobile phone manual.
Member Levels
Member Benefits
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Cookies are small text files, created by the website visited, that contain data. They are stored on
the visitor’s computer to give the user access to various functions. Both session cookies and non-
session cookies are used on this website (the “Site”). A session cookie is temporarily stored in
the computer memory while the visitor is browsing the website. This cookie is erased when the
user closes their web browser or after a certain time has passed (meaning that the session
expires). A non-session cookie remains on the visitor’s computer until it is deleted.
Why Do We Use Cookies?
We use cookies to learn more about the way visitors interact with our content and help us to
improve the experience when visiting our Site.
Site Functionality
The share function is used by visitors to recommend our Site and content on social networks
such as Facebook and Twitter. Cookies store information on how visitors use the share function
– although not at an individual level – so that the Site can be improved. If you do not accept
cookies, no information is stored.
For some of the functions within our Site we use third party suppliers, for example, when you
visit a page with videos embedded from or links to YouTube. These videos or links (and any
other content from third party suppliers) may contain third party cookies and you may wish to
consult the policies of these third party websites for information regarding their use of cookies.
Cookies We Use:
This Site uses Google Analytics which use cookies. At the aggregate level, cookies store
information on how visitors use the Site, including the number of pages displayed, where the
visitor comes from, and the number of visits, to improve the website and ensure a good user
experience. If you do not accept cookies, no information is stored.
How To Reject Cookies?
We will not use cookies to collect personally identifiable information about a visitor.
However you can choose to reject or block the cookies set by {yourwebsite} by changing your
browser settings – see the “Help function” within your browser for further details. Please note
that most browsers automatically accept cookies so if you do not wish cookies to be used, you
may need to actively delete or block the cookies.
For information on the use of cookies in mobile phone browsers and for details on how to reject
or delete such cookies, please refer to your mobile phone manual.
Member Levels
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a member.
Renew Membership
Working With Us
– Page 1 of 2 –IAM_V1_November 2022 | © Copyright 2022 | All rights reserved
The Institute of Administrative Management

There are several ways that you can join the IAM and many good reasons to do so.
Remember, joining a
professional body tells everyone that you take responsibility for your own career.
Sign up for as little as £69 and gain the following benefits:
Student Associate
(AInstAM)
Member
(MInstAM)
Fellow
(FInstAM)
Standard Fee (per annum) £12.00 £69.00 £99.00 £149.00
E-mail: membership@instam.org or Complete the online form
https://my.instam.org/signup/
1Networking & communication skills, problem solving, MS Office, leadership, the Modern EA, event
management and more for only £5
per event with speakers such as Heather Baker, Lucy Brazier, Adam Fidler, Sue France, John Hotowka,
Paul Pennant and Lindsay Taylor
2Level 3 Award in Professional PA and Administration Skills & Level 4 Certificate in Office and
Administration Management. IAM
members save over £350 with our preferred trainers!
3Up to 15% off training fees with top providers such as Lucy Brazier, Adam Fidler, Paul Pennant and
Lindsay Taylor.
Section 1 (key benefits)
Section 2 (criteria and fees)
Section 3 (ways to join)
• Post nominal letters
• News and articles
• Forum
• Bitesize coaching
• Networking/CPD events1
• Newsletters
• Webinars
• CV review
• Discount on qualifications2
• Discounts on training courses3
Associate (AInstAM): Perfect for those looking to take the next steps up the career
ladder. Minimum of
2 years’ experience OR a level 3+ qualification in business, administration or
management
Member (MInstAM): Applies to experienced professionals within business,
administration and
management roles. Minimum of 3 years’ experience (with one year working as an
assistant to a senior
manager) OR a level 4+ qualification in business, administration or management
Fellow (FInstAM): Our most senior grade is reserved for those who have made
significant progression
in their career, demonstrating their ability to expertly carry out their professional
roles and duties.
Minimum of 10 years’ experience (with three years working as an assistant to a
senior manager) OR a
level 6+ qualification in business, administration or management.

Remember, joining a
Student Associate
(AInstAM)
Member
(MInstAM)
Fellow
(FInstAM)
Lindsay Taylor.
• Forum
• Newsletters
• Webinars
• CV review
ladder. Minimum of
management
administration and
roles and duties.

Remember, joining a
Student Associate
(AInstAM)
Member
(MInstAM)
Fellow
(FInstAM)
Lindsay Taylor.
• Forum
• Newsletters
• Webinars
• CV review
ladder. Minimum of
management
administration and
roles and duties.

Individual benefits change frequently, and the list below is only a sample – for a full
and up-to-date
list see our website.
1. Career Development:
2. Training:
3. Qualifications:
4. Events:
5. Publications:
6. Lifestyle:
IAM Sample of Individual Benefits
a. Post nominal letters (AInstAM, MInstAM, FInstAM)
b. Free CV appraisal and 10% discount on any additional services
with CV & Interview Advisors.
c. 40% discount with Online LinkedIn training with
MySuperConnecter. Saving £140.00.
d. Free webinars.
a. 15% discount on the National Certificate in Workplace
Mediation with TCM. Saving £299.00.
b. 15% discount on Microsoft training with Today’s PA.
Saving £148.50.
c. PA/EA/secretary training. Savings vary from £74.00–£345.00
depending on programme duration. Top trainers only, such as
Heather Baker, Lucy Brazier, Adam Fidler, Paul Pennant and
Your Excellency.
d. 20% discount on training courses with Hemsley Fraser.
Saving up to £400.00.
e. 15% discount on the Corporate Social Responsibility training
programme with CSR-Accreditation. Saving £60.00-£120.00.
f. 25% saving on Mind Tools individual membership.
Saving up to £51p.a.
g. 15% discount on the PA Life training bundle, saving £33.75.
h. 15% discount on in>pd Advanced Management Programm

and up-to-date
2. Training:
3. Qualifications:
4. Events:
5. Publications:
6. Lifestyle:
d. Free webinars.
Saving £148.50.
Your Excellency.
h. 15% discount on in>pd Advanced Management Programm

and up-to-date
2. Training:
3. Qualifications:
4. Events:
5. Publications:
6. Lifestyle:

d. Free webinars.
Saving £148.50.
Your Excellency.
h. 15% discount on in>pd Advanced Management Programme,
saving £375.00.
a. 15% discount on two qualifications. Saving over £350:
i. Level 3 Award in Professional PA and Administration Skills
ii. Level 4 Certificate in Office and Administration Manage – Page 2 of 2 –
IAM_V1_November 2022 | © Copyright 2022 | All rights reserved

and up-to-date
2. Training:
3. Qualifications:
4. Events:
5. Publications:
6. Lifestyle:
d. Free webinars.
Saving £148.50.
Your Excellency.
saving £375.00.

and up-to-date
2. Training:
3. Qualifications:
4. Events:
5. Publications:
6. Lifestyle:

d. Free webinars.
Saving £148.50.
Your Excellency.
saving £375.00.

and up-to-date
2. Training:
3. Qualifications:
4. Events:
5. Publications:
6. Lifestyle:

d. Free webinars.
Saving £148.50.
Your Excellency.
saving £375.00.
ii. Level 4 Certificate in Office and Administration Manage
. Events:
5. Publications:
6. Lifestyle:

d. Free webinars.
Saving £148.50.
Your Excellency.
saving £375.00.
ii. Level 4 Certificate in Office and Administration Management
a. Members pay only £5 to attend CPD evenings, covering
subjects such as Conflict Management, MS Office, Emotional
Intelligence, Resilience, Communication Skills and many more.
b. Discounts to attend partner events with TodaysPA, Executive
Secretary and Hemsley Fraser.
a. IAM blogs and articles.
b. Executive Secretary Magazine. Saving £40.50 p.a. on your
subscription.
a. TOTUM PRO discount card
What does a Administrative Services Manager do?
An administrative services manager typically supervise activities and maintain the facilities of an
organization to include office upkeep, record keeping, distributing supplies, and mail distribution
that allow organizations to operate efficiently. They plan, direct, and coordinate supportive
services of the organization.
Watch a video to learn what an administrative services manager does:
How to Become an Administrative Services Manager
Administration services managers would normally need to hold a bachelor’s degree with studies
in information management, engineering, business, or facility management. It is possible to enter
this occupation with a high school diploma. However, you would need to have background
experience that reflects managerial and leadership qualities in the areas pertinent to the
organization’s needs. The International Facility Management Association offers certifications
and other educational opportunities that could make your application more appealing to
employers.
Job Description of an Administration Services Manager
An administration services manager typically buys, stores, and distributes supplies. They would
supervise other administrative staff and set goals and deadlines for their department. They would
also develop, manage, and monitor records or recommend changes to policy or procedures to
improve operations.
An administration services manager plans budgeting for supplies, contracts and equipment. They
oversee the maintenance and repair of machinery, electrical and mechanical equipment, and
equipment. They are responsible for ensuring the facilities meet security, health, and
environmental standards as well as complying with any government regulations. They also
maintain safety and security and keeps the facility well maintained. The variety of duties for an
administration service manager depends on the type manager they are such as contract
administrator, facility manager, or records and information manager.
Accountant Job Posting
Let’s look at a job description posted by the Department of Commerce. This job announcement
is looking for a person to perform the following responsibilities:
 Be responsible for supervising and managing the personnel, payroll, supply requisitioning, and
other administrative activities.
 Supervise the daily processing of payroll, personnel, and other administrative documents.
 Form and maintain effective relationships with peers, subordinates, management, and other
Regional Census Center employees.
 Identify and resolve problems and clearly communicate the action associated with the
encountered problems.
 Prepare, review, and analyze staffing and payroll reports and assure the administrative
operations are conducted within prescribed time schedules.
 Oversee payroll and personnel activities, helps maintain the flow and quality of work to meet
deadlines.
 Request the approval of supply and material equipment as needed to ensure continuity of office
operations.
 Assist in setting up and closing the office, assuring minimal waste of excess supplies and
equipment.
This position was posted to run 12/27/2018 until 01/10/2019 with a wage of $35 per hour on
USAjobs.gov (link opens in a new tab). USAjobs.gov is an official website of the United States
government and part of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management.
What does a Administrative Services Manager do?
An administrative services manager typically supervise activities and maintain the facilities of an
organization to include office upkeep, record keeping, distributing supplies, and mail distribution
that allow organizations to operate efficiently. They plan, direct, and coordinate supportive
services of the organization.
Watch a video to learn what an administrative services manager does:
How to Become an Administrative Services Manager
Administration services managers would normally need to hold a bachelor’s degree with studies
in information management, engineering, business, or facility management. It is possible to enter
this occupation with a high school diploma. However, you would need to have background
experience that reflects managerial and leadership qualities in the areas pertinent to the
organization’s needs. The International Facility Management Association offers certifications
and other educational opportunities that could make your application more appealing to
employers.
Job Description of an Administration Services Manager
An administration services manager typically buys, stores, and distributes supplies. They would
supervise other administrative staff and set goals and deadlines for their department. They would
also develop, manage, and monitor records or recommend changes to policy or procedures to
improve operations.
An administration services manager plans budgeting for supplies, contracts and equipment. They
oversee the maintenance and repair of machinery, electrical and mechanical equipment, and
equipment. They are responsible for ensuring the facilities meet security, health, and
environmental standards as well as complying with any government regulations. They also
maintain safety and security and keeps the facility well maintained. The variety of duties for an
administration service manager depends on the type manager they are such as contract
administrator, facility manager, or records and information manager.
Accountant Job Posting

Let’s look at a job description posted by the Department of Commerce. This job announcement
is looking for a person to perform the following responsibilities:
 Be responsible for supervising and managing the personnel, payroll, supply requisitioning, and
other administrative activities.
 Supervise the daily processing of payroll, personnel, and other administrative documents.
 Form and maintain effective relationships with peers, subordinates, management, and other
Regional Census Center employees.
 Identify and resolve problems and clearly communicate the action associated with the
encountered problems.
 Prepare, review, and analyze staffing and payroll reports and assure the administrative
operations are conducted within prescribed time schedules.
 Oversee payroll and personnel activities, helps maintain the flow and quality of work to meet
deadlines.
 Request the approval of supply and material equipment as needed to ensure continuity of office
operations.
 Assist in setting up and closing the office, assuring minimal waste of excess supplies and
equipment.
This position was posted to run 12/27/2018 until 01/10/2019 with a wage of $35 per hour on
USAjobs.gov (link opens in a new tab). USAjobs.gov is an official website of the United States
government and part of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management.
8. Administrative service
8.1 Main functions

8.2 Water rates
8.3 Financial viability of the organization
8.4 Staffing of the administrative service
8.5 Organizational alternatives
The main purpose of an Administrative Service is to provide support for the technical services in
order that the whole water management organization may operate smoothly. The complexity of
an Administrative Service depends on the size of the scheme and the number of technical
services provided; for instance, when the organization of an irrigation scheme includes activities
related to crop production, marketing and social aspects, the Administrative Service may be quite
complex. The latter situation will not be covered here because only water management
organizations are considered.
8.1 Main functions

8.1.1 Accounting and financial control
8.1.2 Procurement of supplies and warehousing
8.1.3 Legal matters
8.1.4 Personnel matters
8.1.5 Various
The Administration Service of a water management organization usually undertakes the

following main functions:
- accounting and finance control

- supply procurement and warehousing
- legal matters
- personnel matters
- various.
The main activities within these functions are discussed below.
8.1.1 Accounting and financial control
The accounting of a water management organization is relatively simple because most of the
transactions are within the scheme and those outside it are generally limited to purchasing a few
supplies. In fact, the accounting in many small irrigation associations is handled by the Secretary
of the irrigation association who often has only a limited knowledge of accountancy. In public
irrigation schemes the accounting system is more complicated as the services provided are more
numerous and complex, but it is still less involved than that of commercial enterprises of similar
size.
Generally, accounts are organized by major item of expenditure or purchase as indicated in the
vertical list of accounts given in the example in Table 9. However, that type of accounting does
not provide sufficient information for the scheme manager on expenditure incurred by the main
organizational units. It is therefore advisable to subdivide the accounts further according to the
main units, as indicated in the titles of the columns in Table 9.
Additionally, in many irrigation schemes it has been found most helpful to keep an account for
each farmer in which all the transactions between him and the scheme are registered. This is
particularly useful for controlling water payments.
Besides the set accounts, a Day Book or Diary must be kept as is usual in good accounting; all
financial operations are registered in it daily with an indication of the account to which the
movement must be charged.
Accounting is normally done by a professional accountant and supervised by the Chief
Accountant (large irrigation schemes), or by the Chief of the Administrative Service in medium-
size schemes.
Table 9 EXAMPLE OF ACCOUNTS INDEX SHEET
Number of Account
Irrig.
No. Account Manager's Operation Maintenance Admin.
General Assist.
Office Service Service Service
Service
01 Amortization 01-A 01-B 01-C 01-D 01-E 01-F
02 Daily subsistence 02-A 02-B 02-C 02-D 02-E 02-F
allowances
03 Depreciations 03-A 03-B 03-C 03-D 03-E 03-F
04 Equipment
(minor)
05 Fellowships and
training
06 Fuel and
lubricants
07 Inputs
demonstration
farms
08 Inspection and
vigilance
09 Maintenance
building and
offices
10 Maintenance
equipment
11 Maintenance
vehicles
12 Materials
(construction)
13 Office supplies
14 Other salary
allowances
15 Outputs
demonstration
farms
16 Power
consumption
17 Public relations
18 Rents
19 Salaries
20 Spare parts
21 Transport
22 Various
23 Wages 23-A 23-B 23-C 23-D 23-E 23-F
There are two types of financial control: one internal, exercised as a routine operation by the
Chief of the Administration, with its main purpose being to control that expenditure on the
scheme does not exceed the available resources. The other, external control, is often carried out
by external auditors; its main purpose is to control that all financial operations are according to
established rules and regulations.
Internal control is exercised by periodic review of the accounts, suitable budgeting and timely
allocation of funds. This is sometimes difficult because all too "often funds are considerably less
than expected and arrive too late to carry out intended programmes. Much of a manager's success
depends on his ability to continue operating the scheme's activities under such difficult
conditions. The Administration Service must provide him with early warning of possible adverse
financial situations so that he may make decisions that will minimize repercussions.
A key question in the financing of a scheme is the relevance of the water fees. This subject has
already been mentioned in several instances in Part I, and because of its importance is discussed
in more detail later in the text.
External control is normally by a Government Auditor. He also audits all schemes where the
operational funds are provided by the government, and where water fees must be deposited in the
accounts of the National Treasury.
The auditor has the function of supervising that all the organization's transactions are made
according to established rules and existing laws. He should never be an employee of the same
ministry or institution to which the water management organization belongs; normally he should
belong to the National Treasury or Ministry of Finance. Some irrigation schemes have a
permanent auditor retained throughout the year, but more often auditing is done during periodic
visits to the scheme.
Sometimes the irrigation associations are audited at the request of the Board of Directors or the
General Assembly. In such cases, the audit is by one or several independent people working ad
honorem, and their conclusions must be presented to the General Assembly.
8.1.2 Procurement of supplies and warehousing
Most maintenance as well as the normal operations in a scheme require materials, spare parts,
fuel, lubricants and some other supplies that should be in stock when needed. A unit, or person
(depending on the size of the irrigation scheme), is normally made responsible for this task. The
most recurrent supplies, or those particularly difficult to obtain (spare parts), should be bought at
the most favourable prices and stocked in sufficient quantity in warehouses. No material should
enter or leave the warehouse without the signature of the warehouseman on the stock card and
the authorization of the person in charge of the supply unit or the Chief of Administration.
Stringent control should be kept of changes in stock in order to produce clear statements of the
stock situation at any given moment. Stocks represent immobilized capital, and to allow for their
establishment it is necessary to build an 'extra contribution' into the water fees. This is one of the
purposes of the so-called 'reserve fund'.
On rare occasions the water management organizations buy agricultural inputs or sell agricultural
products. One of the few instances in which this occurs is when the scheme is responsible for an
agricultural demonstration or practical trial of applied r research, as pointed out in Chapter 7. In
these cases the Procurement Unit may be responsible for purchasing or selling, but at the least it
should control these activities.
The scheme's by-laws sometimes forbid that the scheme management enters into transactions for
any other input than water. Although there could also be good reasons to maintain this principle,
it should be remembered that unless the farmer is helped to maximize his agricultural income,
the purpose of irrigation may not be fully realized. Therefore, in such cases, a change of the
scheme's by-laws will be needed to undertake supporting activities aimed at improving the
purchase of inputs and the sale of agricultural products. The procurement unit could well
cooperate in such a venture.
Equipment (tractors, pump sets, land planes, etc.) is sometimes leased to farmers within the
scheme. The entity of these operations is usually small and mostly of an emergency nature
(dewatering a flooded field, repairing large field canals, etc.). This kind of service should be
supplied whenever possible provided that it does not interfere with the regular operation and
maintenance activities; however, it should not be encouraged because not all the farmers may get
the same chances to use the service. The Maintenance Service should approve the request to use
the equipment, but the financial aspects should be controlled by the procurement unit.
Whenever equipment and labour is leased to farmers on a regular basis, as in the case of land
levelling, a special unit within the Administrative Service is established to look after this major
activity.
8.1.3 Legal matters
Legal queries may arise among the management of the scheme, the users, the farming
community, the suppliers, the National Water Administration and others. The scheme manager
and/or the Chief of Administration must have proper advice on these matters. Only large
schemes can afford a permanent legal adviser. For medium-size schemes periodic consultations
with a local legal adviser may suffice. The legal adviser is sometimes linked directly to the
Manager's office and sometimes to the Administration Service. It depend? on the type of
problems whether one or the other place is more appropriate; for instance, if most of the
discrepancies are expected to come from land property issues and indemnifications, the
Administration Unit is a more suitable location for the permanent legal adviser.
8.1.4 Personnel matters

Any formal organization of a certain magnitude needs a section to deal with personnel matters,
such as recruitment of permanent and temporary staff, establishment of salaries, social security
and insurance of the staff, training, preparation of payrolls, control of leave, safety measures,
preparation of working instructions and of contracts, when a considerable labour force is
involved.
There is usually a personnel officer if the scheme or the labour force is large; otherwise the
functions of personnel are shared by the different people in the organization with the ultimate
responsibility on the Chief of the Administrative Service. If the water management organization
is responsible to a central authority, there is a personnel officer only at the Headquarters office
and he serves a number of irrigation schemes, or regions.
8.1.5 Various
In all large organizations there is a heterogeneous collection of functions that do not fall
obviously under the jurisdiction of a particular service, mainly because their duties are common
to all services or by the very nature of the work. The tendency in these cases is to put them in the
Administrative Service. The most common ones are registry, library, radio communications and
first-aid, but there may be others connected with specific situations.
All official incoming and outgoing mail should be registered in a log book and properly filed.
One of the secretaries or clerks in the Administrative Service is usually responsible for this
operation.
All pertinent reports, documents and designs related to project development and operation should
be kept in an orderly manner and up-to-date. A small technical library is very useful, especially
in remote places where access to technical information is limited. The library material should be
controlled by only one person, usually the secretary of the Chief of Administration.
A good communication system between the head office and the water guards, gate keepers and
other maintenance personnel is an indispensable means of work. Radio communication is in this
sense the best possible means and it is not expensive. In remote areas, radio may be the only way
to communicate between the project office and the central or regional offices located in major
towns.
First-aid assistance is extremely important where urban centres are far from project offices. In
remote places, a person properly trained in first-aid and health matters should be in charge of this
assistance, and the first aid room should be well equipped. The scheme manager should ensure
that safety measures are adhered to by all the staff on the scheme.
Most auxiliary staff are placed under the responsibility of the Administrative Service; they may
include: telephonist-receptionists, messengers, watchmen, storekeepers and others. Transport
staff also frequently come under the responsibility of the Administrative Service, although some
of the drivers permanently attached to other units or persons may depend hierarchically on that
unit.
8.2 Water rates
8.2.1 Determination of water rates

8.2.2 Method of payment
8.2.3 Monomial and binomial rates
8.2.4 Increasing or decreasing rates
Water rates are the sum paid by the farmer as his contribution to government investment in the
engineering works for the storage and distribution of water and to cover the expenses related to
the operation, maintenance and administration of the scheme.
The Administrative Service is involved in the setting of the water rates for its organization's
irrigation schemes, bearing in mind the expenses. It is also responsible for the receipt of sums
thus raised.
Water charges sometimes include other elements such as: (a) an amount for the formation of an
operating fund that will absorb the deficits of particularly difficult years and provide suitable
stocks of materials and spare parts; (b) a payment that covers the cost for surveillance that water
permits at the basin level are adhered to; (c) contributions for flood protection work, drainage
systems, and other items.
8.2.1 Determination of water rates
There are several methods for determining the amount to be paid as the water fee. They are based
on different economic theories and are described in detail in many publications (see references).
In some countries, the water rates actually correspond to a theoretical calculation (France, USA,
Spain, etc.) but in many others the water rates paid bear little or no relation to the calculated fees.
To a large extent this is due to the fact that water rates are often a political issue rather than a
technical one. To illustrate this point, Table 10 gives an idea of the financially linked incentive
(which could also be regarded as a subsidy) offered by the government in some selected
countries.
8.2.2 Method of payment
There are different ways of calculating the water rate charged to the farmer; the main methods
are:
i. payment per unit of water used (volumetric method);

ii. payment per hectare or acre of irrigated land;
iii. payment by a fixed share (percentage) of harvested crops.
Their main characteristics are described below.

i. Payment per unit of water (volumetric method)
This is the most desirable method of payment since it encourages efficient water use by
maintaining a constant relation between the amount of water used and the payment to be made.
In order to apply this method effectively, every farm must have a measuring device (meter)
recording the amount of water used. Regular periodic readings of these meters should be made in
order to check the amounts used. In spite of the desirability of this method, its introduction often
meets resistance and difficulties. On one hand, the farmers are suspicious of the devices and soon
find ways and means to block them, especially in open canal systems; on the other hand, the cost
of each device, its installation and subsequent monitoring may not compete advantageously with
a less efficient system (payment per unit of land). Although the economic advantages of this
system are open to discussion, there is no doubt that it has the great advantage of allowing the
measurement of the water used. Only by measuring the water can the farmer know the volume
consumed and if it was suitable for the plant's needs. Recording measuring devices can be
expensive (US$ 300-400 per unit) and are susceptible to manipulation; this can be counteracted
by using simple devices that measure the amount of water passing through and having someone
to take account of the duration of flow so as to determine the volume consumed. This is a more
suitable solution, especially if labour is not too expensive.
ii. Payment per hectare or acre of irrigated land
A fixed amount is paid annually per hectare as a water rate. This would be a fair method if all the
farmers of a given irrigation project consumed more or less the same volume of water. However,
investigations carried out in several places (Pakistan, Mexico) indicate that more than 50 percent
of the farmers deviate by more than 10 percent of the average depth of water applied in the
scheme. Since this is the prevailing situation on many irrigation schemes, it is obvious that such
a method of payment is not equitable for many of the farmers. Furthermore, this method
disassociates the commodity (water) from the rate paid which does not encourage the efficient
use of water. The great advantage of the method is its simplicity for billing, charging and
accounting. This has made the method very popular and has caused its extension to many
countries of the world. In an attempt to reduce the unfairness of the previous method, the
payment per hectare or acre of crop grown is sometimes introduced, especially when the crops
have large differences in water consumption. Crops with a high water consumption rate (rice,
sugarcane, etc.) pay more, at prefixed rates, than the other crops.
Table 10 INCENTIVES TO IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN SELECTED

COUNTRIES1
Afghanistan No interest charged on repayment of capital costs (50-year period).

Operation and maintenance are fully subsidized but farmers pay a fixed
tax per hectare.
Australia All capital construction costs and part of operation and maintenance
costs.
Canada More than 50% of capital construction costs.
Democratic 100% of capital costs.
Kampuchea
Democratic People's 70% of capital construction costs.
Republic of Korea
Vietnam 100%
Eastern Europe 100% of capital construction and operation and maintenance costs. A tax
on the land is paid.
India 80% or more of annual equivalent costs of construction (major projects).
Indonesia 100% of irrigation works.
Japan 40 to 80% of capital construction improvement and reclamation costs.
Malaysia 100% capital construction and over 50% operation and maintenance
costs.
Peru All capital costs of major irrigation projects.
China 50 to 70% of capital construction costs.
Saudi Arabia 100% for large irrigation works. 50% of irrigation pumps and farm
equipment.
South Africa 100% of capital construction works and an average of 69% of annual
O&M costs.
Spain Up to 50% of major works including main and primary canals.
Secondary canals are paid for by farmers.
Sudan 100% of irrigation works. However, interest (6%) is paid on capital cost.
Government receives part of the farm income through fixed shares in the
capital cost.
Tunisia 30 to 60% of main construction works and farm development costs.
United Republic of 100%
Tanzania
USA Up to 60% in US Bureau of Reclamation projects, mostly by other uses,
mainly power. No interest was charged on repayment loans until
recently.
USSR 100% irrigation infrastructure and operation.
Democratic Yemen 100% for large and small works.
1
Information extracted from various sources.
iii. Payment by a fixed share (percentage) of harvested crop
This payment method is practised in some areas where monoculture prevails. There are two main
ways of establishing the share to be paid: one is by fixed weight -for example, 10 kg of rice per
unit of land of the harvested crop, which is paid annually, regardless of the production obtained.
The other way is to establish a fixed percentage of the harvested crop - for example, 5 percent of
the total weight of rice. The first modality has characteristics very similar to the payment per
hectare, the only difference being that the payment is in kind and not in cash-; the sole advantage
over the per hectare transaction is that payment in kind adjusts better to inflation. The second
modality offers, in addition to adjustment to inflation, the great advantage of being
commensurate with the farmer's production; thus, whenever production is low,, the payment is
also low and vice versa. On the other hand, it has the disadvantage that the farmer's production
must be evaluated annually, and this is often a controversial issue because farmers tend to
disagree with the evaluation made. Furthermore, the method is highly susceptible to
misapplication.
These modes of payment are the most common but there are other indirect ways of recovering
the investments made and O&M expenditures. Many socialist countries have special land taxes
for irrigated agriculture, though there is an increasing tendency to price water for agriculture by
some of the methods mentioned. In other countries, recovery is made only through the personal
revenue taxes paid by the farmers, but because most of them are in the low income strata they are
frequently exempted from payment of the tax. Water pricing is contrary to the religious
principles of the Moslem countries and direct payment through some of the above mentioned
methods is rarely exercised. However, investments and O&M costs are often recovered through
taxation procedures or other indirect methods of a varied nature. The case in Egypt is interesting:
farmers do not pay directly for water but, because the irrigation canals are below the ground
surface, water must be lifted to the farm with the traditional norias (sakhia) or with modern
pumps. Since excavated canals are much cheaper and easier to maintain than those above
ground, the government saves (hypothetically) on the investments that would have been needed
and on O&M expenditure. Those savings are partially compensated by the farmer lifting the
water, because this is an expensive operation no matter what method is used. Thus the farmer
contributes indirectly to irrigation development.
8.2.3 Monomial and binomial rates
Annual rates are made through monomial or binomial rates. A monomial rate is a single sum
paid for the water received. Sometimes this payment covers only O&M expenses, while others
cover part of the repayment of the investments. This type of billing is normally associated with
payment per unit of land or harvested crop.
The binomial rate is made up of two components: one fixed rate, which is constant for a number
of years, and a variable rate which changes from year to year. This type of billing is normally
associated with the volumetric method of payment. The fixed rate is a quota paid annually to
repay part or all of the investments made in the irrigation system and to cover some fixed costs.
Once repayment of the investment is completed this quota is normally cancelled, although in
some cases it is continued as a smaller amount to cover part of the fixed operating costs. The
variable rate is meant to cover the variable expenses (mainly O&M) and therefore changes from
year to year.
Binomial rates are preferable to monomial because technically it is a more precise method of
billing, although it is not always fully understood by the farmers.
8.2.4 Increasing or decreasing rates
Some countries using the volumetric method have variable rates according to the consumption
(block rating). Up to a certain volume the rate is constant, when this is exceeded a new rate is
applied to a given additional volume; when this second rate is again exceeded a new rate applies.
Thus the greater the consumption the higher the rates so as to discourage users from applying too
much water. There are a few cases when the reverse has been assayed, especially during the first
years of a new irrigation scheme when farmers are sometimes fearful of using too much water.
Although this method of increasing water rates can be justified in extreme conditions of water
scarcity, its application must be carefully considered especially where the level of the farmers'
education is low and they might not understand the principle of the method.
8.3 Financial viability of the organization
The most widespread cause of poor operation and maintenance is the lack of sufficient funds to
undertake this work adequately. This issue is extremely important since the capacity of the
organization to carry out work effectively depends on it. The question of insufficient funds is a
rather complex one because many factors - social, organizational, economic and political -
interact and it is often difficult to determine the real origin of the problem and how to break the
existing vicious circle.
All the expenditure for running the water management organization should in theory be covered
by the water rates, and the Administrative Service should control that income and expenditure
are in equilibrium. However, there is often a large gap between the funds collected from this
source and the actual expenditure on the scheme. This gap is sometimes bridged with a subsidy
from the government, particularly in public irrigation schemes (see Table 10), or more
commonly by not undertaking the necessary maintenance.
In the case of Irrigation Associations, where all funds come from the farmers' community, there
cannot be a gap between the income arising from water rates and the actual expenditure.
Therefore the tendency in these associations is to reduce the services to a minimum so that water
rates are kept as low as possible.
The fact remains that in most instances the water fees are insufficient to cover the services which
the water management organization should provide. As long as this situation prevails, poor
O&M will be widespread and the return on investments in irrigation will be below expectations.
Increases in the water fees are needed in many instances although this measure will certainly be
unpopular. A continuous drain on public funds to help part of the agricultural sector is unlikely
to continue or be allowed to continue for long in many countries. Furthermore, international loan
agencies insist more and more on the need to use sound economic policies in the agriculture
sector and, consequently, consider that expenditure on O&M should be totally self-financing and
at least some recovery made on the initial investment.
Increasing water fees is quite a delicate matter which requires a serious analysis before a
decision is made. It will not be the first time that a substantial increase has been suggested in an
irrigation scheme and failed because the farmers have refused to pay it. Some of the critical
issues which need careful consideration in this analysis are:
i. Is the existing public irrigation organization of the project efficient? In other words, are all the existing
manpower, equipment and administrative procedures really needed? Criteria to evaluate the irrigation
management needs have been developed by Bottrall and others (see references).
ii. Are the funds collected through the water rates utilized on the same project? Very often the
fees collected (see Chapter 4) go to the Central Treasury and the recurrent funds made available
to the project by the Central Administration for O&M bear no relation to the fees paid by the
farmers. This kind of administrative procedure does not stimulate the farmers to pay since they
do not see a direct relationship between their contribution and the services they receive.
iii. Are the farmers informed about what they are paying for? Do they participate in any way in
the determination of the water rates? In many instances the water fee represents for the farmer
another tax that he has to pay. They are seldom aware what it is for and how it is used.
iv. To what extent do water fees reduce the income arising from the production? In other words,
what is the weight of the cost of the water in the total production costs? Obviously, in schemes
where water fees are already a sizeable portion of total production costs any increase would meet
considerable resistance. A careful analysis of production costs and income from the main crops
produced in the irrigation scheme should precede any attempt to change water rates.
v. How large are the contributions made by the farmers, in terms of indirect taxes, to the
irrigation development? Added value taxes on irrigated land are quite significant in many
instances. Total repayment of the investment in these circumstances' would not be justified
because part of the investment is already paid through the taxes.
vi. Is there malpractice in the collection of fees? Some of the payment methods -especially the
volumetric one - are more susceptible than others to malpractice in the collection of fees. This
needs careful investigation. There have been schemes with low payment records and after
investigation it was found that farmers paid constantly and regularly but a good part of the water
fees collected never reached the Central or Project Administration.
The above issues illustrate how delicate the question of increasing water rates can be if all the
pertinent data are not to hand.
Some water management organizations are allowed to levy water rates for uses other than
farming, for instance small industries, water supply to villages, washing of minerals, small
hydropower units, the watering of gardens, etc. Although the number of these users is generally
small, the income arising is not negligible because of the much higher rates paid. Although this is
a desirable feature that helps finance the organization, care should be taken to establish sound
priorities for use. The question of whether a water management organization should be allowed
to bill users other than the farmers should be clearly defined in the by-laws of the scheme and in
the national water laws.
Reference has already been made to the establishment of applied research or demonstration
farms and the convenience of their being self-financing activities. If this is not the case, these
costs should not be borne by the farmer because they are extension and research activities, which
are services normally provided by the Public Administration. The same applies to the Irrigation
Assistance Service which basically has a training function.
Although water rates are often below the actual needs of a water management organization,
increasing them is not the only answer to solving the financial viability of the organization.
Careful scrutiny of the costs may disclose that many of the corresponding activities are not so
necessary or can be done at lower cost. A typical example is desilting. All too often unsuitable
methods are employed for this kind of work which results in low productivity and high costs.
The project management should study carefully the unit cost of their basic operations and
compare these costs with those of the private sector or suitable machinery. This will provide a
good indication of the need for improving productivity. The same can be applied to the other cost
components: staff, physical facilities and supporting costs.
8.4 Staffing of the administrative service
The administrative service is a supporting unit whose main aim is to control the financial and
economic aspects of the scheme for the manager of the organization. Therefore its size and
staffing depend largely on the services that are offered (operations, maintenance, irrigation
assistance, etc.) and how they are provided. Given this wide variation in circumstances, it is
difficult to provide reasonable standards of manpower rates which fit all the existing situations.
Nevertheless, the standards in Table 11 will give some guidance. They correspond to public
irrigation schemes, with heavily centralized irrigation institutions and are used mainly in middle-
income countries. Some of the factors affecting the staffing of an administrative service are
discussed below:
i. Complicated procedures for data processing: in many irrigation schemes the procedures for calculating
water distribution are unnecessarily complex which has raised the need for additional supporting staff.
This point can be well illustrated by the following example from Indonesia: a study on O&M has been
carried out by Sir M. MacDonald & Partners who have concluded that one of the main limitations of the
existing water distribution systems is the excessive data collecting and the complicated procedure for
processing. It is reported that some of the data originating from the gate-keeper had to go through
more than 30 different forms before it was processed and returned to him for the operation of the
gates. Simplifying the procedure has speeded up the processing of information and resulted in a
considerable reduction or relocation of staff.
ii. Degree of decentralization: heavily centralized organizations tend to retain much of the
administrative control at the headquarters and only a minimum of administrative staff is kept at
the project site.
Table 11 MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS FOR AN ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE1
Size of Irrigation Scheme (ha)

5000 10000 20000 40000 100000
number of people
Executive Officer/Chief of Administration 1 1 1 1 1
Accountant (Admin. Officer) (-) (-) (-) 1 2
Cashier (Admin. Officer) (-) 1 1 1 1
Records and Statistics (Aux. Admin. Officer) 1 1 2 2 5
Secretary 1 1 2 3 6
Receptionist/Telephonist (-) (-) 1 1 1
Legal Adviser 1
1
Data are derived from the EMESIRE Improvement Study of existing schemes in Peru (1981), local
information from Bolivia (1978/79) and Spain (1978).
(-) The corresponding function is undertaken by someone else in the scheme but there is no full-
time incumbent.
iii. Income and employment: in countries with a low per capita income and high unemployment
rates there is a tendency to establish numerous posts which are not indispensable. This poses
quite a problem because in many instances government policy implies that employment is more
important than economic efficiency. Although good account should be taken of such policies by
having some flexibility in the staffing of an organization, it should be kept in mind that non-
productive employment is of no benefit to the country.
iv. Water payment methods: payment per unit of land is a simple method requiring little
administrative work, while the volumetric method with binomial rates is much more complex
and requires a considerable amount of additional work and staff.
v. Use of calculators and mini-computers: calculators and particularly minicomputers can be

very useful tools to accelerate data processing and to store data. With a good mini-computer and
someone familiar with its programming and operation most administrative matters can be
handled effectively for a large scheme (20000 to 50000 ha) by just one person. It is worth
mentioning that in Mexico most of the administrative data are centralized in a large computer of
the SARH (Secretaría de Agricultura y Recursos Hídricos) and many of the big irrigation
schemes are connected with it through terminals. This has permitted a considerable reduction in
the administrative staff for the schemes and reliable storage and processing of data.
The smaller the scheme the greater is the concentration of functions in the few people who have
to carry out the administrative work. This may lead to some inefficiencies because it is difficult
for any one person to master several different functions, but it is unavoidable in small schemes.
There is a need to develop simple administrative procedures which can be easily understood by
lower-level staff.
It does not seem opportune here to provide job descriptions for the different people responsible
for the major administrative tasks in view of the complexity of the tasks they may have to carry
out according to the characteristics of the scheme. Standard job descriptions for the more usual
positions (cashier, accountant, etc.) can be obtained from many enterprises or institutions dealing
with agricultural administration.
8.5 Organizational alternatives
There are two main alternatives for organizing the administrative services: one, which is the
most common, consists of having all the administrative activities centralized in a single unit
providing its support to the other services. Such an Administrative Unit or Service is normally
under the direct supervision of the scheme manager. The other alternative is to out-post one or
two administrative officers to each of the Services (operations, maintenance, etc.) in order that
continuous administrative support is provided for each of these Services. Only the cashier and
the Principal Administrative Officer support the whole scheme.
Concentrating administrative activities in a single unit allows for better control by the scheme
manager and reduces conflicts between the other units.
The administrative control in traditional irrigation associations is minimal since, as previously

mentioned, the services provided are, in most circumstances, fewer than those in public irrigation
schemes. The standard arrangement is that the secretary of the association keeps the record -
either he himself or through an accountant - of the water payments and expenditures. In many
instances, the administrative unit does not exist as such but is part of the functions of the
members of the Board of Directors. Exceptions to this are the Water/Irrigation Districts of the
USA (see Annex I) and those of Spain where large administrative units exist.

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